Sports Medicine-

CQ: How are sports injuries classified and managed?

Direct: caused by an external force applied to the body eg collision.

Indirect: caused by an intrinsic force (a force within the body) e.g. tear in hamstring.

Soft tissue: damage to the muscle, tendons, ligaments, cartilage and etc. There are two types of ST
injuries: Acute injuries that occur suddenly such as sprains, strains etc. Chronic injuries that require a
longer rehabilitation process.

Hard tissue: damage to the bone/teeth.

Overuse: intense and unreasonable use of joints or body areas, provoked by repetitive low impact
exercises such as jogging e.g. shin splints.

Tears or strains occur when a muscle or tendon is overstretched or torn.

Sprains occur when a joint is forced beyond normal range of motion resulting in the tear of ligaments.

Contusion: caused by a sudden blow to the body causing internal bleeding also known as a bruise,
caused by direct force.

Concussion: is also a type of bruising and occurs from a big hit on the head and is very severe.

Abrasion: may occur from landing on a hard, dry surface.

Blisters: are caused by a collection of fluid below the skin and can occur from friction with repeated
use of equipment.

Laceration: is a wound where the flesh has incurred an irregular tear. Lacerations over 1 cm long
need to be referred to a doctor to be stitched.

Phase 1: The inflammatory response:

- Bleeding time varies/increased blood flow for swelling
- Reduces over 24 hours

Phase 2: The repair and regenerative stage:

- Generation of repair material and scar formation
- Repair tissue is different
- Increases the risk of recurrence of rupture.

Phase 3: The remodelling stage:

- Results in organised and functional scar tissue

RICER TREATMENT:
 REST Reduce bleeding and prevents further injury

ICE Reduce pain and swelling

COMPRESS Decrease bleeding and swelling

ELEVATE Decrease bleeding and swelling

REFERRAL Determine the extent of injury and rehab

HEAT Do not apply heat for at least 48 hours

ALCOHOL Do not consume alcohol as it increases swelling

RUNNING Movement is encouraged

MASSAGE Do not massage for 72 hours

Fractures: a break in a bone caused by a direct impact; occurs between the joints. Signs include
deformity, bruising, swelling etc.

Dislocation: occurs when the bones of a joint are displaced. A subluxation is where the bones are
displaced but go back in.

ASSESSMENT OF INJURIES DURING GAME: TOTAPS

TALK Find out what happened: Where it hurts? How

bad is the pain?

OBSERVE Look for signs of pain and deformity, note their

mental health

TOUCH Touch around the injured area to determine the

exact location and severity

ACTIVE MOVEMENT Are they able to move through a range of motion

PASSIVE MOVEMENT Physiotherapist will gently move the joint

through ROM noting pain and difficulty

SKILLS TEST Determines if they are right to continue

CQ: How does sport medicine address the demands of specific athletes?

Asthma: is a condition characterised by breathing difficulty where there is a reduction in the width of
the airways leading into the lungs.

Diabetes: is a disease in which the body does not produce insulin .There are two types of diabetes;
Type 1: genetically inherited, caused by the body’s inability to produce sufficient insulin. Physical
activity is encouraged and is treated with insulin injections. Type 2 is developed through poor lifestyle
habits. Sugar is given to the patient as it activates insulin production.
Insulin: produced in the pancreas and is important in the metabolism of carbohydrates.

Epilepsy: is a disruption of brain function causing a brief alteration to the level of consciousness
resulting in seizures and fits.

Hypoglycaemia: blood sugar levels too low

Hyperglycaemia: blood sugar levels too high

CQ: How does each medical condition affect someone participating in physical activity and
management?

Asthma: Reduction in the amount of gas being supplied to the muscles, thus causing the athletes to
fatigue quicker than normal. Swimming is a preferred sport as the warm moist environment is less
likely to cause an asthma attack. Other controls include;
- Relaxation techniques
- Controlled breathing
- Exercise intensity needs to be steady
- Adequate water

Diabetes: The diabetic athlete must balance insulin through injection, food intake and regular physical
activity. Their diets need to be balanced with complex carbs forming a significant portion. Type 1
would have insulin injections and Type 2 would consume more sugar.

Female ATHLETES
Female athletes have special dietary requirements including increased iron and calcium requirements.
Iron levels are depleted by physical training and menstruation.

EATING DISORDERS-
Female athletes have twice the risk of developing eating disorders due to
- Exposure to peer influence and social expectations.
- The need to conform to an ideal sporting image.

IRON DEFICIENCY
Iron deficiency causes anaemia. If haemoglobin drops below 11 grams per 100 mL of blood, the
person is considered to be anaemic. Without sufficient iron, the number of red blood cells is reduced,
limiting the oxygen and the carrying capacity of the blood contributing to the cause of fatigue and
lethargy.

Bone Density- Directly relates to the quantity of calcium in the bones. Bones that lack calcium are
susceptible to fractures and structural weakening. Calcium is regulated by the parathyroid glands
which controls how much calcium is stored in the bones and how much will be released to the body. If
the parathyroid glands become over-active, calcium from the bones is released to the blood stream,
causing the bones to become brittle and contributing to a condition called osteoporosis.

Pregnancy-
Pregnant women should exercise regularly to improve cardiovascular fitness as they should consume
adequate water to avoid thermal stress which can affect the foetal development. Exercise can control
weight and improve muscle tone.

CQ: WHAT ROLE DO PREVENTATIVE ACTIONS PLAY IN ENHANCING THE WELLBEING OF

AN ATHLETE?
PRESCREENINGS: Assesses the health status of a person before they participate in physical
activity, usually looking at age, gender and previous experiences. Pre-screening enhances the well-
being of the athlete, because it helps guide the exercise professional in exercise prescription that
caters to the specific needs of the individual.

Physical fitness- . Physical fitness helps reduce injuries in sport and is specific to the sport. There
are health related and skill related components of physical fitness. Each sport is specific in its physical
fitness requirements and should be analysed individually.

Skill and technique- High level skill and good technique help prevent injury and enhance the well-
being of the athlete. Poor technique leads to higher injury rates, especially overuse injuries. Good
technique, on the other hand, protects against injury and produces a better performance. Someone
with good technique is biomechanically efficient. This means they can produce more power, and
greater accuracy with less effort.

WARMUP: To prevent injury and enhance performance. It should include 20-25 minutes and should
be geared to the demands of the sport, causing redistribution of blood flow and higher muscle
temperature.

STRETCHING:
- PNF: (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation), usually done with a partner and
relies on reflexes to produce deeper stretches that increase flexibility e.g. pushing hard
against a wall.
- Static stretches are those in which you stand, sit or lie still and hold a single position for a
period of time, up to about 45 seconds. Eg overhead triceps stretch
- Dynamic stretches are controlled movements that prepare your muscles, ligaments and
other soft tissues for performance and safety. Eg walking lunges.

Sports policy and the sports environment-

Rules of sport and activities-
- The rules of the sport assist the flow of play and protect participants from injury. They are
generally enforced on the field by a referee or umpire and promote safety within the game. In
collision sports, there is a considerable potential for injury, this is increased by the execution
of common but illegal movements eg. Hockey goalkeepers must wear protective gear before
allowing them to take the field of play.
Modified rules for children-
- Major modifications have been made to junior sport at most levels to accommodate specific
needs of children. Examples of changes include simplifying rules and awarding trophies and
certificates. These changes are essential to encourage children to continue in the activity.
Children due to their stature and limited capabilities have very specific needs in terms of
equipment size, court dimensions and etc.
Matching of opponents-
- To promote safety, it is essential to match children with others of comparable size. While the
risk is higher in contact sports such as rugby, size variations do make a difference where
larger children may be able to bowl faster. Consideration should be given to the size, age,
gender, strength, psychological development and skill levels. If competitions are uneven,
children will lose interest.
Use of protective equipment-
- All protective equipment must protect the wearer and other players, comfortable and allow
airflow. Examples include mouthguards and padding. The higher the risk of injury from impact
in a sport, the more important the need for equipment must be safe and reliable.
Safe grounds, equipment and facilities-
- Player safety is the responsibility of the organising group to ensure that every effort has been
made to match facilities to safety expectations. According to safety guidelines for children in
sport and recreation, all equipment must be regularly checked, suited to size and padded
appropriately.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Some environmental conditions such as high temperatures, humidity etc may place athletes at risk.
Appropriate hydration is an important factor to be considered during endurance activities.

TEMPERATURE REGULATIONS: Our normal temperature is 37 degrees because a balance exists

between heat being produced by the body as a result of metabolism and muscle actions and being
dispersed by the body through specialised heat loss mechanisms.

CONVECTION: Is the transfer of heat away from the skin by a moving fluid such as an air current.
RADIATION: Heat loss in the form of infrared rays. During activities, our body heat is radiated to the
atmosphere. The bigger the difference between the body’s heat and the environment, the greater the
radiated heat loss.
EVAPORATION: Heat loss
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS: Extremes in environmental temperatures, excessive heat or cold require
specific performance strategies to avoid hypothermia and hyperthermia. Exercise conditions can
make it difficult for the body to control it’s what balance mechanism, causing the body’s water
requirement to greatly increase.
HUMIDITY: Limit the body’s ability to dissipate heat, preventing evaporation of sweat.
WIND: Contributes to heat loss. Burning sensation on the skin can be further accentuated by
increased humidity.
RAIN: May assist body temperature control during performances in warm to hot weather. It may affect
safety contributing to accidents.
ALTITUDE: At high altitudes, solar radiation is stronger as sun protection such as sunscreen is
critical.
POLLUTION: Can pose a safety hazard, especially those who train in large cities or suffer from
asthma or cardiorespiratory conditions. It increases airway resistance, causing irritation to the upper
respiratory tract and reduces oxygen transport capacity in the blood. Carbon monoxide is considered
a dangerous pollutant which binds hemoglobin in preference to oxygen. Avoiding cigarette smoking,
rush hour exercising and try not to exercise when humidity, temperature and traffic pollution are high.
GUIDELINES FOR FLUID INTAKE: The role of water in temperature regulation is critical because
blood plasma is 90% water. A reduction in water lowers plasma levels and causes blood pressure to
decrease.
ACCLIMATISATION: A training technique where an athlete experiences different climatic stressors
causing physiological adaptations to occur, developing tolerance of expectations of conditions.

TAPING AND BANDAGING:

- Preventative taping refers to the application of adhesive or non adhesive strapping or
bandages to a joint area to protect and support the joint during movement.
- Taping for isolation of injury is often required after an injury has been sustained and may be
necessary during the rehabilitation process.
- Bandaging for immediate treatment of injury uses the RICER management means that
compression bandages are applied to restrict bleeding of the injured area.

Rehabilitation procedures are the procedures used by sports physiotherapists and exercise
physiologists in the care and management of sports injuries. During rehabilitation, procedures help to
ensure the athlete does not lose all fitness via the reversibility effect.
 - Progressive mobilisation refers to the gradual increase in the joint range of motion.
It is required because of this tightening of the muscles and stiffening of the joint. Progressive
mobilisation, slowly stretches the muscles allowing for a gradual increase in the range of
motion at the joint. Progressive mobilisation should begin as early as possible, in order to help
prevent scar tissue and to reduce the recovery time. It uses dynamic, static and PNF
stretching, but NOT ballistic stretching as this can cause further damage.
- Graduated exercise is used in rehabilitation to ensure exercise intensity and activities
progress with healing and do not cause further injury. Graduated exercise will progress
through three stages – stretching, then conditioning, then total body fitness.There are various
forms of stretching, including: static, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF),
dynamic, and ballistic. Ballistic stretching is generally avoided in rehabilitation
Conditioning is the process of strengthening muscles and getting them back to their pre-
injury levels. Total body fitness helps slow down reversibility.
- Training during rehabilitation- can be done to reduce and limit the loss of fitness. While
the injury requires rest, this rest does not always have to be to the entire body. This helps
prevent reversibility.
- Use of heat and cold- The use of heat allows for increased blood flow and flexibility and
decreased pain eg. Hydrotherapy is a heated pool around 40 degrees that is used during
rehabilitation as it uses buoyancy to limit the force/weight on the injured area during
exercise. The technical term for the use of cold in rehabilitation is cryotherapy. The purpose
of using cold in rehabilitation is to reduce pain, blood flow/bleeding and inflammation. This is
applied immediately after the injury occurs and during rehabilitation of the injury eg icebaths,
icepacks, ice massages etc.

An athlete running a 400 metre race experiences a hamstring strain in the sprint towards the finish
line. What is the management ?
A hamstring strain is classified as an indirect soft tissue injury but can also be overused due to the
repetitive movements. The management of a hamstring would be RICER. The athlete must rest the
injured area and apply ice to reduce swelling and pain. The athlete would then compress the area to
reduce the blood flow allowing the reduction of pain and swelling. The coach or someone nearby
should assist the athlete by elevating the leg to prevent the area from bruising. If the injury is severe,
immediately refer to medical assistance for further advice.

CORE 1 HEALTH PRIORITIES IN AUSTRALIA

CQ HOW ARE PRIORITY ISSUES FOR AUSTRALIA’S HEALTH DEFINED?

Epidemiology: The study of disease in a population through the collection of data and information to
identify patterns and trends. The Department of Education, doctors, hospitals use epidemiology. The
five measures of epidemiology are: mortality- the number of deaths in a given population from a
disease, infant mortality- the number of infant deaths in the first year of life per 1000 live births,
morbidity- the incidence level of disease in a given population and life expectancy: the length of
time a person can expect to live.

Limitations:
- Does not always show the significant variation in the health status amongst the population.
- Might not accurately indicate quality of life.
- Fail to explain why health inequities exist.

SOCIAL JUSTICE PRINCIPLES:

- PARTICIPATION
- EQUITY
- ACCESS
 - RIGHTS
Priority population group: Priority population groups due to health inequities become the focus of
health promotion initiatives. They receive more funding and health programs get developed to meet
their particular needs. For example the royal flying doctors service that functions in remote areas.
Prevalence of condition: The higher the prevalence the greater the health issue, which may then be
identified as a priority health issue in Australia.
Potential for prevention and early intervention: The easier it is to prevent a disease the more likely
a health promotion will have an impact on the burden of the disease and reduce its incidence.
Cost to the individual and community

It is important to prioritise particular priority health issues because it helps to ensure fair allocation of
resources and funding. Applying the principles of social justice enables us to identify priority
population groups and seek to provide funding and resources to create supportive environments so
that they are empowered to take ownership and act to improve their own health.

ABORGINIAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER PEOPLE (ATSI)

Nature and extent:
- Lower life expectancy (approx 12 years than non Indigenous)
- Higher mortality rates
- Higher risk of death from circulatory diseases and diabetes.

Sociocultural determinants:
- Culturally lower life expectancy
- Different perspective on health
- Higher rates of depression and other mental health issues

Socioeconomic determinants:
- Lower income/no employment
- Lower education
- Higher risk taking
- Lower socioeconomic status/social class

Environmental determinants:
- Limited access to medical health services
- More likely to live in rural and remote areas
- Limited access to technology

THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS, COMMUNITIES AND THE GOVERNMENT IN ADDRESSING

HEALTH INEQUITIES.

INDIVIDUALS:
- Access to information and education
- Exercise right to health care services
- Make informed decisions
- Take responsibility to own health

COMMUNITIES:
- Provide health services/resources
- Provide education
- Provide support

GOVERNMENT:
 - Medicare
- Education
- Fundings
- Hospitals.

PEOPLE IN RURAL AND REMOTE AREAS-

Nature and extent:
- Lower life expectancy
- Higher rates of disease and injury
- Higher rates of suicide, transport accidents, diabetes etc

HIGH LEVELS OF PREVENTABLE CHRONIC DISEASE, INJURY AND MENTAL HEALTH

PROBLEMS
Nature and extent:
- Leading cause of Australia
- Higher mortality rates in males
Coronary: happens when your coronary arteries get narrower and reduce the blood flow to the heart.
Stroke: happens when blood supply to the brain is interrupted
Peripheral Vascular disease: is reduced circulation of blood to a body part other than the brain or the
heart.
RISK OF CVD
- A family history of heart disease
- Gender
- Advancing age

THE MODIFIABLE RISK FACTORS OF CVD

- Smoking
- Obesity and overweight conditions
- Physical inactivity

PROTECTIVE FACTORS OF CVD

- Regular physical activity
- Eating a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol
- Avoid exposure to tobacco smoke.

DETERMINANTS OF CVD
Sociocultural
- A family history of CVD are more at risk
- Media exposure to the effects of smoking have led to a reduction in smoking rates.

Socioeconomic
- People with a low socioeconomic status or those who are unemployed have higher risk
because lack of income can limit health choices such as purchasing fresh fruit and
vegetables.
- People with a low education level are more at risk as poor education is linked to poor health
choices and health literacy about how to access and utilise health services.

Environmental
- People living in rural and remote areas tend to have less access to health information, health
services and technology such as electrocardiogram monitors
- Exposed to bad lifestyle habits.
CANCER- is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread
to other parts of the body. The two types of tumour: benign does not invade nearby tissue or spread
to other parts of the body whereas malignant can invade nearby tissues.

Diabetes is a disease that relates to the body's ability to control blood sugar levels using insulin. Type
1 is when the body no longer produces insulin to control blood sugar levels. People with type 1 require
insulin injections in order to control blood sugar levels. Type 2 diabetes on the other hand is
characterised by a breakdown in the efficiency of insulin. It is often pictured as a lock and key model,
where insulin is the key and the body's cells have a lock on the door that allows sugar into them.

A GROWING AND AGEING POPULATION

Australia’s population is increasing due to more births than deaths and an increase in overseas
migration.
Healthy ageing- Healthy ageing is a process that includes various behaviour and choices that affect
health, such as regular physical activity, good dietary choices, regular family contact and social
activities, as well as resilience to life’s circumstances. The goal of healthy ageing is to enable the
elderly to maintain their health into old age, which allows them to contribute to the workforce longer,
and engage in society better. This increases economic growth, but also decreases the use of health
services by the elderly

Increased population living with chronic disease and disability- The increased population is due
to the high prevalence of chronic diseases within the elderly. It has a large burden on the population.
Diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes etc continue to impact the Australian society
leading to debilitating conditions. Eating a diet high in fat, salts and sugars, drinking too much alcohol,
smoking, failing to exercise regularly or neglecting mental health can all have a serious and
detrimental impact on long term health, especially for those who are older. Although the quality of life
for all Australians has improved due to medical technology advancements.

Demand for health services and workforce shortages- A growing and ageing population increases
the demand for health services and creates workforce shortages in the health service. However, the
government has come up with several potential working strategies to combat the problem:
– Expanding the job description of nurses
– Increasing the number of nurses in high demand areas.

Availability of carers and volunteers- The growing and ageing population require an increase in
carers and volunteers. Aged care can be provided through community aged care or residential aged
care. Care provided often includes daily activities such as bathing, cooking and administering
medications.

HEALTH CARE IN AUSTRALIA

Australia provides a large range and types of health facilities and services. Health facilities and
services can be institutional, such as: hospitals, and nursing homes; or non-institutional, such as:
General practitioners, dentists etc.

Though various people and organisations are involved in the running and oversight of the health
system, the people who have overall responsibility for health facilities and services are the Australian
health ministers (Commonwealth & state). They focus on achieving better health services and a
sustainable health system in Australia.

The government recognises the health care system needs to have equity of access.This means that
health care is easily accessible when needed and equitably distributed amongst the population. The
nature of Australia’s population distribution across such a large land mass makes equity of access to
health facilities and services difficult. People from rural and remote areas are disadvantaged due to
their geographic location, limiting their access to health services.

Preventive and early intervention strategies (prevention, protection & promotion) within the health
sector cost Australia $2.2 billion a year. This is 1.4% of total health expenditure, with the main
expenses going to immunisations, health promotion and cancer screening programs. Prevention and
early intervention have a great impact on quality of life, and life expectancy as well as decreasing the
burden on the health care system making it a healthier workforce boosting economic performance and
productivity.

The impact of emerging new treatments and technologies on health care includes many benefits to
health outcomes, but also an increase in cost and raises questions of equity of access. Eg
chemotherapy is introduced to treat diseases like cancer. These treatments help detect early signs of
diseases, improving quality of life and life expectancy of individuals.

DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF MEDICARE AND PRIVATE HEALTH INSURANCES:

Medicare is a health system that provides Australiasn access to free or subsidised treatment by health
professionals such as doctors and accommodation as a public patient in a public hospital. The
benefits of Medicare include the cost coverage which allows people who cannot afford private health
insurance access to health services and the broad acceptance as almost every hospital accepts
medicare. Although medicare does not cover for optometrical and dental costs.

COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE HEALTH CARE-

- A complementary health care means you use it alongside of your conventional medical
treatment, helping you feel and recover better
- An alternative health care means you use it instead of your conventional medical treatment.
Examples include: natural medicine such as herbs, homeopathy, supplementation etc.
- There are many reasons for the growth of complementary and alternative health care:
increased credibility of many complementary and alternative health services as practitioners
gain tertiary qualifications in order to be registered and practice, the growing multiculturalism
of Australia, health insurance cover.
A Naturopath utilises the natural medicine approach and seeks to use natural products to
strengthen the immune system and speed up the healing process. Naturopaths often treat
patients by improving their diets or providing nutritional supplements, using homeopathic
treatments, or herbal medicines.
How to make informed choices?
With many complementary and alternative health care approaches not regulated, it is important for
people to know how to make informed choices. To determine who to believe there are a range of
things a person should look for, these include: qualifications, registration, regulations and research.
There is a lot of accessible information on the internet and it is important to seek information from
people who are experienced and qualified. The person should be able to answer questions to side
effects, interactions with other treatment and evidence and if they cannot, they are not reliable
sources.

CORE 2 FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE

One of the two different energy systems is the ATP/PC energy system also known as Alactacid. The
alactacid energy system (ATP/PC) is utilised for short, intense muscular contractions at a high
intensity between 90%-100%. The source of fuel for this system is Creatine Phosphate which is
stored in cells and lasts approximately 8-12 seconds. Once this burst has been used up, it will take 3-
5 minutes to fully replenish and in the meantime create by-products of heat and energy. Depletion of
Creatine Phosphate will cause fatigue for an athlete. For example, a 100 metre sprinter would use the
ATP-PC System within the first 10-20 metres and start using the next system which is the Lactic Acid
system. On the other hand, the Aerobic system is used for activities that require oxygen to maintain
muscular contractions. The primary sources of fuel are fat, sometimes protein and carbohydrates and
can last any time over 2 minutes depending on the intensity with hydrogen and carbon dioxide being
by-products. The cause of fatigue is the depletion of glycogen storage. This system is highly efficient
and can last very long at a lower intensity rate, however, it takes up to 48 hours to recover. For
example, a marathon runner will run in a consistent manner.

TYPES OF AEROBIC TRAINING AND METHODS:

1. Continuous: involves a single exercise that goes for an extended period of time without rest.
Most common. It improves cardiovascular fitness, suitable for marathon runners, tennis
players etc. This requires the heart rate to enter the aerobic training zone of 65-85% at a
minimum of 20 minutes.
2. FARTLEK: Requires the intensity to change at random times, helps the cardiovascular
system to adapt quickly as intensity changes.
3. Aerobic interval: Long periods of higher workloads followed by a shorter rest period as it
allows variety to be used throughout the training session.

TYPES OF ANAEROBIC TRAINING-

1. Developing power through resistance/strength training
2. Plyometrics: involving a stretch-shortening cycle to exert maximal force in short fast
intervals.The stretch-shortening cycle involves a brief eccentric contraction where the muscle
is stretched.
3. Short interval: has short work periods followed by longer rest periods like bike riding.

FLEXIBILITY- range of motions through which joints and body parts can move. Prevents injury and
improves skill execution.
- Static: use of static, isometric stretches used to increase a joint’s range of motion/movement.
- Dynamic: stretching with continual movement and slow purposeful movements through the
joint range of motion
- Ballistic: bouncing movements done in order to increase joint range of motion, but also to
increase tendon elasticity. It seeks to move beyond the stretch reflex.

STRENGTH TRAINING: A general term that encompasses all types of exercise aimed to improve
strength and muscle size. Benefits include muscle hypertrophy, increase strength, increase power.
There are three types- resistance training, weight training and isometric training.

Elastic resistance training requires an elastic, often a large band or spring, to create the resistance
during the exercise. Resistance band exercises are often used in rehabilitation.
Hydraulic resistance is produced by the compression of an air or liquid. Hydraulic resistance
machines are generally very expensive, but have particular properties that make them advantageous
for some athletes. Hydraulic machines increase their resistance as the exercise movement speed
increases.

Weight training can be used for muscle hypertrophy, muscular endurance, strength and power. In a
sense this is essentially high intensity interval training that focuses on specific muscles or muscle
groups.

Isometric training is where the muscle produces a force but there is no change in muscle length. It
provides increases in strength for static contractions.
The initial planning considerations for improving performance focus on the specific sport of the
athlete/s. The sport is broken down in order to identify specific components of fitness. Performance
and fitness needs of competition needs to be analysed. The schedule of events/competition needs to
be examined in the initial planning considerations for improved performance. The climate and season
the competitions will be played in or on should be considered.

When planning a training year it is important to use periodisation in order to structure the year well
and ensure the athlete peaks in performance at the right time. Periodisation is the process of breaking
the year down into smaller time periods in order to structure the training program effectively.
Periodisation has three main subphases: the macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle, which combine
together to create the year long training year. The three phases of competition are: pre-season, in-
season and off-season. Peaking and tapering(reduction of training volume and intensity just prior to
competition in order to allow peaking to occur)are used. Short specific subphases are used

The elements needed to be considered when designing a training session are

- Health and safety considerations
- Providing an overview of the session (goal specific)
- Warm up and cool down
- Skill instruction and practice
- Conditioning
- Evaluation

Planning to avoid overtraining-

Overtraining leads to poor performance and leads to injuries, particularly overuse injuries. Athletes
who suffer from overtraining become fatigued, tired, and lethargic. This feeling becomes a lack of
motivation in the athlete, and can also lead to injury through poor technique and overuse.

USE OF DRUGS-
- Dangers to the athlete’s physical health, a loss of reputation, loss of sponsorship deals, and a
loss of income.
- For strength: Human growth hormone (HGH) is a chemical produced by the body for growth
and development, it stimulates muscle growth.
- For aerobic performance- EPO (erythropoetin) is a naturally occurring hormone in the body
released from the kidneys. EPO is used for aerobic performance improvements because it
stimulates bone to produce more red blood cells. The more red blood cells you have the more
oxygen the blood can carry leading to improved oxygen uptake and improved performance.
- To mask other drugs:. Diuretics cause the body to remove water from blood and excrete it as
urine. This dilutes urine and makes positive detection of drugs such as anabolic steroids less
likely.
- Benefits and limitations of drug testing:
- promoting drug-free sport that incorporates fair play
- promoting safety and equity in sport
- Protect athletes reputations
- Not all drugs can be tested for as the new prohibited list develops each year
- Drug testing is expensive.

USE OF TECHNOLOGY-
- Training innovation: lactate thresholding and biomechanical analysis(analyses the athlete’s
technique to ensure their movement is efficient and safe) of specific movements have
become more common in a variety of sports.
- Equipment advances: have become much lighter allowing faster and more free movements.
- Ethical issues: Unfair competition.
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING:
- Progessive overload: allows athletes to continuously improve throughout the training
season. Overload must be applied to performance in order for improvement to take place.
- Specificity: Training that is targeted at muscle movements and metabolic processes eg
resistance training.
- Reversibility: When training stops, adaptations stop. DETRAINING
- Variety: Allows athletes to make changes to their training routine when variety is applied and
is specific to the demands of the sport.
- Training thresholds: allow athletes to increase their performance in relation to aerobic and
anaerobic capacity.
- Warm up and Cool downs: Enables the athlete to mentally and physically prepare for
activity. Cool down can assist with recovery and prevention of injury.

IMPROVING PERFORMANCE:
Concentric: shortening
Eccentric: lengthening

POWER: FORCE X DISTANCE DIVIDE TIME.

Negative: Inspired by fear of consequences

Intrinsic: Motivated from within/internally.
Extrinsic: Motivated by external sources usually consequences

Anxiety: Psychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a

situation perceived as potentially harmful. Caused by a source of stress, anticipation. There are two
types of anxiety:

Trait Anxiety: Refers to a general level of stress that is so characteristic of each individual
- Support, positive comments and encouragement positively affect a player's level of trait
anxiety

State Anxiety: Stress that is characterised by a state of heightened emotions that develop a
response to fear or danger. Happens in a particular time/situation.
- Can lead to mental paralysis
- Choking (under pressure)

Sources of Stress: Stress produced by adrenaline make the body respond by:
- Increasing HR/blood supply to skeletal muscles
- More oxygen to lungs
- Increased glucose production
- Increased sweat production
- Tightened muscles
Sources include personal pressure (goals, desire to win), competition pressure (opponents), social
pressure (coach, parents, friends) and physical pressure (perform skills in competition). Anxiety is vital
as it can cause your arousal to be too high or too low.

Arousal: A physiological process referring to a specific level of anxiety experienced prior and during
athletic performance. State of readiness.

Psychological Motivation Strategies:

- Relaxation Techniques such as meditation, a small walk, music. This allows individuals to
control or reduce anxiety.
 - Goal Setting
SPECIFIC
MEASURABLE
ATTAINABLE
REALISTIC
TIMEBOUND
- Mental Rehearsal/Imagery allows an athlete to mentally prepare all case scenarios and
emotions before a game.
- Concentration/Attention/Focus
- Visualisation
Recovery Strategies:

Physiological strategies: eg. Cool down helps to remove waste products and return the body back
to its pre-exercise state, speeding up recovery and hydration replaces the amount of fluids lost in the
game..

Neural Strategies: promote the nervous system to recover the body, it focuses on the nervous
system and relieving tension eg. getting a massage and hydrotherapy (spa, ice bath). I

Tissue Damage Strategies: aim to speed up recovery by restoring damaged tissue, particularly
muscle. T e.g. cryotherapy.. Predominantly 1-2 day of cold and ice therapy and massages, promoting
anti-inflammation and reducing inflammation. From the second-third day, apply heat to promote blood
flow to enhance immobilisation and recovery/healing.

Psychological Strategies: eg. relaxation. Meditation can be used to promote healing. Placing more
focus allows the nervous system to notice the healing process.

How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?

Stages of skill acquisition:

Cognitive Stage:
- Known as the understanding stage
- Understanding what to do and how to do it
- Instruct, explain and demonstrate
- Many mistakes will occur
- Requires helpful feedback from instructor
- Not fluent in movement

Associative Stage:
- Known as the practice phase
- Builds on from cognitive stage
- A lot more practice
- Less frequent, minor errors
- Cope with additional information and feedback
- Task complexity increases

Autonomous Stage:
- Known as the automatic stage
- Mastery of the skill/task
- Fluent movements
- Don’t need to think about it
- Can make alterations
 - Can attend to more strategic and tactical information

CHARACTERISTICS OF A LEARNER-
PERSONALITY, HEREDITY, CONFIDENCE, PRIOR EXPERIENCE AND ABILITY.

The learning environment refers to the nature of the skill and whether it is an open or closed skill,
gross, discrete, serial or continuous skill and if it is self-paced or externally paced. The nature of the
skill affects how the skill should be taught and which practice method is best suited to the skill.

Vitamins: are inorganic compounds essential in maintaining bodily functions. It does NOT contain
energy and mainly assists with energy release, metabolism and tissue building. Gained from a
balanced diet. ONLY vitamin A and D can be stored. Supplementation of vitamins is not necessary
and considered dangerous as it can cause nausea, loss of appetite, fatigue and skin dryness.

Minerals: are inorganic substances found in the body essential in maintaining bodily functions. It does
NOT provide energy. Iron and calcium are of particular interest in athletes. Iron is found in
haemoglobin which helps to produce red blood cells and need to be balanced. Calcium is vital and
beneficial for the development of bone structure. Groups at risk for iron deficiency include:
- Endurance athletes (lose through sweat)
- Females (through menstrual blood loss)
- Vegetarians (lack of red meat in diet)
- Teen males (growth spurts)
Groups at risk for calcium deficiency include:
- Females (insufficient intake of calcium in diet)
- Females (whose menstrual cycles have stopped, leading to a loss of calcium from bone
tissue).

Protein: is responsible for holding the cells together in the growth, repair and maintenance of body
tissue. It is easily achieved in the Australian diet and assists with the growth of muscle (hypertrophy)
and repair of body tissue. It also can be used as an energy source in the aerobic system. Excess
protein levels have the following negative effects:
- Increased calcium lost through urine
- Protein can’t be stored therefore puts stress on kidney function
- Can contribute to obesity (high fat content foods)
The best protein is considered whey.

Caffeine: is a stimulant drug acting on the brain and central nervous system. Improving cognitive
processes such as alertness, reaction time and concentration. It has diuretic properties: increases the
amount of fluid passing through the body and therefore could be contributing to a cause of
dehydration. It is believed to contribute towards muscle cramps.
Ergogenic aid: assists performance by assisting metabolic processes (e.g mobilise fat stores in
endurance athletes to be used for energy, glycogen sparing.) Helps metabolise energy better.

Creatine Products: A naturally occurring organic acid that helps supply energy to cells. Some
potential advantages include: may increase strength, delay fatigue, burn fat, help vegetarians with low
creatine stores, assist muscle hypertrophy. Small carbs with water = best results Although it is
believed to contribute towards muscle cramps, increases water weight and large doses may result in
the development of renal disease