Particle Physics

Dr Victoria Martin, Spring Semester 2012

Lecture 6: Calculating QED

!Fermion currents
!Spin-1 Bosons
!e!µ!"e!µ!
!Renormalisation
!Running Coupling

Notation
• Today we can’t avoid using the metric tensor gµ#.
 
+1 0 0 0
 0 −1 0 0 
gµν =
 0

0 −1 0 
0 0 0 −1
• If take the scalar product of two four-vectors, we actually implicitly
use the metric tensor:
a · b = aµ bµ = gµν aν bµ = +1 × (a0 b0 ) − 1 × (a1 b1 ) − 1 × (a2 b2 ) − 1 × (a3 b3 )
• The factors of +1 and !1 are due to the metric tensor.

• The important parts today: if we have two four-momentum vectors

with different indices, e.g. a# bµ gµ# = a·b
• More generally if we have objects (spinors) with two different indices
e.g. µ and # multiplied by gµ# we can change the indices to be the
same.

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From Tuesday: Summary and Reading List
• The Dirac Equation describes spin-! particles.
(iγ µ ∂µ − m)ψ = 0
• Solutions include four component spinors, u and v.
(γ µ pµ − m)u = 0 (γ µ pµ + m)v = 0

ψ = u(p)e−ip·x ψ = v(p)e−ip·x
• $µ, µ=0,1,2,3 are 4 " 4 Gamma matrices
• Four components describe e.g. two spin states of the electron and two spin
states of the positron.
• Negative energy solutions, E=!%(p2+m2) are predicted by the Dirac equation.
• Modern interpretation is to is reverse the sign of xµ and pµ: giving a positive
energy anti-particle travelling forwards in time.
• Any particle can be written in terms of left handed and right handed
components: " = (1 ! $5)" + (1 + $5)" = "L+"R
• Spin-1 bosons are described by the polarisation vector, &µ: Aµ = &µ (p ; s) e –ip·x
• Next Lecture: The Electromagnetic Force. Griffiths 7.5 & 7.6
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The Adjoint Spinor & Fermion Currents

• Need to define a Lorentz invariant fermion current for use in Feynman diagrams.
• Spinors are not vectors!  ψ1 
 ψ2 
ψ= 
 ψ3 
T
ψ † = (ψ ∗ ) = (ψ1∗ , ψ2∗ , ψ3∗ , ψ4∗ )
ψ4

• In particular ψ† ψ is not invariant under Lorentz transformations.

• Define an adjoint spinor, ψ̄ ≡ ψ γ ψ̄ ≡ ψ γ = (ψ1 , ψ2 , −ψ3 , −ψ4 )

† 0 † 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

• ψ̄ψ is invariant under Lorentz transformation

• Two further important combinations:

! j = ψ̄γ ψ is the fermion current, used for Feynman calculations
µ µ

! ρ = ψ̄γ ψ is the probability (current) density

0

• Probability density is positive definite for both particles and antiparticles!

• The Dirac equation provides positive definite probability … unlike the Klein
Gordon Equation!

4
 Spin-1 Bosons
• The photon is described by Maxwell’s Equations. Rewrite in relativistic invariant form:
4π µ
∂ 2 Aµ = j
c
� Feynman
• Where A = (V, A)
µ
is the electric (V)Rules forpotential
and magnetic QED(A) and j µ = (cρ, �j) is
the charge-current density
•It should be remembered that the expression

• Plane-wave solutions are: Aµ = &µ (s) e –ip·x where &µ(s) is the polarisation vector
hides a lot of complexity. We have summed over all possible time-
• Three possible
orderingsspin
andorientations
summed over all polarization
along states of
photon direction of the virtual
travel s = +1,0,!1
photon. If we are then presented with a new Feynman diagram
- s = +1
- s =
wecorresponds
!1
don’t want to
corresponds
togo
to
a right-handed
a left-handed
helicity
through the full calculationtransverse
helicity
again.
(left and }
right
Fortunately this isn’t necessary – can just write down matrix
polarisation states
circular
elementpolarisation)
- s = 0using
is thealongitudinal
set of simple polarisation
rules state
(does not exist for a real photon, exists for W and Z and virtual photons)
Basic Feynman Rules:
The polarisation vector satisfies the Propagator
following conditions:
factor for each internal line
e + ! "
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! pµ &# = 0!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
µ
(i.e. each internal virtual particle)
&(s)&(s’) = 's’s Dirac Spinor for each external line
e!–s &µ(s)&#(s) = !gµ#!+–pµp#/M2 (i.e. each real incoming or outgoing particle)
Vertex factor for each vertex
5

Prof. M.A. Thomson Michaelmas 2011 117

Feynman Rules for QED

Basic Rules for QED
External Lines
incoming particle
outgoing particle
spin 1/2
incoming antiparticle
outgoing antiparticle
incoming photon
spin 1
outgoing photon
Internal Lines (propagators)
! $
spin 1 photon

spin 1/2 fermion

Vertex Factors
spin 1/2 fermion (charge -|e|)

Matrix Element = product of all factors

• Prof.
Matrix element M is product of all factors
M.A. Thomson Michaelmas 2011 118
• Integrate over all allowed internal momenta and spins, consistent with
momentum conservation
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 Summing Diagrams
• The Matrix Element for a transition is the sum of all possible Feynman
diagrams connecting the initial and final states

• A minus sign is needed to asymmetrise between diagrams that differ by

the interchange of two identical fermions

• For an unpolarised cross-section need to average over initial state

spins and sum over final state spins

• For QED the sum of higher order diagrams converges.

" There are more diagrams with higher numbers of vertices
" … but for every two vertices you have a suppression factor of (=1/137

• The most precise QED calculations go up to O((5) diagrams

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Electron-Muon Scattering
• Just one lowest order diagram
u1 ) 3
u
• In lecture 3, we considered a similar e! e!
diagram (but with spinless particles) e $µ
µν
2g µ
M=e J13 ν
J24
"#$%#&
q2 gµ#/q2
'()*+,-./
µν e $#
2g
M = e 2 (ū3 γ µ u1 )(ū4 γ ν u2 ) µ! µ!
q u2 )u4
{
{

0+#1%$(-! !2)(-!
34(%(-!*$(*5.5%($6 !1)$$#-% !1)$$#-%

Squaring: take complex conjugate, use gµ# term to set # to µ

e4
|M| = 4 (ū3 γ µ u1 ) (ū3 γ µ u1 )∗ (ū4 γ µ u2 )(ū4 γ µ u2 )∗
2
q
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 High Energy e-µ scattering
• Reminder: helicity is the direction of the spin along the direction of
motion of the fermion.
• At high energy helicity is conserved: if the initial helicity of a particle is +1
(#), the final helicity will be +1 (#).
• For e!µ!"e!µ! scattering only four possibilities spin contributions:
M(e*µ+"e*µ+) + M(e+µ*"e+µ*) + M(e*µ*"e*µ*) + M(e+µ+"e+µ+)
! Average over initial states: (2S+1) initial states for spin, S
! Sum over final states

e4 1 �
|M| = 4
2
(ū3 γ µ u1 ) (ū3 γ ν u1 )∗ (ū4 γ µ u2 )(ū4 γ ν u2 )∗
q (2S1 + 1)(2S2 + 1)
� S3 ,S4 �� �
e4
1 � 1 �
= (ū3 γ µ u1 ) (ū3 γ ν u1 )∗ (ū4 γ µ u2 )(ū4 γ ν u2 )∗
q4 (2S1 + 1) (2S2 + 2)
S3 S4
4
e
= Le Lm
q4

Trace Theorems
• The spinor-gamma matrices products in the sum can be evaluated using
trace theorems. (See details in Griffiths 7.7)
1 �
Le = (ū3 γ µ u1 ) (ū3 γ ν u1 )∗
(2S1 + 1)
S3
� µ ν �
= 2 p3 p1 + pν3 pµ1 − (p3 · p1 − m2e )g µν

• No spinors left! Just vectors and matrices, likewise:

� µ ν ν µ
�
Lµ = 2 p4 p2 + p4 p2 − (p4 · p2 − mµ )g
2 µν

• If the electron and muon are energetic, E>>m, can ignore me and mµ terms
e4 8e4
|M| = 4 Le Lµ = 4 [(p3 · p4 )(p1 · p2 ) + (p3 · p2 )(p1 · p4 )]
2
q q
• Substitute in Mandelstam variables:
4s
2
+ u2 4 1 + 4 cos (θ /2)
4 ∗
|M| = 2e
2
= 2e
t2 sin4 (θ∗ /2)
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Cross section for e!µ!"e!µ! scattering
• From lecture 4: � �2
dσ 1 S|M|2 |� p ∗f |
=
dΩ 8π (E1 + E2 )2 |�
p ∗i |
• Substitute:
" centre of mass energy, (E1+E2)2=s
" For elastic scattering particle |p*f|=|p*i|
" S=1 as no identical particles in final state
" (=e2/4, � �
dσ α2
s +u
2 2
=
dΩ 2πs t2
• The different spin configurations give scattering distributions:
u 1 + cos θ∗
M(↑↑↑↑) = M(↓↓↓↓) = e2 = e2
t 1 − cos θ∗
s 2
M(↑↓↑↓) = M(↓↑↓↑) = e2 = e2
t 1 − cos θ∗
• -* is the scattering angle between the incoming and outgoing electron
11

e!e+"µ!µ+ Scattering
• Related to eµ"eµ scattering by exchanging t s
4 (t + u2 )
2
e+ µ+
|M| = 2e
2
2
= e4 (1 + cos2 θ)
s
dσ α2
= (1 + cos2 θ)
dΩ 4πs
e! µ!
Again spin configurations give scattering distributions.
We have averaged over initial states and summed
over final states to get full cross section:

12
 e!e+"µ!µ+ Total Cross Section
• Total� cross section, integrate over solid angle:
dσ
σ = dΩ
dΩ
�
α2
= (1 + cos2 θ)d cos θdφ
4πs
� �cos θ=+1
α2 π 1
= [φ] cos θ + cos θ 3
4πs −π 3 cos θ=−1
4α2
=
3s

• Comparison prediction to
measurement. Pretty good
for a 1st order calculation!

13

Higher Order QED

Two photon “box” diagrams also contribute to QED scattering
*+! *-! *-!
/!
*+1!/!

/! /! 0!-!/! *+-!/! /! *--!/!

*,-!/! 0!- /!
*,! *.! *,! *.!
!"!#$%&&'(!! !)!#$%&&'(!!
Two extra vertices contribution is suppress by a factor of ( = 1/137

• The four momentum must be conserved at each vertex.

• However, four momentum k flowing round the loop can be anything!

• In calculating M integrate over all possible allowed momentum

configurations: . f(k) d4k ~ ln(k) leads to a divergent integral!
• This is solved by renormalisation in which the infinities are “miraculously
swept up into redefinitions of mass and charge” (Aitchison & Hey P.51)

14
 using a set of simple rules
Basic Feynman Rules:
Basic Feynman Rules:
!" " Propagator factor for each internal line
e+ + # Propagator(i.e. factor
eachfor eachvirtual
internal line
!
Summary
e internal particle)
# (i.e. each internal virtual
Dirac Spinor for each external line particle)
Dirac(i.e.
Spinor
each for
realeach external
incoming line
or outgoing particle)
e– – !– –
(i.e. each real incoming or outgoing particle)
Vertex factor for each vertex
e calculations! use spinors to define fermion current in Feynman
• For full QED Vertex factor for each vertex
diagrams.
• Fermion
Prof. M.A. current
Thomson
Prof. M.A. Thomson
are ψ̄γ µ ψ whereMichaelmas the adjoint spinor: ψ̄ ≡ ψ † γ 0117
ψ̄ is 2011
Michaelmas 2011 117

• Spin-1 bosons are described by polarisation vectors, & µ (s)

• To calculate the cross section for an unpolarised process need to average over
initial spins (helicities) and Basic Rules
sum over for QED
all possible
Basic Rules for QEDfinal possibilities
• For highExternal
External Lines
energy scattering,
Lines
E>>m, only certain helicity contributions
contribute. incoming particle
incoming
outgoingparticle
particle
spin 1/2 outgoing particle
spin 1/2 incoming antiparticle
incoming
outgoingantiparticle
antiparticle
outgoing antiparticle
incoming photon
spin 1 incoming
spin 1 outgoingphoton
photon
outgoing photon
Internal Lines (propagators)
Internal Lines (propagators) ! $
spin 1 photon ! $
spin 1 photon
spin 1/2 fermion
spin 1/2 fermion
Vertex Factors
Vertex Factors
spin 1/2 fermion (charge -|e|)
spin 1/2 fermion (charge -|e|) 15
Matrix Element = product of all factors
Matrix Element = product of all factors
Prof. M.A. Thomson Michaelmas 2011 118
Prof. M.A. Thomson Michaelmas 2011 118