Reproduction

INHERITANCE
Transfer of traits from parent to offsprings Is
n
sperm
D NDE 46
Zygote
Meiosis cell division in which Egg
23
chromosome Number reduces to half 2n

It helps gamete formation

in Y 46

Diploid cell produces 4 haploid Reduction y y

MI
division
daughter Cell 23 0823

Meiosis helps in genetic variation MI

mitotic d te d te
d
and to keep the number O
of chromosome n
23
n
23
n
23
n
23
constant during fertilization

C HAPLOID DIPLOID ITÉ

Haploid Half Number
of
chromosome 2
In
835 of unitary Figg
nitrogenous god
of of
age

WOUND
gassy
bases that
representan
expression
by 000 00 Homologous Chromosomes
es
a pair
jet i E'É of chromosome
IEE fftffdf.GE which consist of two
same chromosome
looking
same shape same size
Homoglous pair is present completely in Diploid
cell only whereas the can carry and same locus of
haploid a gene
only one each homologous chromosome
of
80 É
chromosome any appear
88888
during cell division
Karyotype when all the
l did homologous chromosomes
Ii
IÉÉg Hk II
xx x
wear
ee ee are
or Bob Kk a
single
anaged in
cell
pair from
in one
called karyotype
BB II It nah picture its

4
 Blackmon
a
poof gametes 880

a Kk xx 88 EE w fi k E E

88 BE I ah ha es I k
DIPLOID HAPLOID

MEIOSIS meiosis takes

place
Reduction phase
in two phases
when the
chromosome number reduces to
Meiosis I half
Reduction Mitotic Phase When only
Division chromatids are separated
Meiosis II variation takes place by the
Mitotic Division help crossing over
of

It g
a
oh
2

2
Y Y
MI
Mfs 2
dad
 Meiosis I
Meiosis is the division in which Chromosome
number reduces to
half TSE
It has four different phases I
PROPHASE I 88
Prophase prepare a cell
to divide its nucleus
i Early Prophase ÉÉgÉÉÉ I
Nuclear envelope disappear
along with condensation
material which
of chromatin
forms chromosome
ii Mid Prophase
pairing of Homologous Jatt
word chromosome takes place
patriot this process is termed as
i ftp.T.gg
Bivalent
synapsid
synapsis
porbidf centriole appear and move
towards the opposite pole
guffawed
centrosome move
along
LATE PROPHASE
getypifIII
spindle fibre originates
n

chiasmata forms which

gympata
is a bridge between two IDot
got
homologous chromosome
Crossing over occurs I
 2
homologous
Exchange of atgene btw
chromosome same
zygotene loaf Laptotene
ipso Ki
Rachytene
Gene over the same chromatid
Iii

Eggs
locus bonded chemically
chromonema Chromatin
to form a bridge b w
chromonemata
2 loci called Chiasmata
Straight country
th from quem
tow
y
fait
É 1,8 5 08,08 too This is the main

any Mj Yifan t 88de cause

of variation
Browniris I angesindusing meiosis
Blackiris Smalltown
made

This chiasmata will

crossing over Exchange of
alleles b w homologous chromosome be broken down

Diplotene during next phase

Diakinesis

METAPHASES

Each chromosomal homologous

IfLj
in Find
mange soon f

Plane
Spindle fibre develops completely
and binds to the kinetochore
protein
 ANAPHASE I
During this phase the spindle
Fa
fibre contracts and move
each chromosome
of
Iyys
homologous
pair to opposite pole

TELOPHASE I
G centrosome centriole
Maipptians Spindle fibred disappear
Chromosome decondense
to form Chromatin
I É8g
Material
Nuclear Envelope reappear
forming two nuclei
At this Point the nucleus is divided called
the cell and its
karyokinesis after which
organelles will divide which is termed as

Cytokinesis

CYTOKINESIS
The cell will divide equally into two first
the cell membrane inviginates from middle the

equally separating and arranging the cellular

mass into two this invigination meet
 in the middle forming two separate Cells

A
88 É

2
haploid cells are
formed but each
it
of having double
is chromatids which
will be separated during meiosis I

MEIOSIS I
Meiosis II is mitotic Division in which
all the phases takes place same
four
as that in mitosis
PROPHASE During prophase a
I cell

prepare its nucleus to divide it

into two FINE
Nuclear envelope disappear
Chromatin material condenses 1348838 L
to chromosomes
form
Centriole appear and move
towards the opposite pole and
spindle fibre start originating I i
out it
of
I METAPHASE I
All the chromosomes are 1141M
A
arranged
on cantorial
555,11
G i g

plane and spindle fibre

i

attaches to the centromere

kinetochore
of the chromosome

in ANAPHASE I
spindle fibre contracts to
11119Mt
separate both the chromatids
and move towards
them
opposite pole The whole
chromatin material is divided
into two
8 81 9
in TELOPHASE II
is new

of prophase
Nuclear envelope reappear IE Begg

II i
centriole spindle fibre
disappear
Chromosome decondenses to
form
chromatin material again

i iii ii
th ti
is i

io
tI13a
842
i
Ett io
man mm mm mm Éi 111,11111111111

i
the 88,1k
PI MI AI TI 880
cytokinesis
 VARIATION DUE TO MEIOSIS
length of Banks
Iingt Even
Homologous chromosomes consist
appendaontenna

alleles present over same

Mr
i am or
of locus
loci position of gene
long
meiosis
Antenna EBay Firms red
During crossing over
takes
place along with
D P D 11
Independent assortment which
I o a B causes variation
Short
antenna
ebony vestigial
body wings
Brown
CROSSING OVER
A particular
region loci
on a chromatid is exchanged
E E e e
with the allele its same
A A a a
loci
of
No crossing
over occur
If Crossing
over occurs
6 7 nondod
E ee e g g a g
that after crossing over
A Aa a A Aa at

E e e E E e e E
Is
AA

A a a A 9 A A a
 INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
The production combinations
of different
alleles in daughter cells as a result
of
bivalents on the
of
random alignment of
equator of the cell

it
ÉÉ ja y y y y
d d
i
I
different combination I I f I

19210 19lb 1b2a 1529

RANDOM FERTILIZATION
Rec
flat I
ÉÉÉÉÉÉEg
450 Normal foot
Dom Normal
Rec a

flat f 450
Foot ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉE flatfoot
flat
Rec foot
 GENETICS study of genes

GENE It
is specific sequence
of
over the particular
Nitrogenous bases
length of DNA which expresses
a trait characteristic

ALLELE Allele is alternate copy

of
with same or
gene different
expression present over homologous
chromosome

GENOTYPE Genotype is the genetical

all the alleles in an
appearance of
particular trait
organism for
a

is HETEROZYGOUS ii HOMOZYGOUS
when both the alleles when both the alleles
are Non identical it is are Identical it is
called Heterozygous called Homozygous

a
DOMINANT RECESSIVE Both
Both
upper case lowercase DOMINANT RECESSIVE

Tall T short t TT tt
Tt
 Homosyg
T t ftomoggo
TT
Heterozy

Ttf 9.1 81
Tall small

DOMINANT Tall short

A trait which may appear phenotypically
in the presence of another trait allele
during
heterozygous condition
Dominant traits are found more commonly
in a population

RECESSIVE
A trait which
may appear
phenotypically only during homozygous
condition

CO DOMINANT
When both the alleles are

expressing different types of traits and

both are dominant
A allele IA
Blood group AB
B allele IB
 PHENOTYPE Physical appearance a
trait is
of
called phenotype Dominant trait
makes phenotype
usually
MONO HYBRID CROSS

Parental
Rabih
Brown Coat x white coat
11 5,1 2
Phenotype
IFcharacter Ifor
Parental se y
Heterozygous x Homozygous
genotype a an ay

b b u by
gametes By 3 x
8 Dl Hybrid Cross
0
gears
a
Tall Black X Short Brown
Bron
B b Hari colonyBoule
geno
507
by
507
PII Height Tall
I
Pheno white Dwarf
Brown
na n b ya yb
Condition
Twidepaw Narrow
dominant male ponape ape yapeybpe
is crossed by Paw Cred pd
All the
offspring having were
a C
wide paw Determine the
male ad
genotype of
 O A cross between parents represents
two
off spring One with Brown hair
colour other one with Black hair
GENETIC DIAGRAM the brown is recessive and mother
if nas Brown phenotype Mane this cross

A format in which the results

cross are predicted
of a genetic
Genetic diagram is Phenotype physical app
representing a cross
genotype gaetical app
between parental genotypes
This cross can also be Brown coat x white coat
represented Punnett Rabit Rabit
by
Square BB bb
The lines are
Parents White
represention
fertilisation
of phenotype
Barong x
coat

Parents BB bb
Offspring genotype genotype
is based on chances
These chances ane Gamete BO BO x

implemented at every
course
of fertilisation Bb Bb
Their ratio both Genotypic Bb Bb
Phenotypic is also the B B
part of genetic diagram b Bb Bb
To Be mentioned
a Parent Phenotype b Bb Bb
b Parent Genotype
c Gametes Phenotype ratio coat
1004 Brown
d cross lines PunnettSquare
e Genotypic Phenotypic Batio Genotypic ratio All heterozygous

O A tall height Plant is crossed over another tall height Plant both are heterozygous
 DIHYBRID CROSS
Inheritance two
gene when represented
of
cross it is called Dihybrid cross
by a

P P Brown Coat X
Brown Coat
Long Ear Short Ear
P G Bb Ee Bb ee

G De DE BOBO
3 3 1 1
BE Be be be
3 Brown long
BB Ee BB ee Bb Ee Bb ee
Be Borowy
3 Brown Short
Long Brong Sheet Borowan
Tag Brant Shat
Bb Ee Bb ee lob Ee bb ee 21 white boy
be It End E E
proven agg Brag sheet 1 Short white

Q Make a Dihybrid cross between two heterozygous

Brown Coat a long Ear

Brown Coat Brown coat

long ear long Ear
Bb Ee Bb Ee

gametes BE Be be be x BE Be be be

BE
I
I

0
 00
BE Be be be
BB EE BB Ee Bb EE Bb Ee
BE Ble LIE BIC LIE BIC LIE BIC LIE

BB Ee BB ee Bb Ee Bb ee
Be
BIC LIE BIC SIE BIC LIE BIC SIE
Bb EE Bb Ee bb EE bb Ee
DE BIC LIE BIC LIE WIC LIE WIC LIE

Bb Ee Bb ee bb Ee bb ee
be
Ble LIE BIC SIE WIC LIE we se

Brown Brown white white

snow long snort
Phenotypic
wig
ratio 01 3 3 I
561 187 181 64
Both 100m ID on in
dominant tree Inec nee

FI Ee Fz Generation
FIRST FILIAL GENERATION When a cross is made
between homozygous dominant and homozygous
recessive Parents
Tall Plant x short Plant
for F1 generation TT tt
1007 tall
offsprings always
represents heterozygous
Dominant trait
loot
Heterozygous T It
 SECOND FILIAL GENERATION
A cross between the offsprings of F1 generation

Fa generation
For Tall Plant x Tall Plant
the phenotypic ratio Tt x Tt
is always 3 1
and genotypic ratio
is 1 21
always
TT Tt Tt tt
GENOTYPE 251 50 25
Hymn Hetero Homo
Dom Rec

PHENOTYPIC 75 251
Tall Short

TEST CROSS Across made to detect the

genotype of
a
phenotypically dominant
No recessive trait
can make a
short Plant
4g Tall Plant
phenotype until
present Homozygously ft Fff 1
yay TT or Tt

if Homozygous If Heterozygous
Tt Tt Tt Tt tt tt Tt Tt

t
SAINTS SHEESH SHEESH
thx 11 t 17 1 N T X

tt x TT tt x Tt
T T T t
t Tt Tt t Tt

t Tt Tt t Htt
loot tall 507 Tall
soy snort

SEX LINKAGE
22 pairs of
Autosomes are present those
chromosomes which control All the trails
of
an
organism Human other than Sexual
traits
I pair chromosome is called sex
of as
chromosome it control all the traits
related to sex
XX XY
if any trait is female Male
present
on X chromosome represented
xD you8
phenotypically genotypically or I
other than sexual Trait it x x x y

is called X linked or
sex linked trait
XX XX XY XY
501 Male
507 female
 is colour Blindness
A X linked recessive disorder which
causes inability to differentiate between
colour N Normal
n colour
Colour blind Normal Blind
Casely
male female
XY Xx

X'XN XNX Y Xny

carrier cania Normal Normal

cased Normal female

Male carrier

XNY XIN

Nah x'yn any any

carries Nounal

case II A colour blind male is crossed with a

Normal carrier female

XY XnXN
XX xx x Y XNY
257 25 257 257
 Q A colour blind male is married to a
X colour blind father what are
_tof
chances
a
her sister is
colour blindness
y't not
of
colour blind
if

xnÉTNY O male
O female

METED
C B female
pound carrier a c Bmale

Liam
I o
8 Q o
N N

O A C B male is married
to an inborn
ta
father
C B
who daughter to
and has a carrier mother this couple
had a colour blind son and a
carrier daughter what is the genotype
unknown female
of Xx x'x
A XhXN

2 sisters one c B
father XL
is c B other one X x
carrier anotherNomad XY
f their brother
 if their brother Nounal

EPISTASIS
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
the interaction two different genes
at different loci when
of one
effects the
other is called Epistasis
expression of
Feather colour is affected by more
than one
gene
allele F prevent colour formation
iamb allele G provide colour formation

FF GG white feather
FF Gg white feather
Ff g white feather
g
Ff GG white feather
Ff white feather
Gg white feather
Ff gg
tf white feather
gg Coloured feather
ff or

ff
Gg
GG a coloured feather

gene 1
7 Expression A Epistasis interaction
genes Polygenic
Exp 1
Gene A
I Exp 2
Exp 3
Pleiotropy
 AUTOSOMAL LINKAGE

of
AutzSEMa Short height Tall height
chromosomes Isen gum
mm mm
chromosome BrownEye Black Eye
1 pair Black Hair
Brown Hair 0mn
G
Autosomal linkage
is the presence
two genes on
of Black eye
mm
oÉmm
o
E BrownEye

same chromosome
other than Sex Chromosome
and which are linked together that is they do not
assort
For
Independently
in
example a
housefly
E Striped body e
ebony body
A Normal Antenna a Aristopedia Antenna

Pheno
Male Striped body a
female body
NormaIntenna cony
Aristopediatntenna

geno EA area
Efg
gametes A
F1 Eng
striped body
NosmalAntenna
 striped body striped body
Pheno
Normal Antenna Normal Antenna
Geno EA ea EA ea

gametes EA e a EA e a

EA EA EA ea ea ea

Autosomal linkage Crossing Over

crossing over breaks

E E the linkage between
on the same
If they are not genes
linked
If linked
they are
Chromosome
P P
Crossing over doesnot
take place in linked
in dorsophila
genes
E E e e
En En
a a A A

E E e e E
a a A A A A a a
 LESQUAREIN
A statistical test that is used to
determine the difference btw observed
expected ratio weather it is significant or not

N E LOEI 9
To
150

84
D Observed Value
E Expected Value 3,1150
48
Purple stem Green stem
x's
Cut leaves i'Potato leaves
ppd t.P.IE
150
F1 pp Cc x

93

Parent Purple Stem Purple stem

phenotype Cut leaves cut leaves
parent
genotype Ppcc pp Cc
gametes PC Pc PC for PC Pc pc pro
 PC Pc pc pre
PPCC PP Cc Ppcc Ppc
pe Par Cut Pur Cut Pur Cut Par Cut

PPA
p Pur Cut
PPA Ppa Ppar
Pur Pot Pur Cut Pun Pot

pepper pp.cc ppcc pper

Pur Cut Pur Cut over Cnt Gre Cut

pepper Ppar pp copper

Pur Cut Pur Pot Give Cut Gre Pot

9 3 3 1

off
Pur stem Rrp Stam Grester Grestin
cutleans Pot lev Cutler Pot ten
Expected Ratio 9
8157246 2772241
275361
E Expected Number 8
O ObservedNanbu 86 26 24 8
CO E HE 0.31 0.04 0.33 0.11

81 27 27 9
N 0.79W
144 81 144 27
Total Number 9,2 3,3
144
of Offspring
4 9

144
 Greybody dark eyhÉ5 O A cross b w
Grey body
Greybody Pale eyes 4 and dark
white body dark eyes 4 eyes heterozygous
white body paleeyes 18 with dark
grey body eyes
heterozygote calculate N2
Gigi x
org Dd
es Fa 9 3 3 1
GD Gd GD gd GD Gd GD gd
54 444 18 80
GD Gd GD got empected No
GD GADD GADD GgDD AgDd 9 16 80 455
Gd Gadd Gadd Gg Dd aged 3 16 80 15
go GgDD Ga Dd g g DD gg Dd 3 16 80 15
gd AgDd Gadd gg Dd ggdd 1 16 802 5
so
qep
9 3 3 1
write
I KEEF
Ee phys
Ing Pale

n 1 n 4
Great
ped why walk U 123
9 3 3 1
Degree of freedom
Observed o 54 4 4 18
Expeted E 45 15 15 5
1.8 81 8.1 33.5
COELI
E 51
 5 100 0.05
A probability of 0.05 means trait is
the
appearing 5 100 with unexpected expression

The value
of 0.05 is taken as CRITICAL VALUE
n is
representing value
If a

of probability equal to or greator

A

than 0.05
is It Notsignificant
difference

If n is representing a value
less than 0.05 the
of probability
difference is
significant
Critical value The value at which the
the limit occur for significant or
Non
significant difference
n I 4 1 30
non Sig significant
By chance Notbychance

Q Calculate the value Chi squared for a cross with

of
phenotypic ratio 9 3 3 1
of
Purple stem cut leaf 86 Green stem cutleaf 24
Purple stem Potatoleaf 26 Green Stem Potato leaf 8
 REPRESENTATION OF A GENE
gene is represented
Animal TYR Tyrosinase by 3 letter in Italics
HBB Haemoglobin
1 8 clotting factor VIII
HTT Hunting tin Protein
Plants Le Gibberedin Proto's
E uppercase
Alphabets Le Le Le le le le
dominant
lowercase Recessive

1 Albinism Loss
of Pigmentation Budgillaries
Red eye iris colour
of
Jerky movement of eye
Poor Vissi on
TYR gene present on chromosome 11
Recessive I out 17000
gene rarely of

Tyrosine ÉÉA Dopaquinone Melanin

Pigment
2 SICKLE CELL ANEMIA

ABB
gene encodes for hemoglobin
amino acids in B globin Chain haemoglobin
of
PIERRE sea Val His Leu Thr Pro Gu Gu Lys
silent mutation
substitution Mutation
Abnormal Mutation

Ctf CATE
ABNORMAL
SEO of BGLOBIN Val His Leu Thr Pro Val Gu Lys

B globin becomes insoluble in Plasma

due to hypoxia 402 this p Globin Precipitate

30 40
age years implement
Dd destructed
america 4

Knopidginaffin which blood is unable

to dot due to a missing Clotting factor
It is a genetical mutation which is represented
as Recessive allele
F8
gene contains the Code for making factor vill
This is found chromosome Sex linked
usually on X
 1 7
Huntington Disease
HTT is found on chromosome 4 It Codes
for
Hunting tin Protein which helps in Neuronal formation
gene has multiple repeats of CAG code
Hel
This excessive CAG triplet is called
repetition of
Stutter If by mistake the repetition Number
exceeds 40 it will cause it stops the neurological
development

36 39 repeats Normal
It's symptoms appear by theage 30 40
death occur 15 20
of years
and years after first symptom
It is a dominant allele

Le Genes Gibberellin
stem elongation
In Plants the genes are represented by
Itallic 2 letters
Le to code
genes help for an enzyme cascade
which convert the last product
of
enzymatic reaction into gibberellin
of
Le Le Lele Enzyme Activate Gibberellin
expression is tall

le le No
enzyme
No activation
of
Gibbered in expression is short
 To control the initiation
GENE CONTROL and endingup
a
of proteinsynthesis
by gene
IN PROKARYOTE IN EUKARYOTE

gentegn Feira

PROKARYOTES
501
55
qq.in
mRNF 7
PROTEIN

081M t.gg idase amino

a
trait

enzyme w
Cf lactose
1 Glucose Galactose
protein

sugar hydrolysis
Genet
sweater STRUCTURALT REGULATORD
Lf the
gene which
A
gene which
protein which chyme codes for the codes for the
operates structural production
of protein that
gene protein that helps in
perform any expressing
function other
in a cell
genes
Structural Regulatory
genes present on the
are one'ÉÉinat
same DNA functions operates lactose formation
together This cluster is called Lac Operon
is called
of gene
OPERON 1 Lack B galactosidase
ataman 2 lac Y Perm ease
 2 lac Y term ease
aft affe callow lactose to cell
move into the

rRNAPolymerase 37 Lac A Transacetylase

T.ee ggra
7 LAC OPERON coding
1 59 Regulatory regulatory

iE ma hate.ie non adi

za
i f 1
Transcriptions'ucheral

gene codes for

he regulatory a Ide mrna
I
protein called repressor
The repressor protein binds to Protein
operator gene
RNA Polymerase cannot bind lactose appear in the medium
to operator promotor the bacteria
of
Transcription could not occur step 1 lactose is absorbed
at structural
gene by the bacteria
Polymerase
step2 lactose bind to the
LEIA
repressor protein
ÉIY.IEzIEijmmo ÉÉiet
structural
steps It will distort the
protein
98
lactose É p
step4 so
repressor protein win
leave the DNA

ÉI EEÉ
to

pertmeatsemania Steps transcription initiated

Result B GALACTOSIDASE
eqgqigy.bgitaigtoa

n Y s

Eukaryotes carry Transcription factors to control

the
gene
It is protein
a that binds with DNA
and
affects the process of transcription
 off of
TIF Transcription factor helps in
formation of embryo
Helps fetus form
in
Responsible for determination of sex
Cell Death apoptosis
Hormone formation
Seed Germinate
Plant height Hormone
cygibberellin
Gibrellin
PIF Phytochrome
Interacting
DELLA DD factor
Protein Transcription factor
repressor protein

É
op_tf DNA was

transcribed
_Dna
unable to be
without
Gibberen destruct PIF
the Della protein PIF was blocked by
free PIF It initiates a DELLA protein
transcription process gibbered binds to
allowing synthesis this Della Protein
amylase which helps and destruct it
in germination of seed