SOLUTIONS MANUAL TO ACCOMPANY ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS James D. Livingston ‘Massachusets Intute of Technology ‘Cambridge, Massachusetts JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC, New York * Chichester » Weinheim * Brisbano » Singspore © TorontoCopyright © 1999 by Joha Wiley & Sons, Inc. [Excerpts froma this work may be reprochced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or {instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses {for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation ofthis work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright ‘owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further {information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012. ISBN 0-471-32338-1 Printed in the United Slates of America 10987654321 Pratadw band by QuibeorDabaqus nePreface Most of the problems in Electronic Properties of Engineering Materials have been used as part of the weekly problem sets given to our MIT students in recent years. Some are simple once the preceding chapter has been read (an activity some students attempt to avoid), others test the physical concepts a bit more deeply, others require substantial ‘mathematical manipulations. Graduate student Thomas Chen served as the grader in our course for several years, and corrected my occasional careless numerical errors. However, in preparing the text and this solutions manual, some problems were modified, others added, and the transferral from problem sheets to the word processor raised the possibility of additional errors. 1 am therefore very grateful to graduate student Deborah Lightly for painstakingly reviewing the draft of this solutions manual and correcting many new errors that had arisen, Despite the efforts of Thomas Chen, Deborah Lightly, and myself, some errors may remain, We advise instructors to use the technique that grader Thomas Chen and | employed. We delayed handing out the solutions to the students until Thomas had graded the problem sets of the two or three best students, If the solutions of these students all agreed, but disagreed with my solution, it was time to recheck my calculations. Instructors who find errors that remain are encouraged to call them to my attention.Contents Solutions to Problems in: Part One Chapter 1: Conductors and Resistors 1 Chapter 2: Windows, Doors, and Transparent Electrodes (Optical Properties of Conductors) 7 Chapter 3: Insulators and Capacitors 12 Chapter 4: Lenses and Optical Fibers (Optical Properties of insulators) 18 Chapter 5: Inductors, Electromagnets, and Permanent Magnets 22 Chapter 6: Superconductors and Superconducting Magnets 28 Chapter 7: Elasticity, Springs, and Sonic Waves 33 Part Two Chapter 8: Light Particles, Electron Waves, Quantum Wells and Springs 38 Chapter 9: The Periodic Table, Atomic Spectra, and Neon Lights 47 Chapter 10: The Game is Bonds, interatomic Bonds 52 Chapter 11: From Bonds to Bands (and Why Grass is Green) 56 Chapter 12: Free Electron Waves in Metals 61 Chapter 13: Nearly Free Electrons - Bands, Gaps, Holes, and Zones 67 Chapter 14: Metals and Insulators 72 Chapter 15; Semiconductors 75 Chapter 16: LEDs, Photodetectors, Solar Cells, and Transistors 80Chapter 1 1-1. (a) To calculate resistivity p, we must first calculate the resistance R of the wire from the power P and the current I. Since P = FR, R = P/I2 = 8.1/16 = 0.506 ohms = pL/A. A= xr? = x(1X10°3 = 3.14x10°6 m2, L = 100 m, $0 p = AR/L = (3.14x10°8)x0.506/100 = 1.59x10°8 ohm-m (b) Since o =p =eNgug, electron mobility 1, = (peN,)? To calculate N,; if silver has one free electron per atom, the number of free electrons per m3 equals the number of atoms per m?. One mole (6.02x1023 atoms) has a volume of 10.3 cm? = 10.3x10°6 m3, so Ne = (6.02x10?3)/(¥0.3x10°8) = 5.84x1028 m-3 By = (BEN)? = {(1.59x1 0°2)x(1.6x10°19)x(5.84x1028)}-! = 6.73x10°3 m2/V-s (c) e= mp,/e = (9.1110°21}(6.73x10°3)/(1.6x10°19) = 3.83x10-14 (A) mfp = wy, = (3.83x10-14)(3kgT/m)1/2 = (3.83x10-14)(1.17x105) = 4.47x10°9 m. (for T = 300 K) (e) Ry = -(eNY" = -{(1.6x10°19)(5.84x1 028)}-1 = -1.07x10°10 m3/c. (f) Ey = -RYBU = (1.07x10°19)x9xf4/(3.14x10°5)} = 1.23x10°3 V/m * 1-2. A= (2x10-3)? = 4x10°6 m2, J = 1.5/(4x10°8) = 3.75x105 A/m? Assuming aluminum to be trivalent, the charge carrier density is three times the atom density: N, = 3x(6.02x1023)/(1x10°5) = 1.81x1029 m3(Nee)! = 3.451071) m3/C (b) bg = “oR y = Rel p = (3.45x101)/(2,69x10°8) = 1.28x10°3 me/V-s, (€) -Vp = J/Ne = 1.29x10°5 m/s (d) t= pym/e = 7.29x10°15 s (e) E = Jp = 1.01x10°2 Vim (f) Power in watts (Joules/second) equals the product of current and voltage, so, per unit length, P = VI/L = El = 1.51x10°2 W/m = 1.54x10°* W/em (g) Ey = -RyJB = 1.29x10°5 V/m, so Vy = Eyw = 2.59x10°8 V 1-3. N, = 8.5x1022 em" and p 9x10°6 ohm-em (a= §.92x105 S/cm) (a) ue=o/N@ = 43.5 cm2/V-s = 4.35x10°3 m2/V-s (b) collisions/second: 1/t = e/u,m = 4.04x1073 s-! (c) mfp = ve = (BkgTZmn)!/2e = (1.17x105)(2.48x10"14) = 2.9x10°9 m (d) -Vp = J/N@ = (1x108)/{(8.5x1028)(1.6x10"19)} = 7.35x10°5 mvs 1-4. (a) Ey = -RyIB, y= J/o, so Ey/E, = -RyBo = 1,8 (b) Hall angle 0,)= tan! (E,/E,) = tan! (y,x1) InSb: 6, = tan"! (7) = 81.9° Si: O4= tan"! (0.15) = 8.5° Metal: 0,,= tan (0.005) = 0.286° (c) There is no net force in the direction of the Hall field. The force from the Hall electric field is equal and opposite to the magnetic force - see equation (1.12).1-5. With positive charge carriers (“holes”), (a) the drift velocity is in the positive x-direction (the direction of the current) and (b) the cross product of drift velocity and magnetic field is in the positive z-direction, as is (c) the Lorentz magnetic force. (d) The Hall field produces a force equal and opposite to the magnetic force, so the Hall electric field is in the negative z-direction. {e) if the charge carriers are electrons instead of holes, the drift velocity, cross product, and Hall field all reverse direction, but the direction of the Lorentz magnetic force remains unchanged. (Since both the charge and the direction of the drift velocity change sign, their product does not.) (f) The Hall field and Hall voltage will not change. Doubling the charge concentration will double the conductivity and therefore, with a constant longitudinal electric field, the current will double. However, the Hall coefficient will decrease by a factor of two, so the product Ryd will be unchanged and £,, = -R,JB will be unchanged. 1-6. (a) power P = 2R = V2/R, so R = V2/P = (120)2/P. So for P = 60 W, R = 240 ohms, and | = V/R = 120/240 = 0.5 A For P = 100 W, R = 144 ohms, and I = V/R = 120/144 = 0.833 A (b) In series, the same current flows through each, so the “60-watt” bulb, which has a higher resistance, will consume more power than the “100-watt” bulb. (c) In series, the two resistances add, with a total resistance of 384 ohms. In parallel, R = {(1/R,)+(1/R,)F1 = 90 ohms (consuming P = (120)2/90 = 160 W) 1-7. p(Cu) = 1.69x10°§ ohm-cm, p(Nb-Ti) = 7x10°5 ohm-cmo(Cu) = 5.92x105 S/em, o(Nb-Ti) = 1.43x104 S/em (a) With the electric field applied parallel to the lamellae, the field is the same in each phase, and therefore the current densities are different and proportional to the conductivities. Since each phase has the same cross-sectional area, the overall current density of the composite is the average of the two current densities, and therefore the conductivity of the composite is the average of the two conductivities. (composite) = {(5.92x105)+(1.43x104)]/2 = 3.03x105 S/em 0 p(composite) = 3.30x10°6 ohm-cm KCu)/J(Nb-Ti) = o(Cu)/o(Nb-Ti) = 41.4, so J(Cu)/J(composite) = 41.4/42.4 = 0.976 (b) With the electric field applied perpendicular to the lamellae, the current and current density in each phase must be the same, and the electric fields different and proportional to the resistivities. The average electric field along the composite will be the average of the two electric fields, and therefore the resistivity of the composite is the average of the two resistivities. (composite) = {(1.69x10"6)+(7x10°5)}/2 = 3.58x10°S ohm-cm E(Nb-Ti)/E(Cu) = p(Nb-Ti)/p(Cu) = 41.4 (in the parallel case, the high-conductivity phase dominates, but in the perpendicular case, the high-resistivity phase dominates. These two cases are analogous to parallel and series electrical circuits.) (c) If the Nb-Ti is superconducting, it will carry aff of the current in the parallel case (it will short out the copper). The resistivity of the composite will be zero (current will flow, but there will be no electric field). In the perpendicular case, there will be no electric field in the superconductor, so the average electric field across the composite will be half of that in the copper,and the resistivity of the composite will be half of that of copper, or 5x10-9 ohm-cm. 1-8, R= VA, V = [Elx)dx = pj J(x)dx d(x) = dy+Cx, d(L)=d,, 90 C = (dy - dy)/L Mx) = VAG) = 41/ad? = 41/n(d, 40x02 V = pf iaddx = (4p! ¢aCyd,"'-d,7") =4plL/ad,d., SOR = 4pL/nd,d, 1-9. (@) F=m(dvo/dt) = -2E-(mvp/2), vp = 0 at t = 0, solve for vo(t) Separate variables: -dt = {(€€/m)+(vp/2)}"!dvp Integrate: -t = x{In{(eE/m)+{vp/x)}-InfeE/m}} = an[1+(vom/eEs)) Exponentiate: e*'/* = 1+(vomn/eEr) Solve: vo(t) = -(eE«/m)(1-e"'/*) = -1,£ (1-e'/*) (b) for teer, t/t 1-(t/t), and Vp = -pgEt/ (electron accelerates) (c) for t>>s, €t/*= 0, and vp = -1,E (steady state) (d)t>>t gives Ohm's law 1-10, v= 60 Hz, o= 2xv = 377 s"!, J = 100 sin(377t) A/cm?, N, = 1x1023 cm-3 (8) Vp = -J/N,@ = -6.25x10°3 sin(377t) cm/s {b) x = fvpdt (integrated from t = 0 to t = 2/377, ie., over a half-cycle) = (6.25x10°3)(2/377) = 3.3x10°5 cm (not very far!)1-11, At T = 300 K, thermal conductivity K = (2.4x10-8)x300xa = (7.2x10°8)xa For Cu, «= 5.92x105 S/em, K = 4.26 W/om-K 43x10 S/em, K = 0.103 W/em-K In the parallel case, as with electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of For Nb-Ti, o= the composite is the average of the two thermal conductivities, K = 2.18 W/cm-K In the perpendicular case, the thermal resistivity of the composite is the average of the two thermal resistivities, so K = 0.201 W/em-K AtT = 4.2 K, o(Cu) = 1x108 S/cm, so K = (2.4x10°8)x(4.2)x(1x108) = 10,1 W/om-K 1-12. The Cooper pairs that give rise to superconductivity do not exchange energy in collisions with the lattice like normal electrons (no collisions = no resistance), and so cannot transport thermal energy like normal electrons. 1-13. joule = newton-m = kg-m2- "2, watt = joule/sec = kg-m?-5°3 voit = joule/coulomb = joule/amp-sec = kg-m?- 5-3-4"! ‘ohm = volt/amp = kg-m2- s3- A-2, siemens = (ohm)! = kg’!- mr2- s3- A2 tesla = volt-sec/m? = kg-s'?-A"! 1-14, For the average time between collisions, divide fte"t/sdt by fe"'/*dt (both integrals from t = 0 to t = =), yielding an average time of +, the collision time. Between collisions, the drift velocity of an electron is (F/m)t = -eEt/m. Therefore the average drift velocity is -eE/m times +, the average time between collisions, or -eEt/m=-p,£. (On the other hand, if every electron traveled for a time + between collisions, the average drift velocity would be -u,£/2.)1-15, The electric field and current will be parallel only when directed parallel or perpendicular to the lamellae. In all other cases, they will be nonparallel, and the components of current density will be determined from the components of electric field via equations (1.4). Chapter 2 2-1. Since the divergence of a curl is zero, the divergence of both sides of the Ampere-Maxwell equation, equation (2.9), is zero. Dividing the two terms on the right by u, and using Gauss’s law of electrostatics, equation (2.5), to convert the divergence of electric field to charge density yields equation (2.4), the equation of charge conservation. 2-2. Given: v= 5x10"4 Hz, E,, = 3x10°4 V/m (a) w= 2nv = 3.14x1095 5°}, A= c/y = 6x10°7 m, k = 2n/A = 105x107 m1, velocity = ¢ = 3x108 m/s, B,=E,o/c = 1x1072 T (b) E, = Exesin(ut-k2) = (3x10-4 V/m) sin(3.14x1015 ¢ - 1.05x10? 2) B, = 8, sin(at-kz) = (1x10"2 T) sin(3.14x1015 t - 1.05x10? z) (c) Ey = Ege") = (3x10°4 V/m) expf-i(3.14x10!5 t - 1.05x107 2)} By = Bye ttk2) = (1x10"12 T) expf-i(3.14x1015 t - 1.05x107 z)} (d) In each case, the maximum electric force is eE, = 4.8x10°23 N With the electron traveling in the x-direction with v = 1x105 m/s,the maximum magnetic force is ev,B,, = 1.6x10°26N There is no magnetic force on a stationary electron (since v = 0), or on an electron moving in the y-direction (since the cross product of v and B is zero). 2-3. w= 2av = 2nc/A = 2x(3x108)/(6.5x10"7) = 2.901015 s nonmagnetic, So =p, = 1.26x10°° h/m, and o= 1x10? S/m (given) From w, », and o, calculate the skin depth 3 = (2/ea)'/ = 7.4x10°9 m = 7.41nm {a) Attenuation of electric & magnetic fields at depth z = 10 nm is e2/8 a @r10/7-4 gl. 35 = 0.259 (reduced by 74.1%) (b) Intensity is proportional to the square of electric field, so decreases as e°22/° For z = 30nm, €22/9 ~ @-60/7-4 = 8-11 = 3,01x10°4 (c) If the material is instead magnetic with , = 300, = 300 y= 3.78x10"4 h/m, and the skin depth is reduced to 7.4x10°9/(300)'/2 = 4.27x10"19 m = 0.427 nm Now for z= 10 nm, € (and B) are reduced to @°10/0427 = 67x10"! and for z = 30 nm, intensity is reduced to e°60/0.427 = 9.4x1 0°62 2-4. To be transparent to all visible light, the semiconductor should have a plasma frequency in the infrared. For maximum conductivity, the plasma frequency should be at the red edge of the visible spectrum: (4,« 700nm). So wpe 2uv, = 2nc/hy = 2.69K1019 5-1 = (N€%/e,m)'/? = (100ce/e,mn)!/2 (since N,@ = a/, = 100 0) 80 o= ¢,ma,2/(100e) = 3.65x1 0 S/m2-5. The wavelength at the plasma frequency is 4,= 2x10-7 m, $0 @, = 2nc/A, = 9.42x1015 5"! from which we calculate N, and then Ry wo? = N,e?/me, = 8.88x103! = N,(1.6x10-19)2/(9.11x10°31)(8.85x50"12), from which N, = 2.80x1028 m3, and Ry = (-1/N,a) = -2.23x10"10 m3/c 2-6. From (2.24), the real part of k = 1/5 = 22/2, So A= 2nd Since Bvaries as (w)'/2, so will 4. For 6= 20 nm, = 2x6 = 1.26x10°7 m 2-7. From (2.32), (2.33), and/or (2.34), 0 = tan"! (o'/o') = tan”! (ur) if or= 1,0 = 0.79 radians = 45°, and | = |, sin(wt-0.79) if ore .1,0= 0,1 radians = 5.79 and | = |, sin(wt-0.1) if wt= 10, 0 = 1.47 radians = 84.3%, and | = |, sin(ut-1.47) 2-8. Given: for } = 700 nm, I, = e°22/6 = 0.1 forz= 10 nm = 1x10°8 m Solving for 8, -2x10°8/6 = In(0.1) = -2.30, so for red, 8= 8.7x10-9 m For blue light (A = 4C0 nm), 8 = (8.7x10°8)(400/700)'/2 = 6,58x10°9 m, so for z = 10 nm, blue light decreases in intensity by 1/1, = e°2#/* = 0.048 For z = 20nm, W/, = e"22/8 = 0.01 for red, 0.0023 for blue 2-9. Skin depth = (2/op,9)!/? and, for 4 = 400m, w= 2xc/h = 4.71 x 10°5 5-1 y= 1.26 x 10°5 h/m, and estimated conductivities from Fig. 1.1 are: stainless steel - 1 x 108 S/m, doped polyacetylene - 1 x 104 S/m, sea water - 1 x 102 S/m Sod=1.8 x 10-8 m for stainless steel, 1.8 x 10°? m for doped polyacetylene, and10 1.8 x 10°6 m for sea water. 2-10. (2) cos(A+B) + isin(A+B) = el(A*8) = ele! = (cosA + isinA)(cosB + isinB) = (cosAcosB - sinAsinB) +i(cosAsinB + sinAcosB) equating real parts, cos(A+8) = (cosAcosB - sinAsinB) ‘equating imaginary parts, sin(A+8) = (cosAsinB + sinAcosB) (b) square roots of i: yi = (@¥/2)V72 = telt/4 = 2(1 + i)/V2 cube roots of i: one is (e%/2)1/3 = @'/6 = (3/2) + (1/2), another is (e5*/2)!/3 = elS%/6 = -(/3/2) + (1/2), and the third is (e!9%/2)1/3 = @i34/2 = i, Shown in the complex plane: two square roots of i three cube roots of i (c) Aycos(wt +€;) + Aycos(wt +82) = Agcos(ot +83) Ayexpti(wt +0,)} + Azexptilot +05)} = e*{A,exp(i0,) + Azexp(i0,)} = el¥tAzexp(ies) With et removed, A,exp(i9,) + Azexp(i02) = Agexp(i03) can be viewed as vector addition in the complex plane. Along the real axis, Aycos®, + A,cos0, = A,cos0s Along the imaginary axis, Aysino, + A,sin®, = Aysind, Thus 0, = tan’?{(A,sin®, + Azsin®,)/(A,cos®, + Azcos0,)) and A; = (A,cos, + A,cos0,)* + (A,sind, + Azsind,)*W from which A3 = {A;2 + Az? + 2A,Azcos(0,-62)}'/2, Graphical representation in the complex plane: 2-11. Plastic deformation decreases the mean free path (and thus the collision time ) by 10%. This decrease in collision time decreases both (a) the mobility and (b) the conductivity by 10%, but (c) the Hall coefficient, dependent only on the charge carrier concentration, is unchanged. (d) the decrease in conductivity increases the skin depth by about 5%, but (e) the plasma frequency is unchanged. (f) since the frequency at which the current lags the field by 45° is given by wr= 1, the decrease in by 10% increases this frequency by about 10%, 2-12. (a) The units of the product n,e, are (h/m)x(f/m) = (hf)/m2. From equation (2.15), the units for (y,t,)1/2 are m/s. Thus hf = s?, or henry = (second)?/farad (b) Batancing the units on each side of Gauss’s law of electrostatics - equation (2.5) - gives (f/m)x(V/m2) = C/m3, So f = C/V - a farad is a coulomb per volt.12 (c) Balancing the units on each side of Ampere's law - equation (2.8) - gives ‘T/m (=weber/m*) = (h/m)x(A/m?). So a weber (Wb) = hA, and a henry is a weber per ampere. 2-13. We wish to solve m(dvp/dt) + mvp/t = -eE,cos(wt) Insert vp(t) = Acos(ut) + Bsin(ut) into this differential equation. (Solving for A will give us the in-phase (real) part of conductivity, o’, and solving for B will give us the out-of-phase (imaginary) part of conductivity, 0°.) ‘We get two equations, one for the coefficients of cos(wt), one for the coefficients of sin(wt): from cos(wt) coefficients: muB + mA/t = -eE, from sin(wt) coefficients: -maA + mB/e= 0 from the second equation, B = Aur, so o'/o! = B/A = ox inserting B = Aux into the first equation, A(1 + wx?) = -e,/m Since J = -Nyevo, o' = -NeA/E, = (Neerr/m)(1 + 02) = 04(1 + 0r2)? and o” = Bo'/A = ogun(1 + w2r2)t These results are equivalent to (2.32) and (2.33). Chapter 3 3-1. (a) Each term in equation (3.8) is unitless, so the units for Na, must be the same as those for ¢,, farads per meter. The units for N (atoms per unit volume) are m3, so the units for a, must be f-m®. Another approach would be to use13 equation (3.7), which shows that the units for polarizability are (C-m)/(V/m), or Ccme/V, which again gives us f-m?, (b) A farad is a coulomb per volt, and an ohm is a volt per amp, so farads times ‘ohms yields coulombs per amp, or seconds. Thus a farad is a second per ohm. 3-2. Let Q(t) be the charge stored in the capacitor. The voltage across the resistor (IR = RdQ/dt) plus the voltage across the capacitor (Q/C) equals the applied voltage V. Thus our differential equation for Q is RdQ/dt + Q/C = V, with the boundary condition that Q = 0 at t = 0. Mathematically, this is the same as the differential equation in Problem 1-9, with the variable vp replaced by the variable Q, m replaced by R, -eE replaced by V, and m/s (= R/1) replaced by 1/C. Solving by the same methad (separating variables and integrating and then Solving by the same method (separating variables, integrating, and then exponentiating), or simply plugging these substitutions into the solution for Problem 1-9, we get Q(t) = CV(1-e"'/RC). Thus the charge on the capacitor builds up to its final value of CV with a time constant of RC. From Q(t) we can calculate the time dependence of the other variables: (a) the current | = dQ/dt = (V/R)e"/RC (decays exponentially) (b) voltage across the capacitance = Q/C = V(1-e"/FC) (builds up to V) (c) voltage across the resistance = IR = Ver/®C (decays exponentially) 3-3. (a) Capacitor with A = 10 cm? = 1x10°3 m2, d= 3 mm = 3x10°3 m 80 C= eA/d = (8.85x10"12)(1x10°3)/(3x10°3) = 2.95x10°12 farads V=9V,s0Q= CV = (2.95x10"12)(9) = 2.66x10"!? coulombs (b) With a dielectric with « = 25 inserted, the charge on the capacitor plates is4 increased by a factor of 25. Q'=25Q= 6.64x1010C The total charge on the dielectric surface = Q'- Q = 6.37x1010C The electric dipole moment per unit volume = P = surface charge per unit area, so P= (Q- QA = (6.37x10°99)/(1x10-9) = 6.37x10°7 C/m? (c) With the capacitor disconnected from the battery, no new charge can flow onto the capacitor plates, so the charge on the capacitor remains 2.66x10"1) C. However, the capacitance increases by the factor 25, so the voltage (V = Q/C) drops by this factor - the voltage across the capacitor is now 9/25 = 0.36 V. With the voltage decreased by a factor of 25 from the case in (b), the polarization P and the surface charge on the dielectric also are decreased by the factor of 25. Thus the surface charge = (6.37x10"10)/25 = 2.55x10""" C, and P = (6.37x10-7)/25 = 2.55x10-8 C/m? 3-4. The F- and Nat ions have the same electronic structure (1s#2s?2p®) as the neutral Ne atom. However, because the nuclear charge of F is less than that of Ne, the F* ion is bigger than the Ne atom. Electronic polarizability of atoms and ions increases with their size, and thus F" has a higher a, than Ne. The nuclear charge of Na, on the other hand, is greater than that of Ne. Thus the Nat ion is smaller than the Ne atom and has a lower a, than Ne. (With the same electronic structure, atom size decreases with increasing Z.) 3-5. Assume the proton fixed. A DC electric field of E exerts a force of -eE on the electron. At a relative displacement of x, the restoring force just balances this force (Kx = -eE), and the induced dipole moment p = -ex = -e(-eE/K) = a,£, so the DC electronic polarizability is a,=e?/K. (Don't worry about signs in grading15 this problem - there are too many minuses in there.) 3-6. At low frequencies, «, - 1 = 9.27 - 1 = 8.27 froma, +a, together. At high frequencies, ¢, = 1.9- 1 = 0.9 from a, only (ionic polarizability gone). So the electronic polarization is only 0.9/8.27 = 11% of the low-frequency polarization, while ionic polarization is (8.27-0.9)/8.27 = 89%. The F* ion is much bigger than the Lit ion, so contributes the most to ay. 3-7. For y= 0, equation (3.14) becomes m(d2x/dt2) + Kx = -eE,e°i=t, Substituting x = x,e"*, we get (-mo*x, + Kx,}ertt = -ef er iat Cancelling the exponentials, and substituting K = mu,2, we get anx,(-u? + 0,2 eE,, of x, = -eE,/m(o,2 - w2), which is equation (3.18). if y= 0, we get instead (-mu*x, - iwmyx, + Kx,Je"*, e£,e°6t, which yields mx,(-w2 - iay + 0,2) = -€E,, or x, = -e,/m(w,? - w2- iwy), which is equation (3.19). 3-8. The real part of the dielectric constant decreases monotonically with increasing frequency for the relaxation model of orientational polarization, but goes through a maximunr and a minimum for the harmonic oscillator model of electronic or ionic polarization. The difference comes from the restoring force (Spring constant) term present in the latter models, which results in a resonant frequency and an exaggerated response when the frequency of the driving force (the electric field) approaches the resonant frequency. The relaxation model includes no restoring force, no resonant frequency.16 3-9. Ina multilayer capacitor (Fig. 3.1d) with N plates (assume N>>1), the total capacitance is c,¢,AN/d (since the individual capacitors are all in parallel). The total volume is ANd, So the total capacitance per unit volume is «,¢,/d?. Assuming d= 10°6 m and «, = 10%, the capacitance per unit volume is (8.85x10"12)x104/10-12 = 8,85x104 f/m3, The capacitor discussed in Section 3.1 has a capacitance of one farad and a volume of 10 cm? = 10°5 m3, or a capacitance per unit volume of 10° f/m3, approximately the same. 3-10. eg = eg(O)wr,/(1+0%,2) deg /de = feg(O)e,/( 4042741 +0%,? - 202,2) = (eC), M(14ure? P11 - 0,7). This derivative equals zero when or, = 1, of when w= 1/1, From (3.13), when on, = 1,44 = €4'= e4(0)/2, and tan 6 = «,'/e) = 1. 3-11. For diamond, ¢, = 5.68, dielectric susceptibility x= ¢, - 1 = 4.68 E= 1 V/mm = 1x103 V/m, polarization P = e,€y = (8.85x10"12)(1 x 103)(4.68) = 4.14 x 10°8 C/m? electric displacement D = c,£ +P = (8.85 x 10°9) + (4.14 x 10°8) = 5.03 x 10° C/m? or D = e,¢,£ = (8.85 x 10°9)(5.68){1 x 103) = 5.03 x 10°8 C/m? 3-12. The polarizability a, of an argon atom is 1.74x10°40 f-m2, If there are N = 2.69x1029 atoms per m3, from equation (3.8), y= Na,/e, = (2.69%1075)(1.74x10°4°)/(B.85x10"12) = 5.3x10°47 and ¢, = 1+x= 1.00053 3-13. (a) The probability of a dipole p making an angle 0 with the field is exp(pEcosé/ksT). Each dipole contributes a component parallel to the field of pcosd, and we get the total dipole moment in the direction of the field by integrating this, times the probability of a given 6, over all solid angles (2asinodo), So we integrate (pcos0){exp(PEcose/ksT)}Zxsinéde from @= 0 to 8=x, and divide by the integral of p{exp(pEcos0/kgT)}2xsinéde over the same limits to get the fractional alignment of the dipoles parallel to the field. (As is clear from Comparison of the two integrals, fractional alignment corresponds simply to the average of cos@ over all possible orientations with respect to the field. This average will vary from zero, for random alignment of dipoles in the absence of field, to one, when the dipoles are fully aligned in a high electric field at very low temperatures.) if we define a = pE/kgT and set x = acos0, (making dx = -asinede), the integrals simplify to (1/a)(Jxe*dx)/(fe*dx), integrated between -a and +a. (The minus signs in dx reverse the limits of the integrals.) The integral in the denominator is simply (e#- e-2), The integral in the numerator, integrated by parts, is a(e*+€"*)-(e®- e°2), The fractional alignment (1/a)(Jxe*dx)/(Je*dx) becomes {(e? + °)/(e?- 4) - (1/a) = coth(a) - 1/a This function is called the Langevin function, and also applies to the Paramagnetic alignment of magnetic dipoles in a magnetic field. For very large a, the second term vanishes and coth(a) approaches 1 (saturation).18 {b) For pE< 0 at small r, but the volume energy term eventually dominates, and dE/dr < 0 at large values of r.) 5-10. The saturation magnetization Mg is directed along the easy axis, and the field H makes an angle @ with the easy axis. The energy per unit volume is =n Mg-H, and thus -1McHcoso for one domain, and +y,MsHcos@ for the oppositely directed domain. The magnetic pressure on the wall is therefore 2y,MsHcos®. 5-11, This is like the problem treated in Section 5.4, but the math is messier because the angle between H and the easy axis is 45° rather than 90°. As in Section 5.4, Mg will lie between the easy axis and the direction of H. If the angle between Mg and H is 6, then the angle beween Mg and the easy axis is (45° - 6) and the energy is E = Ey, +Ey = K sin? (45° - 6) - nMcH cos 8. sin(45° - 6) = (cos ® - sin @)/y2, sin? (45° - 6) equilibrium where dE/do = u.McH sin 0 - K cos 26 =0 typ/2H In the limit of high fields (approach to saturation), the angle 0 between H and Ms (1 = sin 26)/2, sin 6/cos 20 = K/u.McH = becomes very small, so sin @= @ and cos 20 1. So O™ H,,/2H and M/Mg = cos® ~ 1 - 62/2 = 1 - H,,2/8H?27 5-12. Ms = 108 A/m, A= 10-1 J/m, Ky = 5 J/m3, Kp = 108 J/m? For material 1, Hyy= 2Ky/uMs = 7.9 A/m, y=x(AK,)"/2 = 2.2x10°5 J/m?, and 6= 4(A/K,)!/2 = 5.7x10°6 m For material 2, Hy, * 2K2/nMs = 1.6x106 A/m, y= 2(AK,)!/2 = 9.9x10°3 J/m2, and 8= 4(A/K2)'/2 = 1.3x10°8 m Domain-wall motion in material 2, with narrow, high-energy walls, will be more sensitive to microstructure because inhomogeneities can produce a greater dy/dx than in material 1, which has broad, low-energy walls (see Section 5.6). 5-13. ()MmxgH. E=-pofMdH = -1¢qH2/2 (per unit volume), SO F = -dE/dx = pg%qH(dH/dx) (per unit volume) (b) gravitational force per unit volume = density x gravitational acceleration = pg (g = 9.8 m/s”), so levitation when H(dH/dx) = p9/itgtm (©) p= 1 g/em? = 1x103 kg/m3, xq -1x10°5 H(GH/dhx) = pa/ tig * (9.8%102)/(1.26%1 0°E)(-10°5) = -7.8x10"4 A2/m? 5-14. The lines of B must be continuous, with no sources or sinks (¥-B 0). Outside the sample, the lies of H follow the lines of B, since here M = 0 and B = ug. Inside the sample, M is parallel to B (it is the source of B), but it extends only from pole to pole, Since v-M * 0 at the poles, ¥-H must also be nonzero, and equal to -V-M (,V-H = V-B - u,v-M). Within the sample, H is oppositely directed toB andM. The material must have a coercivity high enough to resist this28 “demagnetizing field” for it to remain magnetized in the absence of an applied field. ES Chapter Six 6-1. Te=7.2K, He (4.2 K) = 430 A/em (@) ALT = 4.2K, t= T/T¢ = 4.2/7.2 = 0.583 He = 430 = Hp (1-82) = Hp (1 - 0.340) = 0.66 Ho, Ho = 430/0.66 = 652 A/em AUT = 1K, t= 1/7.220.139 He (1K) = 652 (1 - 019) = 640 A/em (b) Ig = 2nrHe = 2n(5x10°2 cm}(430 A/cm) = 135A (c) H = 200 A/em is < He (4.2 K), SoM. Hy = 0, %q = M/H = -1, B= 0 H = -200 A/em, {d) H = 500 A/cm is > He (4.2 K), S0M= 04 4, © 15 Xm 0, B= nH = (1.26x10°5)(5x104 A/m) = 0.063 T29 6-2. In increasing H, there is no difference, since induced surface shielding currents would persist and keep B = 0 inside if conductivity were infinite. Above He» Superconductivity would be lost, and the field would penetrate the material. The difference appears on subsequent lowering of the field below He, when superconductivity returns. On the basis of infinite conductivity alone, it would be expected that superconducting surface currents would be induced to avoid dB/dt in the material, and surface currents would trap magnetic field within the material. instead, ideal superconductors are observed to expel the magnetic field and produce a reversible magnetization behavior. Apparently superdiamagnetism (B = 0) is a basic property of the superconducting state and not a result of infinite conductivity (R = 0). 6-3. Type ll superconductor has Hc; = 104 A/m and Hey = 108 A/m In H = 105 A/m (mixed state), M = - 5000 A/m (a) At H= 104 A/m, still superconducting, so M = - H = -10* A/mm At H = 108 A/m, now normal, so M « 0 (b) At H= 105 A/m, M = -5000 A/m, $0 B = CH + M) = (1.26x10°8)(1x105 - 5x103) = 0.120 T 6-4. Fluxoids/m? = N = B/¢, = 0.1/(2.07x10"'S) = 4.83x10!3 ar2 In a triangular lattice of fluxoids like Fig. 6.5, the area per fluxoid is given by the area of the rhombus built from two equilateral triangles of side d, where d is the distance between neighboring fluxoids. The area of each triangle is bh/2 = (d2/3)/4, so area per fluxoid is (d2/3)/2 (d2/3)/2 = 1/(4.83x1013), d? = 2.39x10°14 m2, d= 1.55x10°7 m (0.155 pm)30 6-5. Type ll with M = -100 A/cm = -10% A/m when H = 630 A/cm = 6.3x104 A/m B= yg(H + M) = (1.26x10°6)(6.3x104 - 1x104) = 6.68x10"2 T= No, N = B/G, = (6.68x10°2)/(2.07x10"15) = 3.23x1013 m2 6-6. Total cross-sectional area of composite = (1x10"2)(4x10"3) = 4x10°5 m? Cross-sectional area of superconductor = 0.2(4x10°5) = 8x10°6 m Iq= 1x108 A/em? = 1x108 A/m?, so 1 = (1x108)(8x10°5) = B00 A H=nl = 1x107 A/m, son = H/l = (1x107)/(800) = 1.25x104 mt (12.5/mm) 6-7. In increasing field, a hollow tube will behave the same as a solid cylinder, with surface supercurrents shielding both the material and the hollow center from magnetic field. However, once He has been exceeded and field has, penetrated, in decreasing field the Meissner effect will expel field from the tube walls but not from the hollow center. Thus the M(H) and B(H) curves will look like Fig. 6.3a, and superconducting currents on the inside surface of the tube will trap magnetic field within the tube. 6-8. E = -fuMHGH = -nx,gH2/2, 80 F = -GE/dx = Wot H(dH/cho) H = 1000 A/cm = 105 A/m, (dH/dx) = 1000 A/cm? = 107 A/m? Fs (1.26%10°6)(1x105)(1x1 0? pg, = (1.261 0 hy (a) type | superconductor: z,,= M/H = -1, 80 F = -1.26x10°N (b) soft ferromagnet with p, = 106: x= 1-1 # 108, so F = +1.26x10!2N (c) paramagnet with x,, = 10°4: F = +126 N31 For the ferromagnet and paramagnet, the force is in the direction of increasing field, while for the superconductor (a “superdiamagnet"), the force is in the direction of decreasing field. 6-9. Although a superconducting wire has no resistance, it still has inductance. This voltage is inductive voltage: L(di/dt). 6-10. If fluxoids can move easily into the sample in increasing field and out of the sample in decreasing field, M(H) and 8(H) will be reversible, as in Figure 6.4(a). Dislocations (and the resulting localized change in fluxoid energy as shwon schematically for domain-wall energy in Figure 5.7) will interfere with the easy motion of fluxcids, delaying flux penetration in increasing field and delaying flux expulsion in decreasing field. The result will be hysteretic B(H) and M(H) curves like those below. (The dashed lines show the reversible curves expected for a defect-free sample.) See also Figure 6.6. B ’ " H H He, ez 6-11. As in Problems 5-13 and 6-8, F = y,%,H(dH/dx). For levitation, this32 Magnetic force per unit volume must just balance the gravitational force per unit volume, pg. (g= 9.8 m/s?, p = 7 g/em3 = 7x10? kg/m?, so pg = 6.86x10* N/m3) For a superconductor, xj, = -1, $0 H(dH/dx) = -pg/n1, = -(6.86x10*)/(1.26x10"%) = -5.44x1010 A2/m3 (This is several orders of magnitude smaller than that required to levitate a frog, which has a much smaller z,. So it is easy to demonstrate levitation of a superconductor with a permanent magnet, or a permanent magnet over a superconductor, but it requires a huge magnetic field and field gradient to levitate a frog.) 6-12. Here we can use Ampere’s equation. if the surface is the xy plane, and the magnetic field is in the y-direction, the superconducting shielding current will flow in the x-direction (perpendicular to the field). The current will be independent of x and y, so curl B becomes simply dB,/dz, and Ampere’s equation becomes dB,/dz = j4g1,. Integrating dB, over z (over the “penetration depth” of the surface currents) will give us ABy = 1x102T (B = 1x10°2 T outside, B = 0 far inside). AB, = foB, = fu,J,dz= yl = 1x10" T, where | is the surface current per unit length of surface. Thus | = (1x10"2)/(1.26x10°6) = 7.94x103 A/m (7.94 A/mm) 6-13. Superconductor volume V = x(1.5x10°3)2(5x10-2) = 3.53x10°7 m3 BayH= 10°? T, so = (1x10-2)/(1.26x10"8) = 7.94x103 A/m Total energy of superdiamagnetism E = w,H?V/2 = 1.4x10°5 J From solution to Problem 6-12, surface shielding current per unit length is33 7.94x103 A/m, so total shielding current is (7.94x103)(5x10°2) = 397 A. (Note that the surface shielding current per unit length is the same as H. We introduced H in Chapter 5 in terms of an electromagnet producing B = y,H within it. We can think of the surface shielding current on a superconductor as Producing a solenoidal field within the superconductor equal and opposite to the applied field, yielding a net field of zero within the superconductor.) Chapter Z 7-1. IfE = 800 GPa and o= 10 MPa, from (7.1), ¢ = (o/€) = (1x107)/(8x1017) = 1,25x10°5, so 1-cm cube compresses by (1x10°2)(1.25x10°S) = 1.25x10-? m = 125 nm This will require a force F = oA = (107}(104) = 1000 N Total energy stored = UV = (o°/2E)V = (10"4/16x10"!)(10°S) = 6.25x10°S J 7-2. Diamond: E = 8x10" Pa, p = 2.3x103 kg/m}, v, = (E/p)/2 = 1.87x104 m/s Lead: E = 1.5x10"0 Pa, p = 1.14x104 kg/m3, v, = (E/p)'/2 = 1.15x103 m/s Both these velocities are much higher than the velocity of sound in air, which is about 330 m/s. 7-3. (a) Diamond: 2 = v,/v = (1.87x104 m/s)/(2x104) = 0.935 m Lead: 4 = v,/v = (1.15x103 m/s)/(2x104) = 5.75x10-2 m (b) These wavelengths are much larger than interatomic distances, so equation34 (7.13) is valid for v= 2x10* Hz (20 kHz). For Jead, the wavelength corresponding to 1 MHz is 1,15x10-3 m and that corresponding to 1 Ghz is 1.15x10°§ m. Both of these wavelengths are much larger than interatomic distances. However, 1 Thz (1072 Hz) waves in lead will have a wavelength of 1.15 nm. This is no longer much larger than interatomic distances, and equation (7.13) may no longer be accurate. 7-4. Composite of tungsten carbide (E = 600 GPa) and aluriinum (E = 69 Gpa). If the applied stress is parallel to the lamellae, the strains in the two phases must be equal, so the stresses are different. The two phases are present in equal proportion, so the madulus of the composite in this direction is the average of the two moduli: Exymng = (600 + 69)/2 = 335 GPa. If instead the applied stress is perpendicular to the lamellae, the stresses in the it is the two phases must be equal and the strains different. In this case, inverses of the moduli (the compliances) that are averaged. (1 gmp) = (1/600) + (1/69)]/2 = B.08x10°> (GPa)-1 80 Exemp = 1/8,08x10"3 = 124 GPa (the stiffer phase dominates in the parallel case, the less stiff phase in the perpendicular case) 7-8. From (7.17), o/k= k1(4K/m)"/2 sin(ka/2). Using the expansion for sin(ka/2), w/k = k¥(4K/m)"/2 {(ka/2) - (ka/2)3/6} In the long wavelength (small k) limit, a/k = a(K/m)'/? (the first term in the expansion). The velocity from (7.17) will differ by 5% from this limit when the second term in the expansion is 5% of the first term, i.e., when35 (ka/2)3/6 = 0.05(ka/2), or when ka = 1.10, When ka = 1.10, A/a = 2a/ka = 5.71 7-6. Given: ¢ =n? « w/2 (2) vp o/k @ 1/n = ol/4, thus 03/4 «ky and w= k43, vy =u/k « kY9 a 3 (b) IF v, = w/k = CK, «= Ck4/3 and v, = w/dk = (4C/3)k1/3 50 Vp/Vq = 3/4 7-7. Given: o= Ck? (a) vps uk = Ck V2 AM2 and vy da/Ok = (C/2)KM2 oe 22 (b) v,/vg= 2 7-8. (a) Since w= (4K/m)"/2 sin(ka/2), w/k = ke) (4K/m)"/2 sin(ka/2) and dw/dk = (a/2)(4K/m)"/2 cos(ka/2). So the ratio of phase to group velocity is (@/k)/(w/8k) = (2/ka) tan(ka/2) = (2/ka){(ka/2) + (ka/2)3/3] = 1 + (ka/2)2/3 (b) This ratio = 1.05 when (ka/2)2/3 = 0.05, of when ka = 0.775 = 2na/A, or when Ma = 2x/0.775 = 8.11 7-9. (a) With increasing frequency w (decreasing 2), «, and n decrease, 0 phase velocity v, = a/k = c/n increases. (b) With w(k) curving upward, (de/dk) will be greater than o/k, i.e., group velocity will be greater than phase velocity. 7-10. (a) Since the dielectric constant resulting from electronic polarization36 peaks in the ultraviolet, it increases with increasing frequency (decreasing wavelength) in the visible. Thus with increasing wavelength, the dielectric constant and index of refraction decrease, and the velocity of light in water increases. (b) From (a), the index of refraction for blue light is greater than that for red light (see also page 62 of the text), thus it bends more than red light when entering and leaving raindrops. (c) With increasing frequency, «/k decreases. With this curvature of the ak) plot (opposite to the curvature in Problem 7-9b), the group velocity (u/3k) is less than the phase velocity a/k. 7-11. From data given in Chapter 4, the index of refraction for light in diamond is 2.38, so the speed of light in diamond is (3x108)/(2.38) = 1.26x108 m/s From Problem 7-2, the speed of sound in diamond is 1.87x10* m/s Compared to air, diamond slows light, but speeds up sound. Nevertheless, the speed of light in diamond remains much faster than the speed of sound. Over a mile (1.61 km), the light takes only (1.61x102)/(1.26x108) = 1.28x10°5 seconds, while the sound takes (1.61x103)/(1.87x10*) = 8.61x10" seconds, so the time separation is approximately 0.0861 s. 7-12. Cross-sectional area of cord = xd?/4 = 7.9x10°5 m? (assume unchanged) For the fower limit to the Young's modulus, you would like your downward velocity ta become zero after falling 100 meters. Thus all the gravitational energy you have lost (E = mgh = (60)(9.8)(100) = §.9x10* J) is now stored as elastic energy in the cord. Assuming equation (7.2) still holds at strains as high37 as e=AL/L = 1, and ignoring any change in the cross-sectional area (both these approximations are poor, but we're doing only rough calculations), the stored elastic energy is (Ee2/2)V = (E/2)(7.9x10°5)(100) = 3.95x10°3 E = 5.9x104 J SO Equa (S.9x104)/(3.95x10°3) = 1.5x107 Pa (15 MPa). For the upper limit, you want to limit your maximum downward deceleration (upward acceleration) to 5g = 49 m/s. Since gravity is providing g = 9.8 m/s? down, your limit to upward acceleration is about 59 m/s?. So the maximum upward force you can take is F = ma = (60)(59) = 3.5x103 N (at maximum extension of the cord). (Even with your minimum modulus, the maximum upward force is oA = Epc = (1.5x107)(1)(7.9x10°5) w 1.2x103 N, so the modulus can't be ‘much higher.) Suppose that you reach the maximum extension of the cord after falling a distance x beyond 50 meters. (The first 50 meters were free fall, with no cord extension.) The force exerted on you by the cord is oA = Ema,(x/S0)A, which you set equal to the maximum force you can take, 3.5x103N. ThUS EmayX = (3.5x103)(50)/(7.9x10°S) w 2.24109 Parm, x = (2.2x109)/E na, As before, at this maximum extension, the gravitational energy you have lost is all stored as elastic energy in the cord. So mg(50 + x) = (Ema,t2/2)(50 +x)A, where e= x/50, and mg = Egy(X/50)2(A/2) = Ema,(2:2x109/50E mg.) (A/2) Emax = (2-2x109/50)?A/2mg = 1.3x108 Pa = 130 MPa (and x = 17 m, so you fall a total of 67 meters). The Young's modulus must be between about 15 and 130 MPa, and from the moduli given in Section 7.1, the cord should be made of rubber (no surprise).38 Chapter 8 B-1. Given: 4g)= Agy 50 Ea = Em (a) Ezy = hy = he/A = SOE, = 50 (h2/2mA2), $0 ¢ = 25 (h/ma} R= el = Ay = 25 (h/me) = 6.06101? m P= Poy = Pan = HVA = 1.09x10°23 kg-m/s E,y = he/d = 3.28x10°15 J, Egy = Epy/50 = 6.56x1017 J Vg = p/m = 1.20x107 m/s, viy = C= 3x108 m/s. Me = 9.11x10°3? kg, photon has no mass ey = 1-6x10°19 C, photon has no charge (b) v= ¢/, = 4.95x1018 Hz This is an x-ray photon. (}V=Ej/e=410V (Ey = 410 eV) B-2. by, = 4.2 eV = 6.72x10°19 J, hy = bc/d = 1.33x10°78 J (a) Maximum energy of photoelectrons = hy ~ hv, = $.54x10"19 J ey = H/(2mE)"/2 = 6.07x10°19 m (b) #photons/m?-s = (3 W/m2)/hv = 2.26x1018 m2") = 2.26x1014 env2s"? (c) hve = HCD bypay + Amay = Nest, = 2.96x10°7 m= 296 nm 8-3. Classically, each mode is assumed to have an average energy of kal = 4.1 4x10°2! J = 0.0259 eV. According to Planck, the average energy is hv/{exp(hw/kgT) - 1}.39 For £ = hy = 0.01 eV, this equals 0.01/(e%38 - 1) = 0.0212 ev. For 0.1 eV, this decreases to 0.1/(e36 -1) = 2.15x10"3 eV, for 1 eV, to 1/(e386 - 1) = 1.72x10-17 ev, and for 10 eV, to 10/(€386 - 1) » 10157 ev (0) 8-4. (a) v= 3x108 m/s, p= hw/c=2.67x1026 kg-m/s, k= he/E = 2.48x10°8 m (b) E= 50 eV =8x10'8 J, v= (2E/m)'/2 = 4.19x108 m/s, P=mv=3.82x10-%4 kg-m/s, 4=h/p= 1.731071 m (c) An a-particle has a charge of 2e, so E = 100 eV = 1.6x10°17 J and a mass of » 4 atomic mass units = 6.64x10-27 kg v= (2E/m)'/? = 6.94x104 m/s, p = mv = 4.61x10°22 kg-m/s, d= h/p = 1.44x10°? m (a) A neutral uranium atom has a mass of 238 atomic mass units = 3.95x10°25 kg v= (2E/m)!/2 = 6.36x103 m/s, p = mv = 2.51x10-2! kg-m/s, d= h/p = 2.63x10°13 m (e) A uranium nucleus has a total charge of 92e, so when accelerated through 50 volts, its energy is 4600 eV = 7.36x10°6 J and its mass » 3.95x10°25 kg v= (2E/m)!/2 = 6,10x304 m/s, p= mv = 2.41x10°20 kg-m/s, A= h/p=2.75x104 m (1 gram (10°3 kg) falling through 1 meter has E = mgh = 9.8x10° J v= (2E/m)'/? = 4.43 m/s, p= mv = 4.43x10°3 kg-m/s, X= h/p = 1.50x10°3! m 8-5. D = 5.8x10"2 m, time t = 10 yrs = 3.15x108 s, m= 1 kg, A = 1x106 m2 To make the problem simple, we assumed constant flux and therefore constant40 acceleration and constant force, so 0 = at?/2, F = ma = 2mD/t? = 1.17K10°4N Taking 2 = 550 nm, the momentum per photon is p = b/d = 1.20x10°27 kg-m/s To meet our schedule, the photons must deliver a total momentum to the sail each second (dp/dt) equal to the needed force F = 1.17x10°4N. So the needed photons per second is (1.17x10"4)/(1.20x10°27) = 1023 s:!, or, since our area is 106 m2, a flux of 1017 ms? 8-6. (a) E = hw/2x = 10 eV = 1.6x10"'8 J, @ = 2xE/h = 1.52x10'6 5"! E = (b/2x)k2/2m, k = (2mE)"/2/(h/2x) splat) = A elot-ke) = A expf-i(1.52x10'6t - 1.62x1010 x)} (b) w= 2xE/h = 1.52x101° s"! (unchanged) E-V = 5 eV = 8x10°19 J, k = (2m(E-V)}!/?/(h/2a) = 1.14x10!0 m-! (decreased) wOxst) = A ertlot-kx) = A expf-i(1.52x1016 t - 1.14x10!0 x)} (c) w= 2xE/h = 1.52x1018 s:! (unchanged) E-V = -5 eV o -8x10-19 J, k = f2m(E-V)}/2/(h/2a) = i(1.14x10"0) mr? »plxit) = A eet) = A exp{-i(1.52x1016 t)} exp (-1.14x10"° x) (damped) 1.62x1010 mvt 8-7. (a) E, = n2h2/8mL?2 = n2(6.02x10720) J, Ey, = Eng = Ei = he/d. Ey - E, = 1.81x1019 J, = ho/(Ey-E,) = 1.10x10° m Ey - Ey = 4.82x10°9 J, = he/(Es-E,) = 4.12x10°7 m Eq + Ey = 9.04K10°19 J, A= he/(Eq Ey) = 2.20x10°7 m (b) (4-1)h2/8mL? = ky (300) = 4.14x10°2? J, L? = 3h2/8m(4.14x10727), L=6.60x10°9 m4 (c) L= 10-2 m, kgl = 4.14x10°21 = (n2- 1)h2/8mL2 (m2 - 1) = 8m(10-2)2(4.14x10-21)/h? = 6.87x1012, n = 2.62x106 8-8. Given: In relativity, E,,, , the total energy of the electron, equals the sum of its rest energy E, = m,c? and its kinetic energy Ve. m = m,/{1-(v/c)?}1/2, P= MV/{1-(v/c)7)/2, Egor = EAL 1-(v/0)2)172, Egg? = pee? + E,2 (a) Exe? = (E, + Ve)? = E,2 + 2E,Ve + (Ve)? = pc? + E,? so p? = 2m,Ve + (Ve/c)? = 2m,Vel1 + (Ve/2m,c2)} and A= h/p = {h/(2m,Ve)"/2} (1 + (Ve/2m,c2)}-1/2 . For Ve << 2m,c2 = 1.64x10°13 J = 1,02x108 eV (« 1 MeV), 4 = h/(2m,Ve)!/2 This is the fow-energy, nonrelativistic limit given by equation (8.8) (b) For V = 30 kV = 3x04, (Ve/2m,c2) = (4.8x10"15)/(1.64x10"13) = 0.0293, relativistic correction term {1 + (Ve/2m,c?)}"/2 = 0.986 (so classical expression for 4 would give a 1.4 % error) For V = 300 KV = 3x105V, (Ve/2m,¢?) = (4.8x10"14)/(1.64x10""9) = 0.293 relativistic correction term {1 + (Ve/2m,c2)}"1/2 = 0.879 (So classical expression for 4 would give a 12.1 % error) (c) For Ve >> 2m,c2, {1 + (Ve/2m,c2)}-1/2 = (Ve/2mc2) 72 2 = {h/(2m,Ve)"/2} (2m,c2/Ve)!/? = he/Ve = hc/Eys (approaches the expression for photon wavelength in terms of photon energy) 8-9. E= 10 eV, V= 12 eV, EV=-2 eV=-3,2x1079 J 80 k= (2m(E-V)}1/2/(h/2x) = 7.24x109 i (m1)42, (a) (2) /ap(O) = elk = exp{-(7.24x109)(1x10°19)] = 0-724 = 0.485, we(2)/y?(0) = 0.235 (b) y(z)/p(O) = 7-24 = 717x104, y(z)/y?(0) = 5.15x10°7 8-10. (a) L = 2x10-9 m, E, = n2h2/8mL2 = n2(1.51x102) J Two electrons have n = 1, E, = 1.51x10°20 J, two have n = 2, Ep = 6.04x10°20 J, two have n= 3, Ey = 1,36x10"19 J, two have n= 4, E,= 2.42x10°'9 J, and one has n= 5, E; = 3.78x10"19 J. (b) Since the n = 5 level is only half full, the lowest-energy photon that can be absorbed is one that would excite an electron from n = 4 up ton = 5. The energy 5 ~ Ey = 1.36x10°19 J. (v= AE/h = 2.05x10"4 Hz) of this photon is AE = 8-11. Forn= 2, w.=(2/L)'/2 sin(2nz/L), wz = (2/L) sin®(2nz/L) For z = L/8, L/4, and 3L/8, yp? = (1/L), (2/L), and (1/L), respectively. To get probability of being more than L/4 from the center, integrate probability density 22 from z = 0 to z = L/4 and from z = 3L/4 toz =L. By symmetry, these two integrals are equal, so just double the integral from z = 0 to z = L/4. P = 2(2/L)fsin2(2az/L)dz = 0.5 (an answer that is also clear from inspection) 8-12. (a) We must show that y= exp(-z?/2a?) satisfies the Schrodinger equation for the harmonic oscillator, equation (8.28). (We have omitted the normalization constant A, since that will appear in each term.) dy/dz = (-2/a2) exp(-2°/2a?), so d2y/dz? = {(z2/a") - (1/a2)} expl-22/2a7) Plugging w and d®y/dz2 into equation (8.28), and dropping the exponential factor43 which appears in each term, we get: A(h/2n)2/2m} (22/4) = (1/a2)} + K22/2 = E Equating the 22 terms, K/2 =(h/2x)2/2ma‘, which is satisfied if a? = (h/2xynk)/2 Equating the constant terms on each side, E = (h/2n)?/2ma?, and substituting for a? yields E = (h/4x) (K/m)"/? = (h/4n) o.. (b) Do the same for y = z exp(-z2/2a?). Now dy/dz = {1 - (22/a2)} exp(-z?/2a?), and d2y/dz? = {(23/at) - (32/a2)} exp(-22/2a2). Plug y and d@y/dz? into (8.28) and drop exponential terms. Equating the 23 terms gives K/2 = {(h/2z)2/2ma*} again, and equating the z terms gives 3(h/2x)?/2ma? = E. Substituting for a® yields E = 3 (h/4a) (k/m)!/2 = 3 (h/An) 0, 8-13. (a) With the origin for z at the center of the well, the boundary conditions become y = 0 at z= 41/2. We now have symmetric solutions given by w= Acos(naz/L) (n =1, 3, 5, ...) and antisymmetric solutions given by w= A sin(nxz/L) (n= 2, 4, 6, ...), with the normalization constant A = (2/L)'/2, ‘The ground state corresponds to n = , the first two excited states ton = 2 and n= 3. These solutions are of course identical to thase given in equations (8.24), and appear different mathematically only because the origin has been shifted. (b) The probability density y* is symmetric about z = 0 for both symmetric and antisymmetric wave functions. Thus the expectation value of z is zero for each wave function (positive and negative values of z are equally probable). However, this is not true for the expectation values of 22, for which we must calcutate f22y2(z)dz integrated from -L/2 to +L/2. The three integrands are44 22(2/L)cos*(nz/L), 27(2/L)sin?(2xz/L), and 22(2/L)cos?(3x2/L). The results: = 0.0327 L2 for ,, corresponding to Z,m,=!/2 =0.18L, <2?> = 0.0706 L? for w,, corresponding to Z;ms= <2°>!/2 = 0.27 L, and = 0.0777 L? for 3, corresponding to Z,,,=<2?>"/? = 0.28 L. (With increasing n, approaches the value for a uniform probability density, Sz2d2/fdz = 12/12 = 0.289.) .0833 L2, corresponding to zg = "/2 Without access to a table of integrals, cos®x can be converted to {cos(2x) + 1}/2, sintx to {-cos(2x) +1}/2, and the resulting integrals can be integrated directly or by parts. 8-14. From (8.22), reflectivity R = (B/A)? = {VE - V(E-V)7/IVE + V(E-V)}? V=5eV ForE= 10 eV,R = {V10 - ¥5}?/{v10 + V5}? = (0.926/5.40)? = 0.0294 For E = 20 eV, R = {V20 - V15I2/{V20 + 15}? = (0.599/8.35)? = 0.00515 Classically, there would be no reflection. 8-15. For rigid walls (V = =), E, = n2h?/8mL? = n2(6.02x10"2°) J, so the first three symmetric solutions are E, = 6.02x10°20 J (0.377 eV), E; = 5.42x10°19 J (3.39 eV), and Es = 1.51x10"18 J (9.41 eV). (The solutions for n = 2, 4, 6, etc. correspond to antisymmetric wave functions.) The finite well (“leaky” walls) with L = 1x10°9 m, depth of well V = 10 eV = 1.6x10°18 J is a more difficult problem mathematically. If we take our origin at the center of the well, symmetric solutions inside the well are y= A cos(kz), where k? = 2mE/(h/2x)* and E is electron energy. Outside the well, the solutions are p= + C exp(yz), where y? = 2m(V-E)/(h/2x)2,45 Our boundary conditions are that and cy/dz must be continuous at z = + L/2. For simplicity, we consider only z = L/2. The continuity of pyields: A cos(kL/2) = C exp(-/L/2) The continuity of dy/dz yields: Ak sin(kL/2) = Cy exp(-yL/2) which we combine to get an equation relating k and y:_ k tan(kL/2) = Plugging the expressions for k and yinto this equation, we get E172 tan{mEL?/2(h/2x)?}1/2 = E172 tan(ak)V/2 = (V - E)V/2 or tan(aE)!/2 = {(V/E) - 1}1/2 (where a = mL2/2(h/2n)? = 4.10x1019 J+1 = 6.55 (eV)! and V = 1.6x10"18 J = 10 eV Solving this equation for E numerically or graphically yields three solutions: E, = 0.298 eV, E, ~ 2.65 eV, E, = 7.15 eV. These solutions are each a bit less than 80% of those given earlier for the well of the same width with rigid walls (0.377, 3.39, and 9.41 eV). Allowing the wave function to leak out of the energy well decreased dy/dz and therefore the kinetic energy. (There are also solutions for n = 2 and n = 4, but those are for anti-symmetric wave functions.) 8-16. AEAtsh = 6.63x10"34 Js For full visible spectrum, AE = (3.1-1.8) eV = 1.3 eV = 2.08x10"19 J 50 At # (6.63x10"34)/(2.08x10"19) w 310-15 s (3 femtoseconds) 8-17. (a) For the first excited state, y2(z) = Azexp(-z2/2a2). The only node of this symmetric function is at z = 0. The local maxima in the Probability density will be where dy/dz = 0, which occurs at z= + a. For the second excited state, w3(z) = Af2* - (a°/2)} exp(-z2/2a2).46 The nodes are where 2? = 2/2, or 2 = + a/V2 = 40.707 a. The local maxima in the probability density will again be where dy/dz = 0, which occurs at z = 0 and z= + VSa/v2 = + 1.58 a. (dy2/dz will of course also be equal to zero at the nodes, which correspond to local minima in the probability density.) {b) The energies of these two states are Ep = (3/2)(h/2n)o, and Es = (5/2(h/2x)0,. The maximum displacement z,, of a classical harmonic oscillator of energy E is given by E = Kz,,2/2. Whereas z,, = + a for the ground state, it equals + (V3)a for the first excited state and (v/5)a for the second excited state, (c) For 2, the maximum probability density w,? occurs at z = + a and equals Ataze-! = 0,368 AZa?. At z= + (V3)a, ¥22 = 3A2a2e°3 = 0.149 A?a?, or 41% of the maximum, For ws. the maximum probability density yx? occurs at 2 = + (/5/v2)a and equals 4A2ate? 5 = 0.328 Arad, Atz= + (V5)a, v3? = (20.3)AZate" (in both cases, at the displacement that would be the maximum displacement for = 0,137 Aza‘, or 42% of the maximum, a classical harmonic oscillator of that energy, the quantum-mechanical harmonic oscillator still has a substantial probability density.) 8-18, From equation (4.7), Intensity I = cegE,2/2 = 1.33x10°9 W/m? (J/m?s) Energy per photon = he/A = 3.98x10"1? J #photons/més = (1.33x10°9)/(3.98x10"19) = 3.34x10% 8-19. This is a quantized harmonic oscillator, for which the energy levels area7 Separated by AE = (h/2x)(K/m)'/2, which in this case equals 0.2 eV = 3.2x10-20 J, Thus (K/m)"/? = w, = AE/(h/2x) = 3,04x10"4 "1, The “m” in this case is one-half the atomic mass of nitrogen, 7 atomic mass units, or 1.16x10-26 kg, So K = ma,? = 1.07x103 N/m. Chapter 9 9-1. (a) In a 1-D well with L = 6x10-9 m, E, = n2h2/8mL2 = n2(1.67x10°21) J Ez > Ey = (4-1)(1.67x10°2) J = 5.02x10-21 J = he/a, 4 = 3.96x10°5 m no degeneracy here (b) In 2-D well with L = 6x10-9 m, E= (h?/8mL?)(n,2 +-n,2) = (1,2 +0,2)(1.67x10°21) J Ey2 > Ey = (5-2)(1.67x1021) J = 5.02x10°21 J = hes, & twofold degeneracy here, since Ey = Ep) (c) tn 2-D well with L, = 6x10-® mand L, = 5x10-2 m, E= (h2/8m){(n,/L,)? + (ny/L, Pb, Ey, = 4.08x10°2" J, Ep) = 9.10x10°2! J, E,2 = 11.31x102" J, so Epy is first excited state. Eoy ~ Ey = 5.02x10°21 Je hes/h, d= 3.96x10°S m no degeneracy here, since Ey2 = Ep) 96x15 m () In 3-D well with L = 6x10°9 m, E = (0,2 +n2 +n,2)(1.67x10°21) J Ears = Exay = (6-3)(1.67x10-21) J =5.02%10°21 J = he/a, b= 3.96x10°5 m threefold degeneracy here, since E>) = E421 =Eyi248 9-2. wy, (na,3)"2 exp(-F/a,). The probability that the 1s electron is no more than two Bohr radii from the nucleus is determined by integrating the probability density from 0 to 2a, P= fy?(4ar2dr) = (4/2,3)fr2exp(-2r/a,)dr, integrated from 1=Otor=2a,, Integrating by parts, P = 0.762. 9-3. Potential energy V = -€2/4nt,f, SO = -(e2/4nz,}<1/r>. Because 1/ris not an operator, and the wave function »,, = (xa,3)1/? exp(-r/a,) is real and normalized, the expectation value of 1/r can be calculated, as in equation (8.32), from §(1/t) yg? (4nr2dr) = (4/a,3)fr exp(-2r/a,) dr, integrated from 0 to ». Integrating by parts, <1/r> = 1/a,, = -e2/4ne,2, = -27.2 eV. Since we know the total energy of the 1s electron is -13.6 eV, apparently the kinetic energy is +13.6 ev. 9-4. (a) From (9.14), the 2s wave function for hydrogen is proportional to 42-(r/a.)}. Thus v2, = 0 (has 2 node) at r = 2a,= 0.106 nm. From (9.15), tba, {27 - 18(r/a,) + 2(r2/a,2)1. Using the quadratic formula, this is zero at (1/a,) = 4.50 + 2.60, ie. at r= 190 agand r= 7.10 a ‘The wave functions for other one-electron ions are equivalent to those for hydrogen with a, replaced by a,/Z. (b) Thus for He*! (Z = 2), the 2s node is at r= ay and the 3s nodes are at r = 0.95 a, and r= 3.55 a. (c) For Lit? (Z = 3), the 2s node is at ¢ = 0.667 a,, and the 3s nodes are at r = 0.633 a, and r= 2.37 a,,49 9-5. = frys,2(4nr2dr) = (4/a,3)s4exp(-2r/a,)dr, integrated from 0 to =, Integrating by parts, = 1.5 a, (In this and related problems, integration by Parts can be circumvented if you have a table of integrals. Such a table will show that x°e"%dx integrated from 0 to « equals n factorial). 9-6. Setting the varous experimental electron energies in sodium (Z = 11) atoms equal to -(13.6 eV)Z442/n?, we get 24 = 8.8 for 15, 4.6 for 2s, 3.3 for 2p, and 1.8 for 3s. For each case, the other electrons are effectively screening e(Z-Z,q) of the nuclear charge. The percentage of screening (2-2,.,)/Z = 20% for 1s, 58% for 2s, 70% for 2p, and 84% for 3s. 9-7. (a) For Li (2 = 3), the first ionization energy of 5.39 eV corresponds to the Temoval of the outer 2s (n = 2) electron. if equation (9.22) applied, this energy would be (13.6)32/2? = 30.6 eV, almost 6 times the experimental value. For K (Z = 19, n = 4 for outermost electron), equation (9.22) would predict 307 eV, over 70 times the experimental value of 4.34 eV. For Cs (Z = 55, n = 6), equation (9.22) would predict 1143 eV, 294 times the experimental value of 3.89 eV. Screening of course becomes more and more important as Z increases. (b) Setting the experimental values for first ionization energy equal to (13.6 eV)Z.42/n2, yields 1.26, 2.26, and 3.21 for 2,4 for the outermost electrons of Li, K, and Cs, respectively. The fractional screening (2-Z,.,)/Z = 58%, 88%, and 94% for Li, K, and Cs, respectively. ‘9-8. This is a result of differential screening, as discussed in Section 9.4. Because of their different radi istributions, s electrons are screened less than50 p electrons, p electrons less than the d electrons, etc. Screening raises the energy of the 3d electrons more than it raises the energy of the 4s electrons, the difference being sufficient to make the energy of 3d electrons higher than the energy of 4s electrons. 9-9. For hydrogen (Z = 1), the most probable radius of the 1s electron is the Bohr radius, a, = 0.0529 nm, and its energy is -13.6 eV. For uranium (Z = 92), the most probable radius of the 1s electron is approximately a,/92 = 5.75x10"'? m and its approximate energy is (-13.6)Z? = -1.15x105 eV = -0.115 MeV. If the kinetic energy is 0.115 MeV and we equate this to mv*/2, the corresponding velocity is (2E/m)1/2 = 2x108 m/s. This is approaching the speed of light, and these electrons are no tonger nonrelativistic (and E = mv2/2 is no longer valid). 9-10. Assuming p = (h/2x)/r, the kinetic eneray is p’/2m = (h/2x¥'/2mr. The potential energy is -e2/4ze,r, so the total energy E(t) = -e?/4negr + (h/2n)?/2mr’, To minimize the total energy E of the electron, set dE/dr = 0, This gives 2/4nep2 - (h/2n)2/mr3 = 0, of r = 4ne,(h/2n)?/me? = a,, the Bohr radius. With a different choice of p, we would have gotten a somewhat different r, but the point of the problem should be clear - the uncertainty principle keeps the electron from getting too close to the nucleus. 9-11. Potential energy V = -€2/4xt,F, So =-{e?/4xe,}<1/1> (as in Problem 9- 3). From (9.14), Wa, = Al2-(r/a,)}exp(-1/2a,). <1 /t = JV/ty,,2(4nt2dr) integrated from 0 to infinity.51 Plugging yp, into the integral, <1/r> = 4xA?{r{2-(r/a,)}exp(-r/a,)dr = BxAZa,2. (As usual with such integrals, you can integrate by parts or use the general result for integration from 0 to quoted in the solution to Problem 9-5.) We must also evaluate the normalization constant A from Swo,2(4ar2dr) = 32xA2a,3 = 1, so = 1/4a,, and V = - e2/1 62e,a, = -me*/16¢,2h? = - 6.79 eV. 9-12. The most probable radius of the 1s electron in hydrogen is the Bohr radius, a, = 0.0529 nm. In going to other one-electron systems, the solutions are equivalent to the solutions for hydrogen with a,/Z substituted for a, (since Ze? is substituted for e? in the potential energy). Thus the most probable radius of 1s electrons in Het (Z = 2) is 0.0529/2 = 0.0265 nm and in Lit? (Z = 3) is 0.0529/3 = 0.0176 nm. 9-13. Although Ne and Na‘ are isoelectronic, Nat has a greater nuclear charge attracting the electrons, so each electron in Nat has less radial extent and a lower energy than the corresponding electron in Ne. 9-14, In the notation of (9.6), any s wave function is simply R(r) and the Laplacian (9.5) simply becomes (d2/di2) + 2r1(d/dr), so Schrédinger’s equation (9.4) becomes -{(h/2x)2}/2m){(d2R/dr2) + 2r W(dR/dr)] - (€2/4xe,p)R = ER. From (9.12), R(r) = Aexp(-r/a,), (dR/dr) = -R/a, and (d?R/dr2) = R/a,2, so Schrédinger’s equation becomes, after dividing through by R, ~A(h/2x)}/2m)tag? - 2ag'e-1} - (e2/4negt) = E. Since this must be satisfied at any r, the two terms with r1 must cancel, ie.,52 ((n/2n)?}/ma, = €2/4aty, oF 3, = Ane,(h/2n)2/me?, consistent with (9.9). In addition, the two constant terms must be equal, so {(h/2x)*}/2ma,? = E. Substituting for a,, this is consistent with (9.10) for n= 1. Chapter 10 10-1. &(R,) = Eq(R,) + €2/4ne,R, = -2.7 eV, and for R, = 0.108 nm, the repulsive term e2/4ae,R, = 13.3 eV. So the attractive term E,i(R.) = -2.7 - 13.3 = -16.0 eV. 10-2. At the equilibrium separation R,, there is no net force, i.e., the attractive force produced by the electrons is equal and opposite to the repulsive force between the two protons, e2/4ne,R,? = 3.99x10°8 N. (For R, = 0.076 nm) 10-3. Assume E,(R) =E,(R) + 2/4xe,R = -BRS/S + 2/4nr,R (a) At R= R, = 0.108 nm, dE,/dR = 0 = SBR,1"/9/6 - (2.30x10°28)R,°2, so B = 6(2,30x10°28)/5R,1/6 = 1.27x1026 J-m9/6 (b) From the value of B calculated in (a), E,(R) = -(1.27x10-27)R,;9/6 + (2.30x10°28)R,"1 = (- 2.57 + 2.13)x1018 J = -2.75 eV This is in good agreement with the value in Fig. 10.6, E,(R,) = -2.7 eV. (c) Spring constant K = d?E/dR? (at R=R,) = -(558/36R,'7/°) + (4.6x10°28)R> This equals - 336 + 365 = 29 N/m, in poor agreement with the experimental value of 140 N/m. Apparently the approximation E,, = - 8R°5/® is good enough to give a53 good match for the bond length, but not for the spring constant. 10-4. The bonding MO is y, = (¢ + ¢2)/V2, and the antibonding MO is Wan = (41 ~ 42)/V2, where $, = (2,3) 1/Zexp(-r/a,) and $2 = (na,3)/2exp(-rp/a,) The normalization constant (na,3)-1/2 = 1.47x1095 m3/2 (ry 2) 4 te Yo eb we Wao? 0.084, 0.054 5.29 5.29 7.48 ° 5.59 ° 0.108, 0 1.90 147 Wz 9.05 13,7 8.19 0.108,0.108 1.90 1.90 2.69 0 0.722 0 0.108,0.216 1.90 0246 1.52 17 0.231 0.137 where the units for r, and rz are nm, the units for the AOs and MOs are 1014 m3/2, and the units for the probability densities are 1029 nv3, Note that the antibonding MO is zero at the first and third points, which are in the central plane corresponding to its nodal plane. 10-5. Nz has 6 bonding electrons, but No* has only 5, so Np has a higher binding energy than Np*, The behavior for oxygen, however, is different because the outer antibonding MOs 1x* are occupied. , has 6 bonding electrons and 2 antibonding electrons (net of 6-2 = 4 bonding), while 0,* has only one antibonding electron, So anet of 6-1 = 5 bonding. O,* has a higher binding energy than 0, because it has fewer antibonding electrons. 10-6. We assume the electronic structures are anatogous to those in the 2p series of homonuclear diatomic molecules (B, to F).(b) Molecule bonding e’s antibonding e’s bond order analog Py 6 0 3 No Sp 6 2 2 O Ge, 4 0 2 fond As, 6 0 3 Ne Bry 6 4 1 Fy Te, 6 2 2 02 ly 6 4 1 Fa (b) Within a given row, triple bonds are stronger than double bonds, which in turn are stronger than single bonds, while in each column the bonds become weaker as you descend to lower rows. High bond strength correlates with high stiffness and short bond length (the 3S rule). Of these 7 homonuclear diatomic molecules, P2 is the strongest and also the stiffest, while |p has the longest (and weakest) bond. ‘Approximate experimental values of bond strength (in eV) are: P2- 5, Sp~ 4. Gep - 2.8, AS, - 4, Bry - 2, Te, ~ 2.7, I~ 1.5. (c) Like 03, S; and Te, have partially filled degenerate antibonding levels, and are paramagnetic, via Hund's rule. Each has a x,? 20 ,*'n*? electronic structure, where the x, and x,* are formed from p, AQs, the a, and x,* are formed from py AOs, and the o (and o*) are formed from p, AOs. 10-7. (a) E(R) = AR? - BR‘, and the equilibrium separation R, is determined by the condition dE/dR = -2AR,;3 + BR? = 0, SR, = 2A/B (b) The bond energy E, = E(x) - E(R,) = -E(R,) = -A(B/2A)® + B(B/2A) = B7/4A55 (c) The spring constant K = dE/dR? (at R to) SOK = GAR,4 - 2BR,3 = B4/8A3 (d) For R>R,, the restoring force dE/dR increases until you reach the point of inflection where d°E/dR? = 0. GAR“ = 2BR"3, R = 3A/B = 38/2 10-8. The energy spacing between vibrational energy levels is proportional to 0, =(K/m)"/2, Since the neutral Hy molecule is stronger, shorter, and stiffer (higher K) than the H,* molecular ion (see Fig. 10.6), its vibrational energy levels will be more widely spaced and hence the photon emitted by this transition will be of higher energy than the corresponding photon emitted from the molecular ion. 10-9. Given: E, = 2.8 eV, R, = 0.16 nm, K = 350 N/m (a) Near R,, E(R) = E(R,) + K(R-R,)2/2. At R = 0.15 and 0.17 nm, (R-R,)? = 10°22 m2, .8(1.6x10"?9) + 350(10°22)/2 = -4.31x10"19 J = -2.69 eV (b) Restoring force = -K(R-R,) = -350(10"11) = -3,5x10°9 N (attractive) soE= at R= 0.17nm and +3.5x10°9 N (repulsive) at R = 0.15 nm. (c) The atomic mass of B is 10.8 times the atomic mass, or 1.79x10°26 kg, and the effective mass for molecular vibrations of B, is half of that, 8.95x10°27 kg. The classical frequency w= (K/m)'/2 = {350/(8.95x10°27)}1/2 = 1.98x10"4 5-1. (d) From Section 8.8, the energy separation between quantized vibrational levels is (h/2n)o, = 2.09x10-20 J = 0.131 eV 10-10. Given: E, = 11.1 eV, R, = 0.11 am, p= 3.7x10°3? C-m (a) Fractional ionic character 3 = p/eR, = 0.021 (2.1%)56 (b) Ina uniform electric field, there is no net force on an electric dipole. The torque produced by the field is pEsing, where @ is the angle between the electric field E and the dipole axis. Here @= 90°, so the torque is pE = 7.4x10°3! N-m (c) The energy of interaction between the dipole and the field is -pEcos®, which decreases from 0 to -pE on rotating from perpendicular to parallel to the field. This decrease is pE = 7.4x10°31 J. 10-11. The NaCl molecule is analogous to the LiF molecule (another alkali halide) discussed in Section 10.5. Analyzed by the LCAO model, the bonding MO is built from the 3s AO of Na and the 3p, AO of CL. The Cl AQ is dominant in the bonding MO, the Na AO dominant in the antibonding MO. The diagram asked for should be equivalent to Figure 10.11, with the H,, level corresponding to the 3s ‘AO of Na and the Hz level corresponding to the 3p, AO of Cl. 10-12. The molecular ion Be,* has 7 electrons, and the configuration is 1o21o*220220* 1. It has a total of four bonding electrons and three antibonding electrons, yielding one net bonding electron, and so the bond is a half-bond, like the H,* bond. Chapter 11 11-1. Using data from this chapter, C;Hp (acetylene) has one triple C-C bond (8.76-5. Type Il with M = -100 A/cm = -104 A/m when H = 630 A/cm = 6.3x104 A/m B = p,(H + M) = (1.26x10°6)(6.3x10* - 1x104) = 6.68x10"2 T = No, N = B/b, = (6.68x10°2)/(2,07x10"15) = 3.23x1013 m2 6-6. Total cross-sectional area of composite = (1x10-2)(4x10°3) = 4x10°5 m2 Cross-sectional area of superconductor = 0.2(4x10°5) = 8x10°6 m2 Je = 1x104 A/em? = 1x108 A/m?, sol = (1x108)(8x10°8) = 800 A H =nf= 1x107 A/m, so n = H/I = (1x107)/(800) = 1.25x104 m°! (12.5/mm) 6-7. In increasing field, a hollow tube will behave the same as a solid cylinder, with surface supercurrents shielding both the material and the hollow center from magnetic field. However, once He has been exceeded and field has penetrated, in decreasing field the Meissner effect will expel field from the tube walls but not from the hollow center. Thus the M(H) and B(H) curves will look like Fig. 6.3a, and superconducting currents on the inside surface of the tube wil trap magnetic field within the tube. 6-8. E = -SuMHGH = -i1g%qH2/2, $0 F = -dE/dx = zt H(dH/dx) H = 1000 A/cm = 105 A/m, (dH/dx) = 1000 A/cm? = 107 A/m2 F = (1.26x10-6)(1x108)(1x107)x,,, = (1.26x105)y,, (a) type | superconductor: y,, = M/H = -1, so F = -1.26x10°N (b) soft ferromagnet with 1, = 106: x= wy, 1» 108, so F = +1.26x1012 N (c) paramagnet with x, = 10°: F = +126 N