DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS

Calculus uses not only the ideas and methods from arithmetic, geometry, algebra, coordinate
geometry, trigonometry, and so on but also the notion of limit, which is a new idea that lies at
the foundation of calculus. Calculus provides a system of rules for calculating changing
quantities which cannot be calculated otherwise. It may be mentioned here that the concept
of limit is equally important and applicable also in integral calculus, and this will be clear when
we study the concept of the definite integral in Chapter 6 (Section 6.5).

There is a fundamental difference between precalculus mathematics and calculus.

Precalculus mathematics is more static, whereas calculus is more dynamic. For instance:
 An object traveling at a constant velocity can be analyzed with precalculus
mathematics. To analyze the velocity of an accelerating object, you need calculus.
 The slope of a line can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To analyze the
slope of a curve, you need calculus.
 The area of a rectangle can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To analyze
the area under a general curve, you need calculus.

Differential calculus is a subject which can be applied to anything that moves, or changes or
has a shape. It is useful for the study of machinery of all kinds - for electric lighting and
wireless, optics and thermodynamics. It also helps us answer questions about the greatest
and smallest values a function can take.

COMPILED BY T. PAEPAE
LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

 Define the concept of a limit.

 Use limit-notation and calculate the limit of functions.
 Determine the rate of change.
 Find the gradient of the secant and tangent lines.
 Find the instantaneous rate of change and the derivative derived from first principles.
 Use special rules to find the derivative and determine the derivative of different algebraic
functions.
 Use special rules to determine the derivative of transcendental functions such as
exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions.
 Define, denote and determine higher derivatives.
 Explain and use applications of differentiation to determine the maximum and minimum
turning points and the point of inflection for graphs.
 Use the maximum and minimum turning points in sketch graphs.
 Apply differentiation in rectilinear motion problems.
 Apply differentiation to optimization (maxima and minima) problems.
 Identify indeterminate forms and apply L’Hôpital’s rule in each case.

1
5.1 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Why it is important to understand: The Limit of a Function

In the operation of computing the antiderivative, the concept of limit is involved indirectly. On
the other hand, in defining the definite integral of a function, the concept of limit enters the
process directly. Thus, the concept of limit is involved in both, differential and integral calculus.
In fact, we might define calculus as the study of limits. It is therefore important that we have a
deep understanding of this concept.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the meaning of a limit and be familiar with the notation used for limits.
 Explain some properties of limits.
 Calculate the limit of algebraic functions.
0
 Determine the special indeterminate limit .
0
∞
 Determine the special indeterminate limit .
∞

2
5.1.1 Limits – An Informal Approach

The two broad areas of calculus known as differential and integral calculus are built on the
foundation concept of a limit. In this section, the approach to this important concept will be
intuitive, concentrating on understanding what a limit is using numerical examples (tables of
values). That is, what happens to the values 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) of a function 𝑓𝑓 as the variable 𝑥𝑥 approaches
the number 𝑎𝑎?. In the next section, the approach will be analytical, that is, we will use algebraic
methods to compute the value of a limit of a function.

5.1.1.1 Limit of a Function – Informal Approach

Suppose you are asked to sketch the graph of the function 𝑓𝑓 given by

𝑥𝑥 3 − 1
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 − 1

For all values other than 𝑥𝑥 = 1, you can use standard curve-sketching techniques. However,
at 𝑥𝑥 = 1, it is not clear what to expect. To get an idea of the behaviour of the graph of 𝑓𝑓 near
𝑥𝑥 = 1, you can use two sets of 𝑥𝑥-values – one set that approaches 1 from the left and one set
that approaches 1 from the right, as shown in the table.

𝑥𝑥 approaches 1 from the left. 𝑥𝑥 approaches 1 from the right.

𝑥𝑥 0.75 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.25

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 2.313 2.710 2.970 2.997 ? 3.003 3.030 3.310 3.813

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) approaches 3. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) approaches 3.

To interpret the numerical information in (1) graphically, observe that for every number 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1,
the function 𝑓𝑓 can be simplified by cancellation:

𝑥𝑥 3 − 1 (𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 1)
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = = = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 1
𝑥𝑥 − 1 (𝑥𝑥 − 1)

The graph of 𝑓𝑓 is essentially a parabola (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 1) that has a hole at the point (1, 3), as
shown in Figure 5-1.

3
 Figure 5-1: When 𝑥𝑥 is near 1, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) approaches 3.

Although 𝑥𝑥 cannot equal 1, you can move arbitrarily close to 1, and as a result 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) moves
arbitrarily close to 3. In fact, it appears that we can make the values of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as close as we
like to 3 by taking 𝑥𝑥 sufficiently close to 1. We say 3 is the limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 approach 1. In
general, we use the following notation.

5.1.1.2 Definition of the Limit of a Function

We write
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

and say
“the limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎, equals 𝐿𝐿”
if we can make the values of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) arbitrarily close to 𝐿𝐿 (as close to 𝐿𝐿 as we like) by taking 𝑥𝑥 to
be sufficiently close to 𝑎𝑎, but not equal to 𝑎𝑎.

Therefore, in finding the limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎, we never consider 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎. In fact, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
need not even be defined when 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎. The only thing that matters is how 𝑓𝑓 is defined near 𝑎𝑎.
The figure below shows the graphs of three functions. Note that in part (c), 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) is not defined,
and in part (b), 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) ≠ 𝐿𝐿. But in each case, regardless of what happens at 𝑎𝑎, lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿.
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

4
Our limit definition here is “informal” because phrases like arbitrarily close and sufficiently
close are imprecise; their meaning depends on the context. For instance, close may mean
within a few thousandths of an inch to a machinist manufacturing a piston while close may
mean within a few thousand light-years to an astronomer studying distant galaxies.

5.1.1.3 Limits That Fail to Exist

Functions do not necessarily approach a finite value at every point. In other words, it’s possible
for a limit not to exist. The three ways in which a limit may not exist include functions that
oscillate, functions with vertical asymptotes, or functions with a jump. For example, the
Heaviside function 𝐻𝐻 (named after the electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside) is defined by
0 if 𝑡𝑡 < 0
𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) = �
1 if 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0
can be used to describe an electric current that is switched on at time 𝑡𝑡 = 0. Its graph is shown
in the figure below. Notice the “jump” in the graph at 𝑥𝑥 = 0.

As 𝑡𝑡 approaches 0 from the left, 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) approaches 0. As 𝑡𝑡 approaches 0 from the right, 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡)
approaches 1. There is no single number that 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) approaches as 𝑡𝑡 approaches 0. Therefore,
lim 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) does not exist.
𝑡𝑡→0

5.1.1.4 One-Sided Limits

We noticed in the example above that 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) approaches 0 as 𝑡𝑡 approaches 0 from the left and
𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) approaches 1 as 𝑡𝑡 approaches 0 from the right. We indicate this situation symbolically
by writing:
lim 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) = 0 and lim 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) = 1
𝑡𝑡→0− 𝑡𝑡→0+

The symbol “𝑡𝑡 → 0− ” indicates that we consider only values of 𝑡𝑡 that are less than 0. Likewise,
“𝑡𝑡 → 0+ ” indicates that we consider only values of 𝑡𝑡 that are greater than 0. In general, if a
function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) can be made arbitrarily close to a number 𝐿𝐿1 by taking 𝑥𝑥 sufficiently close to, but
not equal to, a number 𝑎𝑎 from the left, then we write:

f ( x) → L1 as x → a − or lim f ( x) = L1 . (2)
x→a −

5
The number 𝐿𝐿1 is called the left-hand limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎. Also, if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) can be
made arbitrarily close to a number 𝐿𝐿2 by taking 𝑥𝑥 sufficiently close to, but not equal to a number
𝑎𝑎 from the right, then 𝐿𝐿2 is the right-hand limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 approaches a and we write:

f ( x) → L2 as x → a + or lim f ( x) = L2 . (3)
x→a +

The quantities (2) and (3) are also referred to as one-sided limits.

5.1.1.5 Two-Sided Limits

If both the left-hand limit lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and the right-hand limit lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) exist and have a common
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

value 𝐿𝐿,
lim f ( x) = L and lim f ( x) = L ,
x→a − x→a +

then we say that 𝐿𝐿 is the limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎 and write

lim f ( x) = L (4)
x→a

This limit is said to be a two-sided limit. Since the numerical table above suggests that

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → 3 as 𝑥𝑥 → 1− and 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → 3 as 𝑥𝑥 → 1+ (5)

we can replace the two symbolic statements in (5) by the statement

𝑥𝑥 3 −1
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → 3 as 𝑥𝑥 → 1 or equivalently lim =3 (6)
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥−1

Comparing the definitions of two-sided and one-sided limits, we see that the following is true:

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 if and only if lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 and lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Thus, if the left-hand and right-hand limits are different, the (two-sided) limit does not exist.
We will use this fact in the next example.

6
Example 5.1 Limits from a Graph

The graph of a function 𝑔𝑔 is shown in the figure below.

Use it to state the values (if they exist) of the following:

1. lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→2− 𝑥𝑥→2+ 𝑥𝑥→2

Solution:

From the graph, we see that the values of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) approach 3 as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 2 from the
left, but they approach 1 as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 2 from the right. Therefore,
lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 3 and lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 1
𝑥𝑥→2− 𝑥𝑥→2+

Since the left- and right-hand limits are different, we conclude that lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥𝑥→2

2. lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→5− 𝑥𝑥→5+ 𝑥𝑥→5

Solution:

The graph also shows that:

lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 2 and lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 2
𝑥𝑥→5− 𝑥𝑥→5+

This time the left- and right-hand limits are the same, so we have:
lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 2
𝑥𝑥→5

Despite this fact, notice that 𝑔𝑔(5) ≠ 2.

5.1.2 Finding Limits Algebraically

The intention of the informal discussion in Section 5.1.1 was to give an intuitive grasp of when
a limit does or does not exist. However, it is neither desirable nor practical, in every instance,
to reach a conclusion about the existence of a limit based on a graph or on a table of numerical
values. We must be able to evaluate a limit, or discern its non-existence, in somewhat
mechanical fashion. The limit laws that we shall consider in this section establish such means.

7
5.1.2.1 The Limit Laws

To calculate limits of functions that are arithmetic combinations of functions having known
limits, we use the following properties of limits, called the Limit Laws.

Suppose that 𝑐𝑐 is a constant and that the following limits exist:

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
Then:
1. lim [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)] = lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) Limit of a Sum
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

2. lim [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)] = lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) Limit of a Difference

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

3. lim [𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥)] = 𝑐𝑐 lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) Limit of a Constant Multiple

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

4. lim [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) × 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)] = lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) × lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) Limit of a Product

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

5. lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 if lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0 Limit of a Quotient
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Intuitively, if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is close to 𝐿𝐿 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is close to 𝑀𝑀, it is reasonable to conclude that
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is close to 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑀𝑀. This gives us an intuitive basis for believing that Law 1 is true.
If we use Law 4 (Limit of a Product) repeatedly with 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), we obtain the following Law
6 for the limit of a power. A similar law holds for roots.

𝑛𝑛
6. lim [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)]𝑛𝑛 = �lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� where 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer Limit of a Power
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

𝑛𝑛
7. lim �[𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)] = 𝑛𝑛� lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) where 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer Limit of a Root
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

[If 𝑛𝑛 is even, we assume that lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0]

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

5.1.2.2 Applying the Limit Laws

In applying the Limit Laws, we need to use four special limits.

1. lim 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

2. lim 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

3. lim 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
4. lim √𝑥𝑥 = √𝑎𝑎 where 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer and 𝑎𝑎 > 0
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

8
Special limits 1 and 2 are intuitively obvious. For instance, looking at the graphs of the constant
function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐 and the identity function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 below will convince you of their validity.

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥

𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐
𝑎𝑎

𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐 lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Limits 3 and 4 are special cases of Limit Laws 6 and 7 (Limits of a Power and of a Root).

Example 5.2 Using the Limit Laws

Evaluate the following limits:

1. (
lim 2 x 2 − 3 x + 4
x →5
)
Solution:

(
lim 2 x 2 − 3 x=
x →5
) x →5
( )
+ 4 lim 2 x 2 − lim ( 3 x ) + lim 4
x →5 x →5

= 2 lim x − 3lim x + lim 4

2
x →5 x →5 x →5

= 2 ( 5) − 3 ( 5) + 4
2

= 39

x3 + 2 x 2 − 1
2. lim
x →− 2 5 − 3x
Solution:

x3 + 2 x 2 − 1 xlim
→− 2
(
x3 + 2 x 2 − 1 )
lim =
x →− 2 5 − 3x lim ( 5 − 3 x )
x →− 2

lim x3 + 2 lim x 2 − lim 1

x →− 2 x →− 2 x →− 2
=
lim 5 − 3 lim x
x →− 2 x →− 2

( −2 ) + 2 ( −2 ) − 1
3 2

=
5 − 3 ( −2 )
1
= −
11

9
If we let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 4, then 𝑓𝑓(5) = 39. In other words, we would have gotten the correct
answer in Example 5.2(1) by substituting 5 for 𝑥𝑥. Similarly, direct substitution provides the
correct answer in number (2). The functions in Example 5.2 are a polynomial and a rational
function, respectively, and similar use of the Limit Laws proves that direct substitution always
works for such functions. We state this fact as follows.

5.1.2.3 Limits by Direct Substitution

To evaluate a limit of a polynomial function 𝑓𝑓 as 𝑥𝑥 approaches a real number 𝑎𝑎, we need to

only evaluate the function at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎:
lim f ( x) = f (a )
x→a

Functions with this direct substitution property are called continuous at 𝑎𝑎.

5.1.2.4 Limits Containing Rational Functions

Because a rational function 𝑓𝑓 is a quotient of two polynomials 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥), it follows that a
limit of a rational function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥)/𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) can also be found by evaluating 𝑓𝑓 at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎:

p ( x) p (a )
lim f ( x) = lim =
x→a x→a q ( x) q (a )

Limits containing rational functions can be subdivided into three basic groups:

f ( x)
GROUP 1 lim → L where f ( x) ≠ 0 and g ( x) ≠ 0
x→a g ( x)

Example 5.3 The Limit of a Rational Function – Group 1

x 2 − 3x + 2
Find: lim
x → −1 x −1

Solution:

x 2 − 3 x + 2 (−1) 2 − 3(−1) + 2
lim =
x → −1 x −1 (−1) − 1
6
=
−2
= −3

10
 f ( x)
GROUP 2 lim → L where f ( x) = 0 and g ( x) ≠ 0
x→a g ( x)

Example 5.4 The Limit of a Rational Function – Group 2

x 2 − 3x + 2
Find: lim
x →1 x +1

Solution:

x 2 − 3 x + 2 (1) 2 − 3(1) + 2 0
lim = = =0
x →1 x +1 (1) + 1 2

f ( x)
GROUP 3 lim → L where f ( x) ≠ 0 and g ( x) = 0
x→a g ( x)

Example 5.5 The Limit of a Rational Function – Group 3

x 2 + 3x + 2
Find: lim
x →1 x −1
Solution:

x 2 + 3 x + 2 (1) 2 + 3(1) + 2
lim =
x →1 x −1 (1) − 1
6
=
0
= Limit does not exist

𝟎𝟎
5.1.2.5 An Indeterminate Form of Type
𝟎𝟎

When the limit of a rational function is being calculated as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎, direct substitution
will sometimes produce a meaningless fractional form 0⁄0. This expression is called an
indeterminate form because you cannot (from the form alone) determine the limit. When you
try to evaluate a limit and encounter this form, that means the numerator and the denominator
have a common factor (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) and therefore the rational function can be simplified.

Examples 5.6 – 5.9 discuss four different techniques used to evaluate functions in this form.
There will however be instances where none of these techniques work and when that
happens, we will then use another technique known as L’Hôpital’s’ rule (Section 5.6.6).

11
Example 5.6 Dividing Out Technique

The dividing out technique involves finding a limit by cancelling a common factor.

x −1
1. Evaluate: lim
x →1 x + x−2
2

Solution:
x −1 1−1 0
lim = = Indeterminate form, therefore factorise.
x →1 x + x − 2 1+1− 2 0
2

x −1 x −1
lim = lim
x →1 x + x−2
2 x →1 ( x − 1) ( x + 2)
1
= lim
x →1 x + 2

1
=
3

x 3 − 125
2. Find: lim
x →5 x−5
Solution:

x 3 − 125 (5) 3 − 125 0

lim = = Indeterminate form, therefore factorise.
x →5 x−5 5−5 0

x 3 − 125 ( x − 5) ( x 2 + 5 x + 25)
lim = lim
x →5 x−5 x →5 x−5
= lim ( x 2 + 5 x + 25)
x →5

= 5 2 + 5 (5) + 25
= 75

Example 5.7 Using the Binomial Expansion to Simplify the Fraction

3
x+h − 3
x
Evaluate the following limit: lim
h →0 h

Solution:

3
x+h − 3
x 3
x −3 x 0
lim = = Indeterminate form, simplify first.
h →0 h h 0

Note: Factorisation is not an option to simplify this fraction.

12
 1 1
3
x+h − x3
( x + h) − ( x ) 3 3
lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

 13 1 − 23 −
5
 1
 x + x h − 1 x 3 h 2 + ...... − x 3
 3 9 
= lim   Using binomial theorem.
h →0 h
2 5
1 −3 1 −
x h − x 3 h2
= lim 3 9
h →0 h

 1 − 23 1 − 53 
= lim  x − x h 
h →0 3
 9 

1 − 23 1 − 53
= x − x (0)
3 9
2
1 −3 1
= = x
3 3 x2
3

Example 5.8 Rationalizing Technique

When a limit of an algebraic function involving square roots has the indeterminate form 0 0 ,
rationalization of the numerator or the denominator may be used to simplify the fraction.

x+2 −2
Evaluate: lim
x→2 x−2
Solution:

x+2 −2 2+2 −2 0
lim = = Indeterminate form, therefore simplify
x→2 x−2 2−2 0

Factorisation and binomial expansion are not the options to simplify this fraction. Hence
another method (rationalization) must be used.

x+2 −2
= lim
x+2 −2
×
( x+2+2 )
lim
x→2 x−2 x → 2 x−2 ( x + 2 + 2)
Multiply the fraction by 1

( x + 2) − 4
=
( x − 2) ( x+2+2 )

13
 ( x − 2)
=
( x − 2) ( x+2+2 )
1 1 1
= = =
x+2+2 2+2 +2 4

Example 5.9 Substitution of Variable Technique

The idea is to change the variable – to introduce a new variable that is related to the original
variable in such a way as to make the problem simpler. Later, in Section 6.2.1, we will make
more extensive use of this general idea.

3
x−2
Evaluate the following limit: lim
x →8 x −8

Solution:

3
x−2 3
x −2 0
lim = = Indeterminate form, simplify first.
x →8 x − 8 8−8 0
Rationalization will not help us simplify this fraction. Therefore, we introduce a new variable u
by the equation
3
x =u

We also need to express x in terms of u , so we solve this equation:

x = u3
Notice that x → 8 is equivalent to u → 2 . This allows us to convert the given limit into one
involving the variable u :
3
x−2 u− 2 u− 2
lim = lim 3 = lim 3
x →8 x −8 u →2 u − 8 u →2 u − 2 3

Factoring the denominator as a difference of cubes, we get:

u− 2 u− 2
= lim
lim
u →2 u − 2
3 3 u → 2 (u − 2 ) u 2 + 2u + 4 ( )
1
= lim
u →2 (
u + 2u + 4
2
)
1 1
= 4+4+4 = 12

14
5.1.3 Limits That Involve Infinity

Recall that the infinity symbols, −∞ (negative infinity) and ∞ (infinity), are notational devices
used to indicate that a quantity is unbounded. Throughout this discussion, bear in mind that
−∞ and ∞ do not represent real numbers and should never be manipulated arithmetically like
a number.

5.1.3.1 Infinite Limits

In order for the limit to exist, both the one-sided limits have to equal the same real number.
The next example will show why we must make sure that it is a real number.

Example 5.10 Infinite Limits

1
Let f ( x) = . Evaluate the limit, if it exists.
x2

a) lim f ( x) b) lim f ( x) c) lim f ( x)

x →0 − x →0 + x→0

Solution:
1
If f ( x) = , then:
x2

𝑥𝑥 ±1 ± 0.5 ± 0.1 ± 0.01 ± 0.001 ± 0.0001

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 1 4 100 10 000 1 000 000 100 000 000

a) As x approach 0 from the left, f (x) increases without bound and does not approach a

unique number. Therefore, lim− f ( x) does not exist.

x →0

b) As x approach 0 from the right, f (x) increases without bound and does not approach

a unique number. Therefore, lim+ f ( x) does not exist.

x →0

1
c) From the results of parts (a) and (b), we can conclude that lim does not exist.
x→0 x2
Because f ( x) is not approaching a number L as x approaches 0 , you can conclude that
the limit does not exist. We indicate this kind of behaviour as:
1
lim =∞
x →0 x2

15
Note: Though we have used an equal sign, this does not mean that we are regarding ∞ as
a number nor does it mean that the limit exists. It simply indicates that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) increases
without bound as x approaches 0. In general, we write symbolically
lim f ( x) = ∞
x→a

to indicate that the values of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) tend to become larger and larger (or “increase without
bound”) as 𝑥𝑥 becomes closer and closer to 𝑎𝑎.

A similar sort of limit, for functions that become large negative as 𝑥𝑥 gets close to 𝑎𝑎, is
lim f ( x) = − ∞
x→a

which simply means that the values of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) can be made arbitrarily large by taking 𝑥𝑥 sufficiently
close to 𝑎𝑎, but not equal to 𝑎𝑎.

5.1.3.2 Limits at Infinity

The words at infinity mean that we are trying to determine whether a function f possesses a
limit when the variable x is allowed to become unbounded: x → − ∞ or x → ∞ . Such limits

1
may or may not exist. For instance, what happens to h( x) = as x gets increasingly large?
x
The following table gives some indication.

𝑥𝑥 100 1 000 10 000 100 000 1 000 000

ℎ(𝑥𝑥) 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001

1 1
The table indicates that lim = 0 . That is, as 𝑥𝑥 gets larger without bound, the value of
x →∞ x x
approaches 0. The following properties are very useful in problems where the limit approaches
∞ or −∞.

 lim x = ∞ lim x = − ∞
x →∞ x→− ∞

 lim x 2 = ∞ lim x 2 = ∞
x →∞ x→− ∞

1 1
 lim = 0; lim =0
x →∞ x x → −∞ x

n
k k 1  1
 lim = = 0 lim n = lim  = 0
x →∞ x ∞ x →∞ x
 x →∞ x 

16
 ∞
5.1.3.3 An Indeterminate Form of Type
∞

The above rules are very useful in problems where the limit is approaching +∞ or −∞. In
general, if we have a limit of the form
f ( x)
lim
x→ a g ( x)
where both f (x) → ∞ (or −∞) and g (x) → ∞ (or −∞), then the limit may or may not exist
and is called an indeterminate form.

Note: To evaluate the limit at infinity of any rational function, we first divide both the
numerator and denominator by the highest power of 𝑥𝑥 that occurs in the denominator.

Example 5.11 Evaluating Limits at Infinity

Find the following limits:

3x 2 − x + 2
1. lim
x →∞ 2 x 2 + 4 x + 1

Solution:

3x 2 − x + 2 ∞
lim = An indeterminate form, divide by x 2
x →∞ 2 x 2 + 4 x + 1 ∞

3x 2 − x + 2 1 2
3− +
3x 2 − x + 2 2
x x2
lim 2 = lim 2 x = lim
x →∞ 2 x + 4 x + 1 x →∞ 2 x + 4 x + 1 x →∞ 4 1
2+ +
x2 x x2

 1 2 
lim  3 − + 
=
x →∞
 x x2 
 4 1 
lim  2 + + 
x →∞
 x x2 

3−0+0 3
= =
2+0+0 2

A similar calculation shows that the limit as x → − ∞ is also 3 2 .

17
 2x 2 + 1
2. lim
x →∞ 3x − 5

Solution:

2x 2 + 1 ∞
lim = An indeterminate form, divide by x
x →∞ 3 x − 5 ∞

 x , if x ≥ 0
Note: x=
2
x= 
− x , if x < 0

 1  1
x2 2 + 2  2+ 2
 x 
Since (a b ) = a m b m
x
lim = lim m
x →∞  5 x → ∞
3−
5
x 3 − 
 x x

2+0 2
= =
3−0 3

3. (
lim x5 − 7 x 4 − 2 x + 5
x →−∞
)
Solution:

 7 2 5
x →−∞
(
lim x5 − 7 x 4 − 2=
x+5 )
lim x5 1 − − 4 + 5 
x →−∞
 x x x 

 7 2 5
lim 1 − − 4 + 5  = (1 − 0 − 0 + 0 )
 x x
x →−∞ x 
=1

Therefore:

lim x5 = − ∞
x →−∞

18
 ACTIVITY 1

Evaluate the following limits:

1. lim 25 − x 2
x →−4
[3]
(3 x − 1) 2 1
2. lim  2 
x →1 ( x + 1) 3


3 x − 3− x
3. lim
x →0 3 x + 3 − x
[0]
x −1 1 
4. lim  3 
x→2 x2 −1 

5. lim
3x 4
x → −∞ x 2 − 8
[ 3]
x −1
6. lim
x →1
[2]
x2 + 3 − 2
1 1
−
 1
7. lim x + 2 2 − 4 
x →0 x 

8. lim
h →0
( x + h) 3 − x 3
h
[3x ] 2

x+h − x  1 
9. lim  
h →0 h 2 x 
x 2 + 2x − 3
10. lim
x → −3 x 2 + 4 x + 3
[2]
x3 −1
11. lim [3]
x →1 x −1

4x 4 − x
12. lim [1]
x →∞ 2x 2 + 3
4 − x2
13. lim [ 6]
x→2
3 − x2 + 5
1 1
− 2
( x + h) 2
x  2
14. lim
h →0 h − x 3 

19
 2 x + 14
15. lim 3 [2]
x →1 x2 +1
4 x 2 − 3x + 1
16. lim [4]
x →3 2x − 4
2 x3
17. lim
x →− ∞ x 2 + 1
[− ∞]
4− x  1 
18. lim
128 
x →16 16 x − x 2 

3
x −2 1
19. lim 12 
x →8 x −8 
− 6x 4 + x 2 + 1
20. lim [− 3]
x →∞ 2x 4 − x
1+ x −1 1
21. lim  2 
x →0 x

2x 2 − x + 1 2
22. lim 3
x →∞ 3 x 2 + 2 x − 1
 
 1 1  1
23. lim  −  − 2 
t →0  
 t t +1 t  

1+ x − 1− x
24. lim
x →0
[1]
x

2 + x − x2  6
25. lim  
x → −1 x 2 + 4x + 3  2 
3
x+8 −2 1
26. lim
x →0 x 12 

1 + 2x − 3 2 2 
27. lim  
x→4
x−2 − 2  3 
3
1 + cx − 1 c 
28. lim , where c is a nonzero constant. 3
x →0 x  
x2 + x − 2
29. lim [∞]
( x − 1)
x →1 2

x −1 3
30. lim 4
x →1 3
x2 − 1  

20
5.2 DERIVATIVES AND RATES OF CHANGE

Why it is important to understand: Derivatives and Rates of Change

You have seen how the derivative is used to determine slope. The derivative can also be used
to determine the rate of change of one variable with respect to another. Applications involving
rates of change occur in a wide variety of fields. A few examples are population growth rates,
production rates, water flow rates, velocity, and acceleration. In this section, we will see how
limits arise when we attempt to find the tangent to a curve.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

 Find the rate of change of a function and the gradient of secant and tangent lines.
 Determine the instantaneous rate of change.
 Determine derivative and use the definition to find the derivative.
 Find the derivative of polynomials and algebraic functions using the definition.

21
5.2.1 Rates of Change and Limiting Rate of Change

On a straight-line graph, the gradient/slope of the graph gives the rate of change of one
variable with respect to another. Applications involving rates of change occur in a wide variety
of fields. A few examples are; population growth rates, production rates, water flow rates,
velocity, and acceleration. To investigate the rate of change in general, a simple parabolic
curve will be considered.

If a secant (cutting line) is drawn between two points P and Q on a curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and Q is
allowed to move along the curve towards P, then the secant line rotates to a limiting position
that can be regarded as the tangent to the curve at the point P. Consider the curve below:

 The gradient between the two points ( x1 ; y1 ) and ( x 2 ; y 2 ) is given by:

∆y y 2 − y1
=
∆x x2 − x1
 If we write this in functional notation form where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦, we have:
∆y f ( x 2 ) − f ( x1 )
=
∆x x 2 − x1

 If we let the distance between 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 be ℎ i.e., 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 = ℎ, we get
∆y f (x1 + h ) − f (x1 ) f (x1 + h ) − f (x1 ) f (x + h ) − f (x )
= = = after generalizing 𝑥𝑥1 to
∆x x1 + h − x1 h h
be any 𝑥𝑥 value.

22
 f (x + h ) − f (x )
 If we define the gradient between two points on a curve, the value of
h
will not be a constant like in a straight line. Rather, it will change every time the two
points change. Hence, for any curve we will call this value the average gradient of a
curve.

 If we need to find the gradient at a point on a curve (P for instance), we will need to
find the gradient between two points when the two points 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 grow smaller and
smaller i.e., 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 = ℎ → 0. This brings us to the fusion between the concept of
gradient and limit. Therefore:
f (x + h ) − f (x )
m tangent = lim
h →0 h
This is then referred to as the instantaneous rate of change (rate of change at a
particular instant).

Example 5.1 Finding an Equation of a Tangent Line

Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph given by f ( x) = x + 2 at the point
2
1.

x =1 .

Solution:

f (x + h ) − f (x )
m tangent = lim
h →0 h
f (1 + h ) − f (1)
= lim
h →0 h

= lim
((1 + h) 2
) (
+ 2 − (1) 2 + 2 )
h →0 h
1 + 2h + h 2 + 2 − 1 − 2
= lim
h →0 h
2h + h 2
= lim
h →0 h
= lim (2 + h )
h →0

= 2 + (0) = 2

23
The equation of the tangent line is:
y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
y − 3 = 2 ( x − 1)
y = 2x + 1

Find an equation of a line that is tangent to the graph of f ( x) = 2 x and parallel to the
2
2.
line 4 x + y + 3 = 0 .

Solution:

f (x + h ) − f (x )
m tangent = lim
h →0 h
2 (x + h ) − 2 x 2
2
= lim
h →0 h

= lim
( )
2 x + 2 xh + h 2 − 2 x 2
2

h →0 h
2 x + 4 xh + 2h 2 − 2 x 2
2
= lim
h →0 h
4 xh + 2h 2
= lim
h →0 h
= lim 4 x + 2h
h →0

= 4x

Since y = − 4x − 3 ⇒ m = −4

We then have to find a point on the curve f ( x) = 2 x where the slope is − 4 . Remember
2

that two parallel lines have equal gradients, therefore:

4x = − 4 x = −1

y = f (−1) = 2 (− 1) = 2
2

Hence:
y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
y − 2 = − 4 ( x + 1)
y = − 4x − 2

24
5.2.2 The Derivative of a Function

You have now arrived at a crucial point in the study of calculus. The limit used to define the
slope of a tangent line is also used to define one of the two fundamental operations of calculus
called – differentiation. The instantaneous rate of change occurs so frequently that it has a
special notation:
f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) dy
lim =
h →0 h dx
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The function is called the derivative of 𝑦𝑦 with respect to 𝑥𝑥 and the process of finding the
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

derivative of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is called differentiation of 𝒇𝒇 with respect to 𝒙𝒙.

Note: The following notations may also be used to denote the derivative of a function.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦′ ; 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) ; ; 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The derivative of a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) can be interpreted as:

 The function representing the gradient of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), or
 The instantaneous rate of change of 𝑦𝑦 with respect to 𝑥𝑥.

It is important to note that the derivative of a function 𝑓𝑓 is defined only at the points where the
limit exists. If 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 is such a point, then we say that 𝑓𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑎𝑎. At points where
𝑓𝑓 is not differentiable, we say that the derivative of 𝑓𝑓 does not exist. We shall however,
consider only differentiable functions.

Calculating the Derivative from First Principle – Four-Step Method

We can calculate the derivative of a function by using the following four steps:
Step 1: Find 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ).

Step 2: Subtract 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) from 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ).

Step 3: Divide the result in Step 2 by ℎ to get the difference quotient.

Step 4: Find the limit of the difference quotient in Step 3 as ℎ approaches 0.

25
Example 5.2 Differentiation from First Principle

Use the definition of the derivative to find f ' ( x) if:

1. f ( x) = x 3 at x = 3

Solution:
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
Since f ' ( x) = lim
h →0 h

Step 1: f (3 + h) = (3 + h) 3
= 27 + 27 h + 9h 2 + h 3
Since f (3) = 3 = 27 ,
3
Step 2:

[
f (3 + h) − f (3) = 27 + 27 h + 9h 2 + h 3 − 27 ]
= 27 h + 9h 2 + h 3
f (3 + h) − f (3) 27 h + 9h 2 + h 3
Step 3: =
h h
= 27 + 9h + h 2
Step 4: (
lim 27 + 9h + h 2 = 27
h →0
)

2. f ( x) = 3x 2 + x

Solution: Combining the four steps

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f '( x) = lim
h →0 h
(
3 ( x + h ) 2 + ( x + h )  − 3 x 2 + x )
= lim  
h →0 h
3 x 2 + 6 xh + 3h 2 + x + h − 3 x 2 − x
= lim
h →0 h
6 xh + 3h + h
2
= lim
h →0 h
= lim 6 x + 3h + 1
h →0

= 6x + 1

26
 3. f ( x) = 1 − x
Solution: Combining the four steps
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f '( x) = lim
h →0 h
1 − ( x + h) − 1 − x
= lim
h →0 h
1− x − h − 1− x  1− x − h + 1− x 
= lim × 
 1− x − h + 1− x 
h →0 h
(1 − x − h ) − (1 − x )
= lim
h →0
h ( 1− x − h + 1− x )
−h −1
= lim
lim
h →0
(
h 1− x − h + 1− x h →0
)
1− x − h + 1− x
−1 −1
= =
1− x − 0 + 1− x 2 1− x

1
4. f ( x) =
x+2
Solution:
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ' ( x) = lim
h →0 h
1 1 1 
= lim  − 
h →0 h x + h + 2 x + 2

1  ( x + 2) − ( x + h + 2) 
= lim  
h →0 h
 ( x + h + 2) ( x + 2) 

1  ( x + 2) − ( x + h + 2) 
= lim  
h →0 h
 ( x + h + 2) ( x + 2) 

1 −h 
= lim  
h → 0 h ( x + h + 2) ( x + 2) 
 
−1
= lim
h →0 ( x + h + 2) ( x + 2)
−1
=
( x + 0 + 2) ( x + 2)
1
=−
( x + 2) 2

27
 ACTIVITY 2

1. Use the definition of the derivative to find f ' ( x) if:

1.1 f ( x) = −10 x [− 10]

1.2 f ( x) = 2 x − 4 [2]
1.3 f ( x) = ( x − 3)
2
[2 x − 6]
1.4 f ( x) = x 3 + π x [3x 2
+π ]
1  1
1.5 f ( x) = 8 − x − 5 
5

1.6 f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c [2ax + b]
 1 
1.7 f ( x) = x  
2 x 
5  5 
1.8 f ( x) = − 2 x 3 
2x 2

1.9
4
f ( x) = π x 3
3
[4π x ] 2

2  2
1.10 f ( x) = − x 2 
x 
 5 
1.11 f ( x) = 5 x + 1  
 2 5x + 1 
1  1 
1.12 f ( x) =  2 
4− x  (4 − x) 
1
1.13 f ( x) = x − 3 at x = 4 2
 
1− x  3 
1.14 f ( x) = − 2 
2+ x  (2 + x) 

1  1 
1.15 f ( x) = − 
x −1  2 (x − 1)3 

28
5.3 RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Why it is important to understand: Rules of Differentiation

We have seen how to interpret derivatives as slopes and rates of change. We have used the
definition of a derivative to calculate the derivatives of functions defined by formulas. But it
would be tedious if we always had to use the definition, so in this section we develop rules for
finding derivatives without having to use the definition directly. These differentiation rules
enable us to calculate with relative ease the derivatives of polynomials, rational functions,
algebraic functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, and trigonometric and inverse
trigonometric functions.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the rules and techniques to find the derivative of algebraic functions.
 Find the derivative of basic algebraic functions.
 Apply the product and quotient rule for algebraic functions.
 Apply the power rule for algebraic functions.
 Explain and use the differentiation rules in composite algebraic functions.

29
Introduction

Up to now, we have computed the derivative of a function using its definition. However, as you
have seen, this process is tedious and time consuming. In this section, we will develop some
rules of differentiation that will simplify the process of finding the derivative of a function.

5.3.1 The Basic Power Rule

Look at the answers that we found in the example in the table below:

f (x + h ) − f (x )
e.g., Function lim
h →0 h

1 f (x ) = x 1

2 f (x ) = x 2 2x

3 f (x ) = x 3 3x 2

4 f (x ) = x 4 4x 3

Studying the derivatives above carefully, we see a pattern emerging. It seems reasonable to
guess that,

 The derivative of y = f ( x) = x , where n is any real number is:

n

dy
= f ' ( x) = nx n −1
dx

Consider the following proof of this rule. Given f ( x) = x .

n

f (x + h ) − f (x )
f ' ( x) = lim
h →0 h

= lim
[ (x + h) − (x )]
n n

h →0 h

30
  n n −1 n (n − 1) n − 2 2  n
  x + nx h + 2! x h + ....  − x
 
= lim 
h →0 h

n (n − 1) n − 2 2
x n + nx n −1 h + x h + .... − x n
= lim 2!
h →0 h

 n (n − 1) n − 2 
h  nx n −1 + x h + .... 
= lim 
2! 
h →0 h

 n (n − 1) n − 2 
= lim  nx n −1 + x h + .... 
h →0  2! 

= nx n −1

5.3.2 The Constant Rule

The derivative of a constant function is 0. That is, if y = f ( x) = c for all x , then:

dy d
= f ' ( x) = (c ) = 0
dx dx

Proof: Let f ( x) = a . Then, by the limit definition of the derivative,

d
(c ) = f ' ( x)
dx
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
= lim
h →0 h
c−c
= lim
h →0 h
= lim 0 = 0
h →0

5.3.3 The Constant Multiple Rule

If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then:

d
[c f ( x)] = c f ' ( x)
dx

31
 Proof: Let f ( x) = c f ( x) . Then:

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) c f ( x + h) − c f ( x )
d
[c f ( x)] = lim
→
= lim
→
dx h 0 h h 0 h
 f ( x + h) − f ( x ) 
= lim c  
h →0
 h
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
= c lim
h →0 h
= c f ' ( x)

Informally, the Constant Multiple Rule states that constants can be factored out of the
differentiation process, even if the constants appear in the denominator.

Example 5.1 Using the Basic Power Rule and the Constant Multiple Rule

Find the derivatives of the following functions:

1. y=2 x
Solution:
1
y = 2x2 Rewrite in exponential form.

dy 1
 1 − 12  1
= 2x = 2 x  =
2
dx 2  x

7
2. f ( x) =
(3 x) − 2
Solution:
f ' ( x) = 63 (2 x ) = 126 x

1
3. f ( x) =
2 3
x2

Solution:

2
1 −3
f ( x) = x
2

1  2 −3 
5
1
f ' ( x) =  − x =− 3 5
2 3  3 x

32
5.3.4 The Sum and Difference Rules

If f and g are both differentiable, then:

d
[ f ( x) + g ( x)] = dy = f ' ( x) + g ' ( x) Sum Rule
dx dx

d
[ f ( x) − g ( x)] = dy = f ' ( x) − g ' ( x) Difference Rule
dx dx

Proof: Let f ( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) . Then:

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ' ( x) = lim
h →0 h

= lim
[ f ( x + h) + g ( x + h)] − [ f ( x ) + g ( x ) ]
h →0 h

 f ( x + h) − f ( x ) g ( x + h) − g ( x ) 
= lim  + 
h →0
 h h

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) g ( x + h) − g ( x )
= lim + lim
h →0 h h →0 h

= f ' ( x) + g ' ( x)

Note: The difference rule can be proved in a similar way.

The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the Difference Rule can be combined with the
Power Rule to differentiate any polynomial, as the following examples demonstrate.

Note: Whenever you want to differentiate or find a derivative, first rewrite the expression in

the form ax r + bx s + cx t + ... If possible, multiply the factors to produce a sum or

difference of simpler terms to differentiate.

33
Example 5.2 Differentiating Compound Algebraic Polynomials

Find the derivatives of the following functions:

1 1
1. y = 5x 4 + 4 x + 2
+ −3
2x x
Solution:
1
1 −2 −
y = 5x 4 + 4 x + x + x 2 −3
2
dy 1 1
= 20 x 3 + 4 − 3 −
dx x 2 x3

x3 − 2x 2 + x − 4
2. y=
2 x
Solution:
5 3 1 1
x3 2x 2 x 4 1 2 1 −
y= − + − = x − x 2 + x 2 − 2x 2 Divide out
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 2
dy 5 3 3 1 1
= x − x+ +
dx 4 2 4 x x3

3. f ( x) = ( 3
x +1 )(3
x −3 )
Solution:
2 1

f ( x) = x − 2 x − 3
3 3
Multiply out
1 2
2 −3 1 −
f ' ( x) = x − 2  x 3
3  3
2 2
= 3 −
3 x 3 3 x2

x3 − 8
4. y=
x−2
Solution:

y=
x 3 − 8 (x − 2) x 2 + 2 x + 4
=
(
= x 2 + 2x + 4
) Factorise and cancel the C.F.
x−2 ( x − 2)
dy
= 2x + 2
dx

34
5.3.5 The Product and Quotient Rules

The product of two differentiable functions f and g is itself differentiable.

d
[ f ( x) g ( x)] = f ( x) g ' ( x) + g ( x) f ' ( x) Product Rule
dx

d  f ( x)  g ( x) f ' ( x) − f ( x) g ' ( x)
= , g ( x) ≠ 0
dx  g ( x) 
Quotient Rule
[g ( x)]2

Proof:
Some mathematical proofs, such as the proof of the sum rule, are straightforward. Others
(product and quotient rules) involve clever steps that may appear unmotivated. The following
proof (product rule) involves such a step – subtracting and adding the same quantity.

f ( x + h) g ( x + h) − f ( x ) g ( x )
d
[ f ( x) g ( x)] = lim
h →0
dx h
f ( x + h) g ( x + h) − f ( x + h) g ( x ) + f ( x + h) g ( x ) − f ( x ) g ( x )
= lim
h →0 h
 g ( x + h) − g ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x ) 
= lim  f ( x + h) + g ( x) 
h →0
 h h

 g ( x + h) − g ( x )   f ( x + h) − f ( x ) 
= lim  f ( x + h) + lim
 h→0  g ( x ) 
h →0
 h  h
g ( x + h) − g ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
= lim f ( x + h) . lim + lim g ( x) . lim
h →0 h →0 h h →0 h →0 h
= f ( x) g ' ( x) + g ( x) f ' ( x)

Note: The Quotient Rule can be proved in a similar way or by writing a quotient 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)/𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
as a product of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and [𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)]−1 and then apply the Product Rule.

Example 5.3 Using the Product and Quotient Rules

Find the derivatives of the following functions:

1. ( )
f ( x) = 3 x − 2 x 2 (5 + 4 x )
Solution:

35
 ( )
f ' ( x) = 3 x − 2 x 2 (4) + (5 + 4 x ) (3 − 4 x)
= (12 x − 8 x ) + (15 − 8 x − 16 x )
2 2

= −24 x 2 + 4 x + 15

In this Example, you have the option of finding the derivative with or without the Product
Rule. To find the derivative without the Product Rule, you can write:

d
dx
[( )
3 x − 2 x 2 (5 + 4 x ) =
d
dx
]
− 8 x 3 + 2 x 2 + 15 x ( )
= −24 x 2 + 4 x + 15

However, the time will come when we will have to use the Product Rule, so we might as
well get some practice. In addition, the Product Rule makes the task somewhat easier.

x2 −1
2. f ( x) =
x2 +1

Solution:

f ' ( x) =
(x 2
)
+ 1 (2 x) − x 2 − 1 (2 x) ( )
(x 2
+1 )
2

2x3 + 2x − 2x3 + 2x
=
(x 2
+1 )
2

4x
=
(x 2
+1 )2

Note: Do not use the Quotient Rule every time you see a quotient. Sometimes it is easier to
rewrite a quotient first to put it in a form that is simpler for the purpose of differentiation.
For instance, although it is possible to differentiate the function

3x 2 + 2 x
f ( x) =
x
using the Quotient Rule, it is much easier to perform the division first and write the function as
1
−
f ( x) = 3x + 2 x 2

before differentiating.

36
5.3.6 The Chain Rule

In this section, we discuss one of the most powerful differentiation rules – the Chain Rule. This
rule deals with composite functions and adds a surprising versatility to the rules discussed in
the two previous sections. For instance, suppose you are asked to differentiate the function

f=
( x) x2 + 4

The differentiation formulas you learned in the previous sections of this chapter do not enable
you to calculate f '( x) . However, observe that f is a composite function.

5.3.6.1 Derivatives of Compositions

Suppose you are traveling to school in your car, which gets 20 kilometers per liter of gasoline.
The number of kilometers (distance) you can travel without refueling is a function of the
number of liters of gas you have in the gas tank. In symbols, if y is the distance you can travel
and u is the number of liters of gas you have initially, then y is a function of u , or y = f (u ).
As you continue your travels, you note that your local service station is selling gasoline for R4
per liter. The number of liters of gas you have initially is a function of the amount of money
you spend for that gas. If x is the number of Rands you spend on gas, then u = g ( x) . Now
20 km per liter is the rate at which your distance changes with respect to the amount of
gasoline you use, so
dy
f '(=
u) = 20 Kilometers per liter
du

Similarly, since gasoline costs R4 per liter, each Rand you spend will give you 1/4 of a liters
of gas, and
du 1
g '(=
x) = Liters per Rand
dx 4

Notice that the number of kilometers you can travel is also a function of the number of Rands
you spend on gasoline. This fact is expressible as the composition of functions

= (u ) f ( g ( x) )
y f=

You might be interested in how many kilometers you can travel per Rand, which is dy dx .
Intuition suggests that rates of change multiply in this case, so

37
 dy dy du
= . The Chain Rule (1)
dx du dx

20 km 1l 20 km
= =
. = 5 Kilometers per Rand
1l R4 R4

Example 5.4 Using the Chain Rule

dy
Find if=y x2 + 4
dx

Solution:

u x 2 + 4 and express y as y = u . Applying the Chain Rule yields

Let =

dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
dy d   d 2
= u .  x + 4 
dx du   dx 
1
1 −
= u 2 . 2x
2
x
=
u
x
=
x2 + 4

5.3.6.2 An Alternative Version of the Chain Rule

Formula (1) for the Chain Rule can be unwieldy in some problems because it involves so many
variables. As you become more comfortable with the chain rule, you may want to dispense
with writing out the dependent variables by expressing (1) in the form

d
=f ( g ( x) )  (=
f  g ) ( x) f ' ( g ( x) ) g '( x)
'
(2)
dx 

A convenient way to remember this formula is to call f the “outside function” and g the

“inside function” in the composition f ( g ( x) ) and then express (2) in words as; the derivative

38
of f ( g ( x) ) is the derivative of the outside function evaluated at the inside function times the

derivative of the inside function.

Example 5.5 Example 5.4 Revisited

Find h '( x) if h =
( x) x2 + 4

Solution:

We can think of h as a composition f ( g ( x) ) in which g ( x=

) x 2 + 4 is the inside function

and f ( x) = x is the outside function. Thus,

g '( x) = 2 x

1
f '( x) =
2 x

( x) ) f ' ( x 2 + 4 )
f ' ( g=
1
=
2 x2 + 4

Hence Formula (2) yields

h '( x) = f ' ( g ( x) ) . g '( x)

1
= . 2x
2 x2 + 4
x
=
x +4
2

Which agrees with the result obtained in Example 5.4.

39
5.3.7 The Power Rule Combined with the Chain Rule

The function in Example 5.4 above is an example of one of the most common types of

composite functions, y = [ f ( x)] . The rule for differentiating such functions is called the
n

General Power Rule, and is a special case of the Chain Rule. To find a formula for computing

the derivative of the generalized power function, if y = [ f ( x)] , where f (x) is differentiable
n

and n is a rational number, then

d
[ f ( x)]n = n [ f ( x)]n−1 . f ' ( x) (3)
dx

Proof: Let u = f (x) y = un

du dy
= f ' ( x) = n u n −1 , then:
dx du
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
= f '( x) nu n −1
= f '( x) n [ f ( x) ]
n −1

= n [ f ( x)]
n −1
f '( x)

Example 5.6 Example 5.4 Revisited

Find f '( x) if f =
( x) x2 + 4

Solution:
1
f (=
x) ( x2 + 4) 2
1

(
1 2
x + 4) 2 ( 2x )
−
f=
'( x)
2
x
=
x2 + 4

Which, as expected, agrees with the result obtained in Example 5.4.

40
Example 5.7 Using the General Power Rule

Find the derivative given:

1. y = (2 x − 1) 5

Solution:

= 5 (2 x − 1) (2) = 10 (2 x − 1)
dy 4 4

dx

2. f ( x) = 3 x 5 − 4 x

Solution:

( )
1
f ( x) = x 5 − 4 x 3

( )
2
1 5 −
f ' ( x) = x − 4 x 3 (5 x 2 − 4)
3
5x 2 − 4
=
(
3 3 x5 − 4x )
2

8
3. g ( x) =
3
1− x2

Solution:

( )
1
−
g ( x) = 8 1 − x 2 3

 1  16 x
( ) ( )
4 4
− −
g ' ( x) = 8 − 1 − x 2 3 (−2 x) = 1− x2 3
 3  3
16 x
=
3 3 1− x2
4
( )

41
Example 5.8 Combining the General Power Rule and the Product Rule

Find g ' (t ) if g (t ) = t t 2 + 1

Solution:

1 1
 1
t ) t  ( t 2 + 1) 2 (2t )  + ( t 2 + 1) 2
−
g '(=
2 

t2 t2 +1
= +
t2 +1 1

t2 + t2 +1 2t 2 + 1
= =
t2 +1 t2 +1

Example 5.9 Combining the General Power Rule and the Quotient Rule

 x−2 
9

Find f ' ( x) if f ( x) =  
 2x + 1 

Solution:

 x − 2   (2 x + 1) − ( x − 2 ) (2) 
8

f ' ( x) = 9    
 2x + 1   (2 x + 1)2 

=9
( x − 2) 
8
5 
8  2 
(2 x + 1)  (2 x + 1) 

45 ( x − 2 )
8
=
(2 x + 1)10

42
 ACTIVITY 3

1. Find equation(s) of a line that is tangent to the graph of f and parallel to the given line.
Function Line

1.1 f ( x) = 2 x 2 4x + y + 3 = 0 [ y =−4 x − 2]
 y1 = 3 x + 2 
1.2 f ( x) = x 3 3x − y + 1 = 0  
 y 2 = 3 x − 2
 y1 = 3 x 
1.3 f ( x) = x 3 + 2 3x − y − 4 = 0  y = 3 x + 4
 2 
1  x 3
1.4 f ( x) = x + 2y − 6 = 0  y = − 2 + 2 
x
 x 1
x +1  y1 = − 2 − 2 
1.5 f ( x) = 2 y + x − 12 = 0  
x −1 y = − x − 7
 2 2 
2

2. Find the derivative of the following functions:

 5 
2.1 f ( x) = x 2 x  
 2 x 3 

2 15 2 
2.2 y = 5 x3 − 3  x+ 
x  2 3 x4
3


1 2 1  2
2.3 y= x +  1 − x 3 
x x

y=
(x − 1) (x 2 − 2 x )  1 6 6
2.4 − x 2 + x 3 − x 4 
 
4
x
2.5 f (θ ) = (θ − 1)(1 + θ ) 1 + θ 2 ( ) [4θ ]3

 a + 3bt 
2.6 f (t ) = t (a + bt )  
 2 t 
 3x 3 + 5 x 
2.7 (
y = x +1 2
) x +2 2
 2 
 x +2

2.8 y= ( x + 3x x 2 + x )( )  2
9 x +
5
+ 6x +
3 

 2 x3 2 x

43
 x  2− x 
2.9 f ( x) =  
1− x  2 (1 − x )3 

2.10 (
y = (x − 1)(x + 1) x 2 + 1 ) [4x ]3

3  36 x 
2.11 y=  4 
(1 − 2 x ) 2 3
(
 1 − 2 x
2
) 

5x − 2  − 5x 2 + 4 x + 5 
2.12 f ( x) =  
x2 +1  (
x2 +1
2
) 

2.13 (
f ( x) = 3x x 3 − 1 ) 4
[(39x 3
− 3)(x 3
−1 )]
3

 
3x + 3  27 − 12 x 
2.14 y=
4x 2 + 9  (
 4x 2 + 9 3 ) 

 2 x +1 
y= x+ x  
( )
2.15
4 x x + x 
 

x3 −1  6x 2 
2.16 f ( x) =  3 2 
x3 + 1 (
 x + 1  )
x +1  1 
f ( x) = − 
( )
2.17
x −1  x − 1 
2
x

e 2 ln x  8x 
2.18 y=  2 2 
x2 + 4 (
 x + 4 ) 

2.19
 x3 −1 
f ( x) =  3 
4


(
 36 x 2 x 3 − 1 3 

)
 2x + 1  (
 2 x 3 + 1
5
 )
1− x2  1 
2.20 y=  
1− x  (1 − x ) 1 − x 2 

1− x  −1 
2.21 f ( x) =  
1+ x  (1 − x )(1 + x )3 
 

 300000   625   9 
10
  5 4 
y = 6  2  − 7  − 6 −7 
x 9   x 8   
2.22
  x   

44
5.4 DERIVATIVES OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

Why it is important to understand: Derivatives of Transcendental Functions

Many real-world problems are modelled using transcendental functions. The motion of a
pendulum, for example, is periodic (or almost periodic) and can be described by using a
combination of sine and cosine functions. The motion of a shock absorber in a car can also
be described by using a combination of trigonometric functions and exponential functions.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

 Apply the rules of differentiation for exponential functions.

 Apply the rules of differentiation for logarithmic functions.
 Apply the rules of differentiation for trigonometric functions.
 Apply the rules of differentiation for composite functions.

45
5.4.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we will obtain derivative formulas for logarithmic functions, and we will
explain/see why the natural logarithm function is preferred over logarithms with other bases in
calculus.

We will establish that f ( x) = ln x is differentiable for x > 0 by applying the derivative definition

to f ( x) . To evaluate the resulting limit, we will need the fact that ln x is continuous for x > 0
and we will need the limit

lim (1 + v ) =
1v
e (1)
v→ 0

This limit can be obtained by making the substitution v = 1 x and using the fact that v → 0+

as x → + ∞ and v → 0− as x → − ∞ . This produces two equal one-sided limits that imply (1).

d ln ( x + h ) − ln x
[ln x ] = lim
h→ 0
dx h
1  x+h
= lim ln  
h→ 0 h  x 
1  h
= lim ln 1 + 
h→ 0 h  x
1
= lim ln (1 + v ) Let v = h x and note that v → 0 if and only if h → 0
v→ 0 vx
1 1
= lim ln (1 + v )
x v → 0 v
1
= lim ln (1 + v )
1v

x v→ 0
1
= ln e
x
1
=
x
Thus,
d 1
[ln x ] = , x>0 (2)
dx x

46
A derivative formula for the general logarithmic function log a x can be obtained from (2) by

using Formula (2) to write

d d  ln x  1 d
=[log a x ] =   [ln x ]
dx dx  ln a  ln a dx

It follows from this that

d 1 1
[log a x ] = , x>0 Note: = log a e (3)
dx x ln a ln a

If the argument is a differentiable function of x , and if f ( x) > 0 , then applying the chain rule
to (2) and (3) produces the following generalized derivative formulas:

d 1 1 d 1
[log a f ( x)] = . f '( x) . and [ln f ( x)] = . f '( x)
dx f ( x) ln a dx f ( x)

By comparing the two Formulas, we see one of the main reasons that the natural logarithms
(logarithms with base e ) are used in calculus: the differentiation formula is simplest when
a = e because ln e = 1 .

Proof:

If y = log a f ( x) , then

u = f ( x) and y = log a u
du dy 1
= f '( x) =
dx du u ln a

dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
dy 1
= . f '( x)
dx u ln a
1 1
= . f '( x) .
f ( x) ln a

47
Example 5.1 Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions

Find the derivatives of the following logarithmic functions:

1. 𝑦𝑦 = log 5𝑥𝑥

Solution:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1 1
= ×5× =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5𝑥𝑥 ln 10 𝑥𝑥 ln 10

2. (
y = ln 1 − 3 x 2 )
Solution:

dy 1 − 6x
= × (−6 x) =
dx 1 − 3 x 2
1 − 3x 2

3. y = x ln x

Solution: Product Rule

1
y ' = x   + ln x
 x
= 1 + ln x

4. y = ln 3 4 x

Solution:

y = ln 3 4 x = (ln 4 x )
3
General Power Rule

1 
y ' = 3 (ln 4 x ) ×  × 4
2

 4x 
3 ln 2 4 x
=
x

When possible, the properties of logarithms should be used to convert products, quotients,
and exponents into sums, differences, and constant multiples before differentiating a function
involving logarithms.

48
 Example 5.2 Logarithmic Properties as Aids to Differentiation

Find the derivatives of the following logarithmic functions:

 x 
1. y = ln  
 3 − 2x 
Solution:

 x 
y = ln   = ln x − ln (3 − 2 x) Now it is easy to find the derivative!
 3 − 2x 
dy 1 1
= − × (−2)
dx x 3 − 2 x
3
=
x (3 − 2 x)

2. y = ln
(
x x2 +1 ) 2

2x3 − 1
Solution:

y = ln
(
x x2 +1 ) 2

2x3 − 1

( 1
) (
= ln x + 2 ln x 2 + 1 − ln 2 x 3 − 1
2
) Rewrite before differentiating

 2x  1  6x 
2
dy 1
= + 2 2  −  3 
dx x  x + 1  2  2x − 1 

1 4x 3x 2
= + 2 −
x x + 1 2 x3 − 1

5.4.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Let a ≠ 1 , where a is a positive integer, then:

d f ( x)
a = a f ( x ) . f '( x) . ln a
dx

d f ( x)
= e e=
f ( x)
. f '( x) . ln e e f ( x ) . f '( x) Note: ln e = 1
dx

49
Proof: Let y = a f ( x ) . Then,
ln y = f ( x) ln a
Differentiating this equation with respect to x , we get
1 d
( y ) = (ln a ) d [ f ( x)]
y dx dx

= (ln a ). f ' ( x)
1 dy
y dx
dy
= y=. f '( x).ln a a f ( x ) . f '( x) . ln a
dx

Example 5.3 Differentiating Exponential Functions

Find the derivatives of the following exponential functions:

1. y = 43x
Solution:

y ' = 4 3 x . (3) . ln 4 = (3 ln 4) . 4 3 x

1
2. y = e 2 x −1
3

Solution:

dx 3
[
dy 1 2 x −1 2
= e . (2) = e 2 x −1
3
]

1− x
3. y=3

Solution:

d  (1− x )12  (1− x ) 2 1

( )
1 1
−
3 = 3 . 1 − x 2 . ( −1) . ln 3
dx   2

1− x
ln 3 . 3
=−
2 1− x

50
5.4.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Many of the phenomena we want information about are periodic (electromagnetic field, heart
rhythms, tides, weather). A theorem from advanced calculus says that every periodic function
we are likely to use in mathematical modeling can be expressed in terms of sines and cosines.
Thus, the derivatives of sines and cosines play a key role in describing periodic changes. This
section shows how to differentiate the six basic trigonometric functions.

5.4.3.1 Derivatives of Basic Trigonometric Functions

 Derivatives of the Sine and Cosine Functions

d
[sin x] = cos x d
[cos x] = − sin x
dx dx

To find the derivatives of sin x and cos x , we shall need the following limits.
sin x
 lim =1
x →0 x
cos x − 1
 lim =0
x →0 x

These two limits can be used to prove differentiation rules for the sine and cosine functions.
We are going to prove the derivative of sine as follows: if f ( x) = sin x , then

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) sin ( x + h) − sin x
f ' ( x) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h →0 h
 sin x cos h − sin x cos x sin h 
= lim  + 
h →0
 h h 
  cos h − 1   sin h 
= lim sin x   + cos x  
h →0
  h   h 
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x . lim + lim cos x . lim
h →0 h →0 h h → 0 h → 0 h
= (sin x )(0 ) + (cos x )(1)
= cos x

Note: The same method can be used to prove the derivative of cosine.

51
 Derivatives of Other Trigonometric Functions

Knowing the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions, the Quotient Rule can be used to
find the derivatives of the four remaining trigonometric functions.

d
[tan x] = sec 2 x 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[cot 𝑥𝑥] = − csc 2 𝑥𝑥
dx

d
[sec x] = sec x tan x 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[csc 𝑥𝑥] = − csc 𝑥𝑥 cot 𝑥𝑥
dx

sin x
Proof: Considering tan x = and applying the Quotient Rule, you obtain:
cos x

[ tan x ] = 
d d sin x 

dx dx  cos x 

( cos x )( cos x ) − ( sin x )( − sin x )

=
cos 2 x

cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
cos 2 x

1
=
cos 2 x

= sec 2 x

The proofs of the other three rules are left as an exercise.

When you memorize this derivatives, it is helpful to notice that the minus signs go with the
derivatives of the “co-functions,” that is, cosine, cosecant, and cotangent. Note that all these
derivatives are valid only when x is measured in radians.

52
5.4.3.2 Trigonometric Functions and the Chain Rule

In section 5.4.3.1, we learned how to find the derivative of trigonometric functions such as

f ( x) = sin x . How would we differentiate f ( x) = sin x − π ?

2
( )
Observe that this function is a composite function. Therefore,

Let u = x2 − π ⇒ y = sin u
du dy
= 2x = cos u
dx du

dy dy du
=
dx du dx

= (cos u )(2 x )

(
= 2 x cos x 2 − π )

Another approach to differentiating generalized trigonometric functions is to derive the

appropriate formulas using the Chain Rule. For example, we can find the formula for
differentiating the generalised sine function y = sin f ( x) by letting u = f (x) so that y = sin u
and then applying the Chain Rule to obtain
dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
=
d
(sin u ) . du
du dx
= (cos u ) f ' ( x)
= f ' ( x) cos f ( x)

The “Chain Rule versions” of the derivatives of the six trigonometric functions are as follows.
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
[sin 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)] = 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) cos 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) [cos 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)] = −𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) sin 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
[tan 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)] = 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) sec 2 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) [cot 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)] = −𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) csc 2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
[sec 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)] = 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) sec 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) tan 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) [csc 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)] = −𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) csc 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) cot 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

53
Example 5.4 Differentiating Trigonometric Functions

Find the derivatives of the following functions:

1. y = cos 2 x

Solution:

dy
= −2 sin 2 x
dx

2. y = 2 tan 3t

Solution:

dy
dt
[
= 2 3 sec 2 3t ]
= 6 sec 2 3t

3. f ( x) = −3 cot 3 x

Solution:

𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = −3[−3 csc 2 3𝑥𝑥]

= −9 csc 2 3𝑥𝑥

4. y = 2 sec 5t

Solution:

y ' = 2 [5 sec 5t tan 5t ]

= 10 sec 5t tan 5t

5. 𝑦𝑦 = 4 csc 3𝑥𝑥

Solution:

𝑦𝑦 ′ = 4[−3 csc 3𝑥𝑥 cot 3𝑥𝑥]

= −12 csc 3𝑥𝑥 cot 3𝑥𝑥

54
5.4.4 Applying the Rules to Composite Functions

Applying the product, quotient, and function-of-a-function rules to composite (mixed) functions
containing exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions.

Example 5.4 Differentiating Composite Functions

Find the derivatives of the following functions:

1. y = 3 x ln 2 x

Solution:

dy
1
2 
1   1  − 12 
= 3 x   + ln 2 x 3   x 
dx  x  2 
−
1
  1  − 12 
= 3x 2
+ ln 2 x 3   x 
 2 
1
 1
− 
= 3x 1 + ln 2 x 
2

 2 
3  1 
= 1 + ln 2 x 
x 2 

ex
2. y=
1− x

Solution:

(1 − x ) 2 e x − e x  1 (1 − x )− 2 (−1)
1 1

dy
= 2 
dx ( 1− x) 2

(1 − x ) 2 e x + e x  1 (1 − x )− 2 
1 1
 
 ×  (1 − x ) 2 
1

= 2
(1 − x)  (1 − x ) 12 
 
e x (2 − 2 x + 1) 1
= ×
(1 − x ) 2
3
2

e x (3 − 2 x)
=
2 (1 − x )
3

55
3. (
y = ln 2 x sin x )
Solution:

( )
y = ln 2 x sin x = x ln 2 + ln sin x
1
dy 1 1 −
= ln 2 + . x 2 cos x
dx sin x 2
cot x
= ln 2 +
2 x

4. y = sin 3 4 x

Solution:

y = sin 3 4 x = [sin 4 x ]
3

y ' = 3 [sin 4 x ] . 4 cos 4 x

2

= 12 sin 2 4 x cos 4 x

5.=y cos ( 1 − sin x )

Solution:

f ( x=
) 1 − sin x

1
1 cos x
(1 − sin x ) 2 . − cos x =
−
f '( x) = −
2 2 1 − sin x

dy
= − f '( x) sin f ( x)
dx

 cos x 
=−  −
−
 sin ( 1 − sin x )
 2 1 sin x 

=
cos x sin ( 1 − sin x )
2 1 − sin x

56
 ACTIVITY 4

Differentiate the following functions with respect to the appropriate variable.

1. y = sin x tan x [sin x (sec 2

)]
x +1

1
2. y = ln x  2 x 

3. y = e sec 3θ [3e sec 3θ

sec 3θ tan 3θ ]
 x 1 
x  e  ln x − x  
4. y=
e
  2 
ln x  ln x 
 
 
5. y = ln (sec x + tan x ) [sec x]
 1 
6. y = ln x  
 2 x ln x 
7. y = ln(tan 2 x ) [4 cos ec4 x]
sin x + cos x  −2 
8. y=  2 
sin x − cos x  (sin x − cos x ) 
 sin x 
9. y = cos x − 
 2 cos x 
x +1  x−5 
10. y = ln  2 ( x + 1) ( x − 2) 
x−2  
3  6 3
11. y = 2 sin − θ 2 cos θ 
θ  
 1 
12. y = ln (ln 2 x )  x ln 2 x 

13. y = 3 x tan x [3 (ln 3 tan x + sec x )]
x 2

 
y = log10 (2 + sin x )
cos x
14.  (2 + sin x) ln 10 
 
15. y = sin 2 (cos 4 x ) [− 4 sin(2 cos 4 x) sin 4 x]

57
  2 
16. f ( x) = log(2 x + 1)  (2 x + 1) ln 10 
 

17. f (t ) = t ln t  2 ln t + 1
 
 2 ln t 

 2 log 3 e 
18. f ( x) = log 3 (2 x + 1)  2x + 1 
 
 − 3e 3 x 
19. (
y = ln 1 − e 3 x )  3x 
1 − e 
 sec(e x )   x 2x 
20. y = ln  2  e tan e − x 2 + 1
x

 x +1 
 x  x − 2 2   x2 + 4
21. g ( x) = ln e     2 
  x + 2    x − 4

 1 
22. y = ln x  
 4 x ln x 

 x  2  x  2  x 
23. y = tan 3    tan  3  sec  3 
3     

24. (
y = ln x + 1 + x 2 )  1 
 
 1+ x 
2

1 1  1  1 
25. y= ln − x 2 1 + ln x 
x x   

sec x  sec x (tan x − 1) 

26. f ( x) =  
tan x + 1  (tan x + 1) 
2

 cos t . cos ec 2 (sin t ) 

27. f (t ) = cot (sin t ) − 
 2 cot (sin t ) 

28. f (t ) = sin e sin( ) 2

t
[e sin 2 t
( )]
. sin 2t . cos e sin
2
t

 cos x − x sin x 
29. y = x cos x  
 2 x 

30.
e x
y= 2
1


(
 − e 1x 2x 3 + x 2 + 1 

)
x +1  x2 x2 +1
2
( )
31. y = 3 x ln x [3 x ln x
(1 + ln x ) ln 3]

58
 1 1 1 
32. y = ln x − sin 2 x  x − 2 sin 2 x 
2

33. y = cos (tan x ) [− sec 2

x sin (tan x )]
34. 𝑦𝑦 = ln(csc 5𝑥𝑥) [− 5 cot 5 x]
35. y = e mx cos nx [e (m cos nx − n sin nx )]
mx

36. y = 10 tan πθ [10 . π sec πθ . ln10]

tan πθ 2

 cos x 
37. y = sin x  
 4 x sin x 

sin mx  mx cos mx − sin mx 

38. y=  
x x2
 2 (1 + ln t )
39. y = t ln t 4 ( )  
 t ln t 4  ( )
cos 2 4 x  − 8 cos 4 x . sin 4 x − cos 2 4 x 
40. y=  
ex  ex 
3
 cot 3 x   9 
41. y = ln  x  6 tan 2 x − 3 − 2 cos ec 6 x 
 e cos 2 x 

1  (cos x − 1) cos( x − sin x) 

42. y=  
sin (x − sin x )  sin 2 ( x − sin x) 

43. y = cos e ( tan 3 x

)  − 3e

tan 3 x
sec 2 3 x sin e ( tan 3 x
)
 2 tan 3 x 

44. (
h(θ ) = cos sin 2 2θ ) (
 − sin sin 2 2θ sin 2 2θ 
 
) ( )
 2θ 
45. Prove the following differentiation rules:

45.1
d
(cos ecx ) = − cos ecx cot x
dx

45.2
d
(sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx

45.3
d
(cot x ) = − cos ec 2 x
dx

45.4
d
(cos x ) = − sin x , using the definition of derivative
dx

59
5.5 DERIVATIVES OF HIGHER ORDER

Why it is important to understand: Derivatives of Higher Order

So far, in this chapter, we have looked at first-order derivatives. Nevertheless, there is no need
to stop differentiating after doing it once! Given a function f (x) , if it can be differentiated k
(k )
times, then we write the kth derivative as f ( x) . In Leibniz notation, the kth derivative of

dky
y with respect to x is denoted by . Higher derivatives are useful for finding polynomial
dx k
approximations to functions, as we see in the next section.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

 Define the higher derivatives of any function and identify all different notations of higher
derivatives.
 Apply all the rules of differentiation to find the second and third derivatives of:
 Algebraic functions.
 Exponential functions.
 Logarithmic functions.
 Trigonometric functions.

60
5.5.1 Defining Higher-Order Derivatives

The derivative of a function is itself a function, so we can find the derivative of a derivative.
For example, the derivative of a position function is the rate of change of position, or velocity.
The derivative of velocity is the rate of change of velocity, which is acceleration. The new
function obtained by differentiating the derivative is called the second derivative. Furthermore,
we can continue to take derivatives to obtain the third derivative, fourth derivative, and so on.
Collectively, these are referred to as higher-order derivatives. The notation for the higher-
order derivatives of y = f ( x) can be expressed in any of the following forms:

dy
First derivative: y' , f ' ( x) ,
dx
d  dy  d 2 y
Second derivative: y' ' , f ' ' ( x) , =
dx  dx  dx 2

d d 2 y  d 3 y
Third derivative: y' ' ' , f ' ' ' ( x) ,  =
dx  dx 2  dx 3
( 4)
The prime notation is not used beyond the third order. For the fourth derivative, we write f
(n )
and more generally, for the nth derivative, f . In this course, all derivatives will be limited
to the first, second and third derivatives.

5.5.2 Applying Differentiation Rules in Higher Derivatives

We can apply all the rules of differentiation to find the second and third derivatives of algebraic,
exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, and composites functions as follows.

Example 5.1 Higher Derivatives of Algebraic Functions

1.1 If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 5 − 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 5, find 𝑓𝑓′′(𝑥𝑥)

Solution:

𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = 10𝑥𝑥 4 − 12𝑥𝑥 2 + 3

𝑓𝑓′′(𝑥𝑥) = 40𝑥𝑥 3 − 24𝑥𝑥 = 8𝑥𝑥(5𝑥𝑥 2 − 3)

61
1.2 If f ( x) = 7 − x , find f ' ' (3)

Solution:
1
(7 − x )− 2 . (−1) = − 1 (7 − x )− 2
1 1
f ' ( x) =
2 2
1 1 
f ' ' ( x) = − − (7 − x ) 2 . (−1) = −
−
3 1
2 2  4 (7 − x ) 2
3

1 1
f ' ' (3) = − =−
4 (7 − 3)
3
2
32

Example 5.2 Higher Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Find the second derivative of the following:

2.1 (
f ( x) = ln x 3 + 1 )
Solution:

3x 2
f ' ( x) = 3
x +1

f ' ' ( x) =
(x 3
)
+ 1 (6 x ) − 3 x 2 3 x 2 ( ) = 6x 4
+ 6x − 9x 4
(x 3
+1) 2
(x 3
)
+1
2

=
6 x − 3x 4
=
(
3x 2 − x 3 )
(x 3
+1 ) 2
(x 3
+1 )
2

2.2 y = log x

Solution:
1
1
y = log x = log x = 2
log x
2
dy 1  1  1
=   = . x −1
dx 2  x ln 10  ln 100

d2y 1 1
=− . x −2 = −
dx 2
ln 100 (ln 100) x 2

62
Example 5.3 Higher Derivatives of Exponential Functions

−2 x + 3
3.1 If y = e , find the third derivative.

Solution:

y ' = −2e −2 x +3

y ' ' = 4e −2 x +3

y ' ' ' = −8e −2 x +3

If f ( x) = 3 , find the second derivative.

x
3.2

Solution:

f ' ( x) = (ln 3)3 x

( ) (
f ' ' ( x) = ln 3 ln 3 . 3 x = ln 2 3 3 x )

Example 5.4 Higher Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

If f ( x) = sin 2 x , find the third derivative.

2
3.1

Solution:

f ( x) = sin 2 2 x = (sin 2 x )
2

f ' ( x) = 2 sin 2 x (2 cos 2 x )

= 2 [2 sin 2 x cos 2 x ] Use the identity: 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ
= 2 sin 4 x

f ' ' ( x) = 8 cos 4 x

f ' ' ' ( x) = −32 sin 4 x

63
 π d2y
3.2 If y = cos x − sin x , evaluate x , in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ , when =0
2 dx 2
Solution:
dy
= − sin x − cos x
dx
d2y
= − cos x + sin x
dx 2
d2y
When = 0 , − cos x + sin x = 0 , therefore
dx 2
sin x
sin x = cos x or =1
cos x
π
Hence tan x = 1 ⇒ x = tan −1 (1) =
4

Example 5.5 Higher Derivatives of Composite Functions

Find the second derivative of the following:

5.1 y = ln (sin ex)

Solution:
e cos ex
y' = = e cot ex
sin ex

y ' ' = −e 2 cos ec 2 ex

5.2 y = x cos 2 x

Solution:
y ' = cos 2 x − x (2 sin 2 x )

y ' ' = −2 sin 2 x − [2 sin 2 x + x (4 cos 2 x )]

= −2 sin 2 x − 2 sin 2 x − 4 x cos 2 x
= −4 sin 2 x − 4 x cos 2 x
= −4 (sin 2 x + x cos 2 x )

64
 ACTIVITY 5

1. Find the second derivative of the following:

2  2 
1.1 f ( x) =  3 
x+4  (x + 4) 

 1 
1.2 f ( x) = 7 − x − 
 4 (7 − x ) 
3

1.3 (
f ( x) = ln e x x 3 x
2
) 

3
2 + x 

x  −2 
1.4 y=  3 
x +1  ( x + 1) 

1.5 y =πx [π x
ln 2 π ]
t
1.6 y= + tπ [0]
π
1  1 
1.7 y = cos (ln x )  x  x sin x − cos x 
  

1.8 f ( x) = ln (cos x ) [− sec x] 2

1.9 𝑦𝑦 = cos 2 2 𝑥𝑥 [−8 cos 4 x]

1.10 f ( x) = x cos 2 x [− 4 sin 2 x − 4 x cos 2 x]

d2y
2. Evaluate when θ = 0 given y = sec 2θ [16]
dθ 2
2 f ' ( x)
if f ( x) = x − 2 ln x + 4
3
3. Show that f ' ' ' ( x) = 2
x
d2y
If y = (1 + 2 x ) e , show that
−x dy
4. 2
+2 + y =0
dx dx
d 3 y 2 dy
If y = Ax + B ln x + C . Show that = ×
3
5.
dx 3 x 2 dx
−3 x d2y dy
6. Given y = 2x e , show that 2
+ 6 + 9y = 0
dx dx

+ y = 5 cos (ln x ) + sin (ln x ) if y = 2 cos (ln x ) + 3 sin (ln x )

dy
7. Prove that x
dx

65
5.6 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Why it is important to understand: Applications of Differentiation

Here we learn how derivatives affect the shape of a graph of a function and, in particular, how
they help us locate maximum and minimum values of functions. Many practical problems
require us to minimize a cost or maximize an area or somehow find the best possible outcome
of a situation. For instance, an engineer might be interested in finding the maximum
horsepower a prototype engine can deliver, and a businessperson might be interested in the
level of production of a certain commodity that will minimize the unit cost of producing that
commodity.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the difference between increasing and decreasing functions.

 Explain and calculate the maximum and minimum values of a given function.
 Explain the meaning of an inflection point.
 Calculate the co-ordinates of the maximum and minimum turning points inflection points.
 Sketch graphs of third order polynomials.
 Determine the equation of the tangent and normal at a given point on the graph.
 Apply differentiation to motion, including velocity and acceleration.
 Solve maximum and minimum problems in real life situations.
 Apply L’Hôpital’s rule.

66
5.6.1 Maximum and Minimum Turning Points and Points of Inflection

In the Figure below, the gradient of the curve changes from positive between 𝑂𝑂 and 𝑃𝑃 to
negative between 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄, and then positive again between 𝑄𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅. At point 𝑃𝑃, the gradient
is zero and, as 𝑥𝑥 increases, the gradient of the curve changes from positive just before 𝑃𝑃 to
negative just after. Such a point is called a maximum point and appears as the ‘crest of a
wave’. At point 𝑄𝑄, the gradient is also zero and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve
changes from negative just before 𝑄𝑄 to positive just after. Such a point is called a minimum
point, and appears as the ‘bottom of a valley’. Points such as 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 are given the general
name of turning points.

y
P R
Negative
Positive dy gradient Positive
=0
gradient dx gradient

dy
=0
dx
O
Q
x

It is possible to have a turning point, the gradient on either side of which is the same. Such a
point is given the special name of a point of inflection (the point where the curve changes its
concavity), and examples are shown in the Figure below.
y
Maximum point
Maximum
point
Points of
inflection

x
Minimum point

Maximum and minimum points and points of inflection are given the general term of stationary
points.

67
Procedure for finding and distinguishing between stationary points:

(i) Given y = f (x) , determine the critical values of x . These are x -values when the
first derivative equals zero.
(ii) Substitute the critical values of x into the original equation to find the corresponding
y -ordinate values. This establishes the co-ordinates of the stationary points.

To determine the nature of the stationary points, we will consider a special method known as
the second derivative test.

d2y
(iii) Find and substitute into it the critical values of x found in (i). Then:
dx 2
− If the sign of the second derivative is positive for a critical value, the function
has a minimum at this point.
− If the sign of the second derivative is negative, the function has a maximum.
− If the second derivative is equal to zero when a critical value is substituted, the
function has an inflection point at that x -value.

Procedure for determining points of inflection:

(i) Solve the equation when the second derivative is set equal to zero.
(ii) Test whether there is a change of sign occurring in f ' ' ( x) . This is achieved by
substituting into the expression for f ' ' ( x) firstly a value of x just less than the
solution and then a value just greater than the solution.
(iii) A point of inflection has been found if f ' ' ( x) = 0 and there is a change of sign.

Example 5.1 Finding the Maximum and Minimum Turning Points

Find and identify the maximum and minimum points in the following functions:

1. f ( x) = − x 3 − 3x 2 + 9 x + 20
Solution:
f ' ( x) = −3x 2 − 6 x + 9 = 0 To calculate the critical values of x .
x 2 + 2x − 3 = 0
(x − 1)(x + 3) = 0
x =1 or x = −3

68
 f ' ' ( x) = −6 x − 6

At x = 1 :
f ' ' (1) = −6 (1) − 6 = −12 < 0 Therefore a maximum at x = 1 .
When x = 1 , y = f (1) = 25
At x = −3 :
f ' ' (−3) = −6 (− 3) − 6 = 12 > 0 Therefore a minimum at x = −3 .
When x = −3 , y = f (−3) = −7

2. f ( x) = 4 x + e − x
Solution:
f ' ( x) = 4 − e − x = 0 To calculate the critical values of x .
−x
e =4
x = − ln 4 = −1,38629

f ' ' ( x) = e − x
f ' ' (− ln 4) = e ln 4 = 4 > 0 Therefore a minimum at x = − ln 4 .
When x = − ln 4 , y = f (− ln 4) = −1,5452

Example 5.2 Finding Points of Inflection

Determine the point(s) of inflection (if any) on the graph of the function y = x − 6 x + 9 x + 5 .
3 2

Solution:

dy d2y
= 3 x 2 − 12 x + 9 and = 6 x − 12
dx dx 2
d2y
Solving the equation = 0 gives
dx 2
6 x − 12 = 0 ⇒ x=2
Hence, if there is a point of inflection, it occurs at x = 2 .

Test for point of inflection.

d2y
− Taking a value just less than 2, say 1,9: = 6 x − 12 = 6 (1,9) − 12 , which is negative.
dx 2
d2y
− Taking a value just greater than 2, say 2,1: = 6 (2,1) − 12 , which is positive.
dx 2
− Since a change of sign has occurred, a point of inflection exists at x = 2

Therefore, when x = 2 , y = f (2) = 7 . This is a point of inflection.

69
5.6.2 Sketching Graphs of Third Order Equations

Drawing the graph of power three entails finding the x -intercepts, y -intercepts and turning
points. After finding these points, you should have enough information to sketch the function.

The general shape of y = ax + bx + cx + d will be determined as follows:

3 2

 If a > 0 .

 If a < 0 .

Example 5.3 Sketching Cubic Graphs

Sketch the following graphs:

1. y = − x 3 + 3x 2
Solution:

Intercepts:
y -intercept: x = 0; y = 0
x -intercept: y = 0 = − x 3 + 3x 2

= − x 2 (x − 3)
x=0 and x=3
Critical x-values:
dy
= −3 x 2 + 6 x = 0
dx
− 3 x( x − 2 ) = 0
x=0 or x=2
y=0 y=4

70
 Maximum, minimum, and inflection points:
y ' ' (x ) = −6 x + 6
At x = 0 : y ' ' (0) = −6(0) + 6 = 6 > 0
Therefore a minimum turning point at (0 ; 0 ) .

At x = 2 : y ' ' (2) = −6(2) + 6 = −6 < 0

Therefore a maximum turning point at (2 ; 4 ) .

For inflection point: y ' ' = −6 x + 6 = 0

x =1 ; y = 2
Therefore:

y
(2 ; 4)

(1; 2)

x
3

2. f ( x) = x 3 − 10 x 2 + 25 x

Solution:

Intercepts:
y -intercept: x = 0; y = 0

x -intercept: y = 0 = x 3 − 10 x 2 + 25 x
(
= x x 2 − 10 x + 25 )
= x ( x − 5)( x − 5) = x ( x − 5)
2

x=0 and x=5

71
Critical x-values:

f ' ( x) = 3 x 2 − 20 x + 25 = 0
(x − 5)(3x − 5) = 0
5
x=5 or x=
3
y=0 y = 18,52

Maximum, minimum, and inflection points:

f ' ' (x ) = 6 x − 20
At x = 5 : f ' ' (5) = 6(5) − 20 = 10 > 0
Therefore a minimum turning point at (5 ; 0 ) .

5 5 5
At x = : f ' '   = 6   − 20 = −10 < 0
3 3 3

5 
Therefore a maximum turning point at  ; 18,52  .
3 

For inflection point: f ' ' ( x) = 6 x − 20 = 0

x = 3,33 ; y = 9,26

Therefore:

(1,67 ; 18,52)

(3,33 ; 9,26)

x
5

72
 ACTIVITY 6

1. Determine whether the following functions are increasing or decreasing at x = 1 :

1.1 y = x 2 − 4x [Decreasing]

1.2 y = x3 − 8 [Increasing]

1.3 y = x 2 − 3x + 5 [Decreasing]

1.4 y = x3 − 2x 2 + 4x − 6 [Increasing]

1.5 y = 4x3 + 6x 2 − 7x + 4 [Increasing]

2. Identify the maximum, minimum and inflection points (if any) in each of the following:

2.1 (
s = t t 2 − 5t + 3 ) [Max (0,3;0,48), Min (3;-9), PI (1,7;-4,3)]

2.2 y = 12 x − x 3 [Max (2 ; 16), Min (-2 ; -16), PI (0 ; 0)]

2.3 y = x3 − 2x 2 − 4x − 6 [Max (-0,7;-4,5), Min (2;-14), PI (0,7;-9,3)]

2.4 y = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 9 x + 31 [Max (1 ; 35), Min (3 ; 31), PI (2 ; 33)]

2.5 s = 2t 3 − 3t 2 − 12t + 4 [Max (-1;11), Min (2;-16), PI (0,5;-2,5)]

1 3 1 2
2.6 y= x − x − 2 x + 12 [Max (-1;1,25), Min (2;-3,25), PI (0,5;-1)]
3 2
2.7 s = 2t 3 − 9t 2 + 10 [Max (0 ; 1), Min (2 ; -2), PI (1 ; 4)]
2.8 y = 4 sin x − 3 cos x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π [Max (2,2;5), Min (5,4;-5), PI (3,78;0)]

5
2.9 y = 4 x 3 + 3 x 2 − 18 x + [Max (-1,5;20,9), Min (1;-10,4), PI (-0,25;4)]
8

2.10 y = 3x 3 − 27 x 2 + 15 x + 17 [Max (0,29;19,2), Min (5,7;-219,2), PI (3;-100)]

3. Sketch each of the following functions. Indicate critical and inflection points (if any):

3.1 (
y = −( x − 2 ) x 2 − x − 2 )
3.2 y = −x3 + 6x − 9x
3.3 s = t 3 − 12t 2 + 36t
3.4 y = ( x + 3)( x − 2 )( x − 5)

3.5 y = x3 − 4x 2 + 4x

73
5.6.3 Tangents and Normals to a Curve

5.6.3.1 Tangents

The equation of the tangent to a curve y = f (x) at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given by:

y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
where m = f ' ( x) = gradient of the curve at ( x1 , y1 ) .

The graph of y = x 2 − x − 2 is shown below. The line AB is the tangent to a curve at the point
C, i.e. (1, − 2 ) , and the equation of this line is y = x − 3 (this is left as an exercise).

5.6.3.2 Normals

The normal is a line perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact with the curve. Hence,
in the Figure below, the line CD is the normal.

As discussed in Chapter 1, if two lines are at right angles, then the product of their gradients
is − 1 . Thus, if m AB is the gradient of the tangent, then the gradient of the normal is:

1
mCD = −
m AB
Hence the equation of the normal at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given by:

y − y1 = mCD (x − x1 )

74
Example 5.4 Equation of a Normal to a Curve

Determine the equation of the normal to the curve:

1. y = x x at the point (1 , 1)

Solution:
Slope of the tangent line:
3
y = f ( x) = x x = x 2
1
3 3
f ' ( x) = x 2 = x
2 2
3
mT = f ' (1) =
2
Slope of the normal line:
1 2
mN = − ⇒ mN = −
mT 3
Thus, an equation of the normal line is:

y −1 = −
2
(x − 1) or 3 y = −2 x + 5
3

2. y = e 2 x − 4 x + 8 at the point where it crosses the y -axis.

Solution:
Point of contact:

At x = 0 , y = f (0) = e 0 − 4(0) + 8 = 9
Gradient of the tangent:

y ' ( x) = 2e 2 x − 4
y ' (0) = 2e 0 − 4 = −2
Gradient of the normal:
−1 1
m= =
−2 2
Therefore, the equation of the normal is:

y −9 =
1
(x − 0) or 2 y = x + 18
2

75
 ACTIVITY 7

1. Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to the curves, at the points indicated:

x3
1.1 y= at x = −1 [5 y = 3x + 2] ; [15 y = −25 x − 28]
5
1.2 y = x 2 − 2x − 8 at x=3 [ y = 4 x − 17] ; [ y = − x − 17]
1  1   3
1.3 y= at x =1  y = − 2 x + 1 ;  y = 2x − 2 
x +1
2
  
 
y = (x − 1) (x + 2)
1
x=0 [ y = −3x + 2] ;  y = x + 2
2
1.4 at
 3 
π
1.5 y = sin x at [2 y = x + 0,685]; [ y = −2 x + 2,96]
3

2. Find an equation of the normal line to the parabola y = x 2 − 5 x + 4 that is parallel to the
line x − 3 y = 5 . [3 y = x − 1]
3. For what values of a and b is the line 2 x + y = b tangent to the parabola y = ax 2 when
 1
x = 2? a = − 2  ;

[b = 2]
4. For what values of a and b is the line 3x + y = b tangent to the parabola y = ax 2 when
 3
x = 4? a = − 8  ; [b = 6]

1 3
5. Find the value(s) of c such that the line y = x + is tangent to the graph of the
6 2
function y = c x . [1]
3
6. Find the value(s) of k such that the line y = − x + 3 is tangent to the graph of the
4

function f ( x) =
k
. [3]
x
7. Find the value(s) of k such that the line y = 3 x − 4 is tangent to the graph of the function

f ( x) = x 2 + kx [k = 7] or [k = −1]

76
5.6.4 Rectilinear Motion

Rectilinear motion is motion of an object on a straight line. If there is a coordinate system on

that line, and s denotes the coordinate of the object at any time t , then the position of the
object is given by a function s = f (t ) . See the Figure below:

The position at a time t + ∆t , very close to t , is f (t + ∆t ) . The “distance” the object travels

between time t and time t + ∆t is f (t + ∆t ) − f (t ) . The time the object has travelled is ∆t .
So, the average velocity over this period of time is
f (t + ∆t ) − f (t )
∆t
(Note that the “distance” can be negative when the object is moving to the left along the s axis.
So the average velocity can be positive or negative or zero). As ∆t approaches zero, this
average velocity approaches what we think of as the instantaneous velocity v at time t . So,
f (t + ∆t ) − f (t )
v = lim = f ' (t )
∆t →0 ∆t
Hence, the instantaneous velocity v is the derivative of the position function s , that is,
v = ds dt . The sign of the instantaneous velocity v tells us in which direction the object is
moving along the line. If v = ds dt > 0 on an interval of time, then we know that s must be
increasing, that is, the object is moving in the direction of increasing s along the line. If
v = ds dt < 0 , then the object is moving in the direction of decreasing s .

The instantaneous speed of the object is defined as the absolute value of the velocity. Thus,
the speed indicates how fast the object is moving, but not its direction. In an automobile, the
speedometer tells us the instantaneous speed at which the car is moving.

The acceleration a of an object moving on a straight line is defined as the rate at which the
velocity is changing, that is, the derivative of the velocity:

dv d 2 s
a= =
dt dt 2

77
Example 5.5 Rectilinear Motion

1. The linear displacement, in meters, of the slide valve of an engine is given by

f (t ) = 4 cos 5π t + 3 sin 5π t .
Find the velocity and acceleration of the valve after 10 seconds.

Solution:

Velocity:
v (t ) = f ' (t ) = −20π sin 5π t + 15π cos 5π t
v (10) = −20π sin 5π (10) + 15π cos 5π (10)
= 15π m/s

Acceleration:

a (t ) = v' (t ) = −100π 2 cos 5π t − 75π 2 sin 5π t

a (10) = −100π 2 cos 5π (10) − 75π 2 sin 5π (10)

= −100π 2 m/s2

2. A body is projected vertically upwards and its height in meters above the ground is

h (t ) = 12t − 5t 2
where t is the time in seconds. Find the maximum height reached by the body and the
velocity after 2 seconds.

Solution:

v (t ) = h' (t ) = 12 − 10t
At the maximum height: v (t ) = 12 − 10t = 0
12
t= = 1,2 seconds
10
Hence, maximum height = h (1,2) = 12 (1,2 ) − 5 (1,2 )
2

= 7,2 m
Velocity after 2 seconds = v (2) = 12 − 10 (2)

= − 8 m/s

78
 ACTIVITY 8

1. A body moves in a straight line from P and Q where it comes to rest. After t seconds,

its distance from P , in meters, is s = 108t + 13,5t − t . Determine:

2 3

1.1 The velocity of the body after 5 seconds. [168 m / s ]

1.2 The acceleration of the body after 5 seconds. [− 3 m / s ] 2

1.3 The time taken to reach Q . [12 s ]

1.4 The distance from P to Q . [1512 m]
1.5 The maximum velocity of the body. [168,75 m / s ]

2. The angular displacement θ of a rotating disc is given by θ = 6 sin 0,25t . Determine:

2.1 The angular velocity of the disc when t = 1,5 s. [1,4 rad / s ]
2.2 The angular acceleration when t = 5,5 s. [− 0,37 rad / s ] 2

2.3 The first time when the angular velocity is zero. [6,28 s ]

3. The height h , in meters, reached by a rocket fired vertically is given by

s = 75t − 12,5t 2 , where t is in seconds. Find:

3.1 Its initial velocity. [75 m / s ]
3.2 The time taken to reach the maximum height. [3 s ]
3.3 The maximum height reached. [112,5 m]
3.4 The velocity of the rocket when it strikes the ground. [75 m / s ]

20t 3 23t 2
4. x= − + 6t + 5 represents the distance, x meters, moved by a body in t
3 2
seconds. Determine:
4.1 The velocity at the start. [6 m / s ]
4.2 The acceleration when t = 3 s. [97 m / s ] 2

4.3 The values of t when the body is at rest. [0,75 s ] or [0,4 s ]

4.4 The value of t when the acceleration is 37 m/s2. [1,5 s ]
4.5 The distance travelled in the third second. [75,167 m]

79
5.6.5 Optimisation Problems

The methods we have learned in this chapter for finding the maximum and minimum values
have practical applications in many areas of life. A project manager wants to minimize costs
and maximize profits. A traveler wants to minimize transportation time. Fermat’s Principle in
optics states that light follows the path that takes the least time. In this section, we solve such
problems as maximizing areas, volumes, and profits and minimizing distances, and costs.

In solving such practical problems, the greatest challenge is often to convert the word problem
into a mathematical optimization problem by setting up the function that is to be maximized or
minimized.

Guidelines for solving applied maximum and minimum problems:

Step 1: Identify all given quantities and all quantities to be determined. Draw a figure if
possible to assist you.

Step 2: Write a primary equation for the quantity whose maximum or minimum is to be
found.

Step 3: Reduce the primary equation to one having a single independent variable. This
may involve the use of secondary equations relating the independent variables
of the primary equation.

Step 4: Determine the feasible domain of the primary equation. That is, determine the
values for which the stated problem makes sense.

Step 5: Differentiate and find the critical values.

Example 5.8 Finding the Minimum cost

A box will be build under the following conditions: the volume is to be 5000 cm3. The material
cost per cm2 are 5 cents for the top, 10 cents for the bottom and 3 cents for the sides. What
dimensions result in minimum cost?

Solution:

80
The primary equation must be the cost function per area.

Surface Area Material Costs Per Area

Top: x2 5x 2

Bottom: x2 10x 2

Sides: 4 xy 12 xy

Total: 15 x 2 + 12 xy

Let total material cost be equal to C:

C = 15 x 2 + 12 xy Primary equation

Volume:

V = x 2 y = 5000

5000
y= Secondary equation
x2

Substituting y into the primary equation gives:

 5000 
C = 15 x 2 + 12 x  2 
 x 
60000
= 15 x 2 +
x

Critical Value(s):

dC 60000
= 30 x − =0 30 x 3 = 60000
dx x2

5000
x = 12,599 cm y= = 31,498 cm
x2

81
Example 5.9 Cylinder Inscribed in a Sphere

Find the diameter and height of a cylinder of maximum volume which can be cut from a sphere
of radius 12 cm as shown below.

Volume of cylinder:

V = π r2 h Primary equation
Pythagoras Theorem:
Using the right-angled triangle OPQ shown in the Figure above:

OQ 2 = OP 2 + PQ 2
2
h
(12)2
=   + r2
2
h2
r 2 = 144 − Secondary equation
4
Substituting the secondary equation into the primary equation:
V = π r2 h
 h2 
= π 144 −  h
 4 
π
= 144π h − h3
4
Critical Value(s):
dV 3π 2 576π
= 144π − h =0 ⇒ h2 = = 192
dh 4 3π
Dimensions:

h = 192 = 13,856 cm
r = 9,798 cm
d = 2r = 19,596 cm

82
Example 5.10 An Endpoint Maximum

Four meters of wire is to be used to form a square and a circle. How much of the wire should
be used for the square and how much should be used for the circle to enclose the maximum
total area?
Solution:
Draw a sketch to ‘visualize’ what you are required to calculate.

4 meters

The quantity to be maximized is area, hence, the primary equation must be the area function.
Total Area:
A = (area of square) + (area of circle)
A = x2 + π r 2 Primary equation
Perimeter:
Because the total length of wire is 4 meters, you obtain:
4 = (perimeter of square) + (circumference of circle)
4 = 4 x + 2π r
4 − 4 x 2 (1 − x)
r= = Secondary equation
2π π
Substituting r into the primary equation yields:

 2 (1 − x) 
2

A = x +π 
2

 π 
 4 (1 − x) 2 
= x2 + π  
 π
2

4 (1 − x) 2
= x2 +
π

=
1
π
[x (π + 4) − 8x + 4]
2

83
Critical value(s):
The feasible domain is 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 restricted by the square’s perimeter. Because
dA 2 x (π + 4 ) − 8
= =0
dx π
the only critical value is:
2 x (π + 4 ) − 8 = 0
4
x= = 0,56 . So, using:
(π + 4)
A (0) = 1,273 ; A (0,56) = 0,56 ; A (1) = 1
you can conclude that the maximum area occurs when x = 0 . That is, all the wire is used for
the circle.

Applications to Business and Economics (Not for Assessment Purposes)

If C (x) , the cost function, is the cost of producing x units of a certain product, then the

marginal cost is the rate of change of C with respect to x . That is, the marginal cost function
is the derivative, C ' ( x) , of the cost function.

Let p (x) be the price per unit that the company can charge if it sells x units. Then p is called
the demand function (or price function) and we would expect it to be a decreasing function
of x . If x units are sold and the price per unit is p (x) , then the total revenue is

R( x) = x p( x)
and R is called the revenue function. The derivative R ' of the revenue function is called the
marginal revenue function and is the rate of change of revenue with respect to the number
of units sold. If x units are sold, then the total profit is
P( x) = R( x) − C ( x)
and P is called the profit function. The marginal profit function is P ' , the derivative of the
profit function.

Example 5.11 Finding the Maximum Profit

A store has been selling 200 DVD burners a week at R350 each. A market survey indicates
that for each R10 discount offered to buyers, the number of units sold will increase by 20 a
week. Find the demand function and the revenue function. How large a discount should the
store offer to maximize its revenue?

84
Solution:
If x is the number of DVD burners sold per week, then the weekly increase in sales is
x − 200 . For each increase of 20 units sold, the price is decreased by R10. So, for each
1
additional unit sold, the decrease in price will be × 10 and the demand function is
20

p ( x) = 350 −
10
(x − 200) = 450 − 1 x
20 x
The revenue function is
1 2
R ( x) = x p ( x) = 450 x − x
2
Since R ' ( x) = 450 − x , we see that R ' ( x) = 0 when x = 450 . This value of x gives an

absolute maximum by simply observing that the graph of R is a parabola that opens
downward. The corresponding price is

p (450) = 450 −
1
(450) = 225
2
and the discount is 350 − 225 = 125 . Therefore, to maximize revenue, the store should offer
a discount of R125.

ACTIVITY 9

1. A rectangular area is formed having a perimeter of 40 cm. Determine the length and
breadth of the rectangle if it is to enclose the maximum possible area. [l = b = 10]

2. Design a can to hold 350 ml of liquid refreshment such that the cost of construction is a
minimum. The top (or lid) is made of aluminium which costs 0,02 cents per cm2. The rest
of the can is made from tin which costs 0,01 cents per cm2. Find the height and base
radius as well as the minimum cost of the can. [r = 3,34] ; [h = 10,001] ; [C = 3,15]

x
3. An instrument company sells electronic counters for a price p of p = − + 1500 , where
3
p is in Rands and x is the number of counters sold. The cost (C) per counter is
C = x + 300 , where C is in Rands. What is the number of counters that produces the
maximum total profit? [450]

85
4. A manufacturer has been selling 1000 television sets a week at R450 each. A market
survey indicates that for each R10 discount offered to the buyer, the number of sets sold
will increase by 100 per week.
4.1 Find the demand function. [ p( x) = 550 − 0,1x]
4.2 How large a discount should the company offer the buyer in order to maximize
its revenue? [R 175]
4.3 If its weekly cost function is C ( x) = 68 000 + 150 x , how should the manufacturer

set the size of the discount in order to maximize its profit? [R 100]

5. The sum of the diameter and the height of a right circular cylinder is 6 cm. Calculate the
maximum volume of the cylinder. [8π ] cm3

6. A cylindrical can is to be made to hold 1 L of oil. Find the dimensions that will minimize
the cost of the metal to manufacture the can. [r = 5,42] ; [h = 2r ] cm

7. A model used for the yield Y of an agricultural crop as a function of nitrogen level N in
kN
the soil (measured in appropriate units) is Y = , where k is a positive constant.
1+ N 2
What nitrogen levels gives the best yield? [N = 1]

8. Determine the area of the largest piece of rectangular ground that can be enclosed by
100 m of fencing, if part of an existing straight wall is used as one side. [1250] m2

9. The total area of the sheet metal used in the construction of a cylindrical can closed at
both ends is 24 π cm2. Determine the maximum volume of the can. [50,27]cm3

10. A rectangular field is to be enclosed on all four sides with a fence. Fencing material costs
R4 per metre for the longer sides and R5 per metre for the shorter sided. Find the
maximum area that can be enclosed for R2000. [12500] m2

11. A circular cylindrical container, open at the top and having a capacity of 24 π m3, is to
be manufactured. If the cost of the material used for the bottom of the container is three
times that used for the curved part and if there is no waste of material, find the
dimensions that will minimize the cost. [r = 2] ; [h = 6] m

86
12. A window has the shape of a semicircle on top of a rectangle. The area of the window is
to be 40. What dimensions produce minimum perimeter? [x = y = 3,35] units

13. A rectangular sheet of metal which measures 24 cm by 16 cm has squares cut from the
four corners to that an open box is formed when the sides are turned up. Find the
dimensions of the box with maximum volume if made this way.
[17,72 × 9,72 × 3,14] cm

14. Determine the height and radius of a cylinder of volume 200 cm3 which has the least
surface area. [r = 3,17] ; [h = 6,34] cm

15. A rectangular block with square base of sides x mm has a total surface area of 300

mm2. Find the maximum volume of the block. [50 ]

50 mm3

16. A rectangle is to be inscribed in a semicircle of radius of 2.

16.1 What is the largest area the rectangle can have? [4]
16.2 What are its dimensions? [h = 2 ] ; [l = 2 2 ]units
17. Find the point on the graph of y = 2 x that is closest to the point (1, 4 ) .
2
[2 , 2]

18. A cylindrical can without a top is made to contain V cm3 of liquid. Find the dimensions

that will minimize the cost of the metal to make the can. [r = h = 3 V π ]

87
5.6.6 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

Recall that the forms 0/0 and ∞/∞ are called indeterminate because they do not guarantee
that a limit exists, nor do they indicate what the limit is, if one does exist. When you
encountered one of these indeterminate forms earlier in Section 5.1, you attempted to rewrite
the expression by using various algebraic techniques.

Occasionally, you can extend these algebraic techniques to find limits of transcendental
functions. For instance, the limit

e2x − 1
lim
x →0 e x − 1

produces the indeterminate form 0/0. Factoring and then dividing produces

lim
e2x − 1
= lim
(
ex +1 ex −1)( ) ( )
= lim e x + 1 = 2
x →0 e − 1
x x →0 e −1
x x →0

However, not all indeterminate forms can be evaluated by algebraic manipulation. This is
particularly true when both algebraic and transcendental functions are involved. To evaluate
the limit, we can use a special rule called L'Hôpital's rule or L'Hospital's rule.

This special rule states that under certain conditions, the limit of the quotient f ( x) g ( x) is
determined by the limit of the quotient of the derivatives
f ' ( x)
.
g ' ( x)
Meaning, if the limit of f ( x) g ( x) as x approaches c produces the indeterminate form 0/0,
then
f ( x) f ' ( x)
lim = lim
x→ c g ( x) x→ c g ' ( x)
provided the limit on the right exists (or is infinite). This result also applies if the limit of
f ( x) g ( x) as x approaches c produces any of the indeterminate forms (∞ ∞ ) , (− ∞ ∞ ) ,
(∞ − ∞ ) , or (− ∞ − ∞ ) .

Note: L’Hôpital’s Rule also holds if we are considering one-sided limits and can also be
applied repeatedly as long as we obtain an indeterminate form.

88
Example 5.1 Indeterminate Form 0/0

Evaluate the following limits:

e2x − 1
1. lim
x →0 x
Solution:

e2x − 1 0
lim =
x →0 x 0
Because direct substitution results in the indeterminate form 0/0, we can apply
L’Hôpital’s Rule as follows:

e −1
2x
d 2x
dx
(
e −1 )
lim = lim = lim 2e 2 x
d
(x )
x →0 x x → 0 x →0

dx
= 2e = 2
0

ln x
2. lim
x →1 x −1
Solution:
ln x 0
lim =
x →1 x −1 0
Since direct substitution results in the indeterminate form 0/0, L’Hôpital’s Rule gives:

ln x
d
(ln x ) 1
lim = lim dx = lim x
x →1 x − 1
(x − 1)
x →1 d x →1 1

dx
1
= lim = 1
x →1 x

Example 5.2 Indeterminate Form ∞/∞

Find the following limits:

2x
1. lim
x →∞ e x

Solution:
2x ∞
lim =
x →∞ e x ∞

89
 Since direct substitution results in the indeterminate form ∞/∞, L’Hôpital’s Rule gives:

2x
d
(2 x )
lim x = lim dx
x →∞ e x →∞ d

dx
ex ( )
2
= lim x
x →∞ e

2
= =0
∞

Occasionally, it is necessary to apply L’Hôpital’s Rule more than once to remove an

indeterminate form, as shown in Example 5.3 below.

Example 5.3 Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule More Than Once

Calculate the following limits:

tan x − x
1. lim
x →0 x3
Solution:
tan x − x 0
lim =
x →0 x3 0
Since direct substitution results in the indeterminate form 0/0, L’Hôpital’s Rule gives:

tan x − x
d
(tan x − x )
lim = lim dx
x →0 x3 x →0 d 3
dx
x ( )
sec 2 x − 1
= lim
x →0 3x 2
Since the limit on the right side is still indeterminate of type 0/0, applying L’Hôpital’s Rule
again gives:

sec x − 1
2
d
(
sec 2 x − 1 )
lim = lim dx
x →0 3x 2 x →0 d
dx
3x 2 ( )
2 sec 2 x tan x
= lim
x →0 6x

( )
Because lim sec x = 1 , we simplify the calculation by writing:
2
x →0

90
 2 sec 2 x tan x 1 sec 2 x tan x
lim = lim
x →0 6x 3 x →0 x
1 tan x
= lim sec 2 x lim
3 x →0 x →0 x
1 tan x
= lim
3 x →0 x

We can evaluate this last limit either by using L’Hôpital’s Rule a third time or by writing
tan x as (sin x ) (cos x ) and making use of our knowledge of trigonometric limits. Putting
together all the steps, we get:

1 tan x 1
d
(tan x )
lim = lim dx
3 x →0 x 3 x →0 d
(x )
dx
1 sec 2 x
= lim
3 x →0 1
1
=
3

ex
2. lim
x →∞ x 2

Solution:

ex ∞
lim =
x →∞ x 2 ∞
Because direct substitution results in the indeterminate form ∞/∞, you can apply
L’Hôpital’s Rule to obtain:

ex
d x
dx
e( )
lim 2 = lim
x →∞ x x →∞ d

dx
( )
x2

ex
= lim
x →∞ 2 x

Since the limit on the right side is still indeterminate of type ∞/∞, applying L’Hôpital’s
Rule again gives:

e x
dx
( )
d x
e
lim = lim
(2 x )
x →∞ 2 x x →∞ d

dx
ex ∞
= lim = =∞
x →∞ 2 2

91
 ACTIVITY 10

Evaluate the following limits:

x 3 − 2x + 1 1 
1. lim
 9 
x →1 2 x 3 + 3 x − 5 

2. lim
x →∞ 3
ln x
[0]
x
ln (1 + x )
3. lim
x →0
[1]
x
e x − (1 − x)
4. lim
x →0
[2]
x
 x + sin x 
5. lim  [2]
x →0
 x 
x − sin x  1
6. lim
x − tan x − 2 
x →0


7. lim
(1 + x )n − 1 [n]
x →0 x
x 2 − sin 3 x
8. lim [− 1]
x →0 3x + x 2
sin θ − θ cos θ 1 
9. lim
θ  3 
θ →0 3

ln t 1
10. lim 2
t →1 t −1
2
 
sin θ − 1
11. lim [1]
θ→
π ln sin θ
2

sec t − 1 1
12. lim
t →0 t sin t  2 

 x +1
log  
13. lim  x  [− 1]
x →∞  x −1
log  
 x 

92