Leadership

(Leading and Influencing Others) This part from definition of Leadership to The Leaders’ Role in
Encouraging Others is from Dubrin, A.J. (1994). Applying Psychology, Individual and Organizational
Effectiveness. 4th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Effective leadership has been evaluated as the most important factor in moving organizations forward in
a complex and competitive world. To achieve such ends, effective leadership is needed at all levels from
supervisors to top executive.

The reason leadership is so important can be found in its definition. Leadership is a process of
influencing others to achieve certain objectives. Leadership involves influencing the activities of an
individual or group in efforts toward reaching a goal in a given situation. However, unduly coercive
tactics are not part of leadership. If influence is not exerted, then leadership is not exerted. An
employee who performs satisfactorily with almost no boss contact is not being led.

Leadership Management Supervision. Leadership is one component of management, working with and
through individuals and groups to accomplish organizational goals. Management includes the major
activities of planning, organizing, controlling, and leading. The non-leadership aspects of a manager’s
job are sometimes referred to as administrative work, while the interpersonal aspects involve
leadership. Leadership is regarded as a force that inspires and energizes people and brings about
change. The other aspects of management deal more with status quo. Among the leadership aspects of
a manager’s job described in this context are motivation, communication and conflict resolution. Both
good management and effective leadership are important for an organization to run well. Supervision is
first-level management or overseeing of workers. Supervisors plan, organize, control, and lead as do
other managers. However, supervisors spend more time in direct leadership activities than do higher-
level managers.

How Leaders Use Power to Achieve Goals? Leaders influence others to achieve goals through the use of
power – the ability to control resources, to influence important decisions, and to get other people to do
things. When power stems from the formal position you occupy, it is referred to as position power.
When it stems from your personal characteristics and skills, it is referred to as personal power. If you
want to be an effective leader, you must be able to use power in an intelligent and sensitive manner.

Position power can be divided into three sub-types:

1. Legitimate power is the ability to influence others that directly stems from the leader’ position. It is
the easiest type of power to understand and accept. People at higher levels in an organization have
more power than the people below them. However, the culture of an organization helps decide the
limits to anybody’s power. Although employees generally accept their boss’ right to make requests, they
do not like to be given orders in a way that implies they are not as good as the leader. Effective leaders
therefore exercise authority by making polite requests, rather than arrogant demands.

2. Reward power refers to the leader’s control over rewards valued by the subordinates. For example, if
a principal or a department head can directly reward teachers with cash bonuses for good performance,
then that principal or department head has the power to exert control over the teachers who value cash
or financial rewards. Effective leaders do not use rewards as bribes for getting employees to do what
they want. Instead, rewards are used to reinforce desirable behavior after it has already taken place.
3. Coercive power refers to the leader’s control over punishments. It is based on fear and thus may
create anxiety and defensiveness. Effective leaders generally avoid the use of coercive power except
when absolutely necessary because coercion is likely to create resentment and undermine their
personal power. Yet, if skillfully used, coercion can get some people to comply with rules, regulations,
and orders.

Personal power has two sub-types

1. Expert power is the ability to control others through knowledge relevant to the job as perceived by
subordinates. You can also exercise expert power when you do not have a formal leadership position
(but perceived as having specialized knowledge or skill). To accumulate expert power, a leader should
cultivate an image of experience and competence. Credibility must be preserved by avoiding careless
statements and rash decisions. It is also important to remain cool. A leader who appears confused,
vacillates, or obviously panicked will quickly lose expert power.

2. Referent power is the ability to control based on loyalty to the leader and subordinates’ desire to
please that person. The charisma (personal charm and magnetism) of the person is the basis of referent
power. Some of the loyalty to the leader is based on identification with the leader’s personality traits
and personal characteristics and charisma, and therefore referent power, are both based on the
subjective perception of the leader’s traits and characteristics. Although both position and personal
power are important, effective leaders rely heavily on personal power to get work done.

Influence Tactics Used by Leaders

1. Leading by example is simple but effective way of influencing members. The ideal approach to
leading by example is to be “Do as I Say and Do manager. This type of manager shows consistency
between actions and words. Also actions and words confirm, support, and often clarify each other. For
example, if the firm has a dress code and the supervisor explains the code and dresses accordingly, a
role model has been provided that is consistent in words and actions. The action of following the dress
code provides an example that supports and clarifies the words used to describe the dress code.

2. Assertiveness refers to being forthright with your demands, expressing both the specifics of what you
want done and the feelings surrounding the demands. An assertive leader might say, “I’m worried about
the backlog of paper works, and late submission of Report of Grades, I want all paper works done and on
my desk by Thursday at 4:00 in the afternoon. A leader might also be assertive by checking frequently on
subordinates.

3. Ingratiation refers to getting somebody else to like you, often using political behaviors. Two specific
ingratiating behaviors: Acted in a friendly manner prior to asking for what I wanted” and ”Praised the
subordinate just before asking for what I wanted.” Strong leaders tend not to rely heavily on ingratiating
tactics.

4. Rationality is appealing to reason and logic. It is an influence tactic used frequently by effective
leaders. Pointing out the facts of a situation to a group member in order to prompt that person to act is
an example of rationality.

5. Exchange is the use of reciprocal favors in order to influence others. Leaders with limited personal
and position power tend to emphasize exchanging favors with group members.
6. Upward Appeal means asking for help from a higher authority. The leader exerts influence by getting
a more powerful person to carry out the influence act. More than occasional use of upward appeal
weakens the manager’s stature in the eyes of subordinates and superiors and erodes effectiveness as a
leader.

7. Blocking refers to work slowdowns or the threat thereof, thus being used primarily to exert upward
rather than downward influence. However, a leader sometimes use blocking in ways such as: “ I ignored
him until he came around to my way of thinking” or “I stopped being friendly until she started listening
to me.”

8. Joking and Kidding can be used to influence others. Good-natured ribbing is especially effective when
a straightforward statement might be interpreted as harsh criticism.

9. Charm and appearance. Being charming and creating a positive appearance can influence others to
accomplish a task.

Traits, Motives, and Characteristics of Effective Leaders

Past studies on leadership focused on the traits, motives and characteristics of leaders. Trait approach
to understanding leadership has been downplayed because the emerging belief now is that leadership
can be best understood when the leader, the group members, and the situation in which they are
placed. Effective leadership is not solely and exclusively attributable to the personal traits and
characteristics of the leader. A realistic view is that certain traits and behaviors contribute to effective
leadership in a wide variety of situations.

The following is a sampling of key leadership traits, motives, and characteristics. However, those are not
sufficient to lead effectively. The leader also has to possess key skills and take certain actions. Traits and
motives presented below illustrate in which leaders differ from non-leaders. Note that these are only
some of the many traits, motives, and characteristics

Power Motive. Effective leaders have a strong need to control resources. Leaders with high power
drives have 3 dominant characteristics:

1. They act with vigor and determination to exert their power

2. They invest much time in thinking about ways to alter the behavior and thinking of others, and

3. They care about their personal standing with those around them

The strong need for power is important because it means that the leader is influencing others. The
power needed to satisfy the power motive can be obtained through acquiring the right position or
through developing personal power.

Drive and Achievement Motive. Leaders are noted for high level of effort in achieving work goals. Drive
refers to such aspects of behavior as ambition, energy, tenacity, initiative, and above all achievement
motivation. The achievement motive is reflected in finding joy in accomplishment for its own sake. High
achievers find satisfaction in completing challenging tasks, attaining high standards, and developing
better ways of doing things.
Cognitive Ability. Effective leaders have good problem-solving ability. Cognitive Resource Theory posits
that “intelligent and competent leaders make more effective plans, decisions and action strategies than
do leaders with less intelligence or competence.” However, an advanced cognitive ability can also be
disadvantageous. John D. Greary ( in Dubrin, A., 2004) comments:

Sometimes a less than top IQ is an advantage because that person does not see all the problems.
S/he sees the big problem and gets on and gets it solved. But the extremely bright person can see so
many problems that he or she never gets around to solving any of them.

Self-confidence. In every setting, it is important for the leader to be self-confident. A leader who is self-
assured without being overbearing instills confidence in subordinates. Aside from being a psychological
trait, self-confidence or self-assurance refers to the behavior exhibited by the person in a number of
situations. It is like being cool under pressure.

Courage. Study of 200 US and Japanese managers indicate that courage is an important leadership
attribute in revitalizing an organization. Managerial courage involves a manager giving voice to ideas
that deviate from current thinking because the manager believes they will produce improved benefits
for the organization. Sometimes, the ideas recommend change, at other times the ideas advocate
maintaining the status quo.

Internal Locus of Control. Effective leaders believe they are the primary causes of events happening to
them. A study has shown that supervisory leaders with an internal locus of control are favored by group
members. Part of the reason is that an internal person is perceived as more powerful than an external
because that person takes responsibility for things happening.

Behaviors and Skills of Effective Leaders

Technical Competence refers to the knowledge of the business. An effective leader has to be technically
competent in some discipline, particularly when leading a group of specialists. It is difficult to establish
rapport with group members when the leader does not understand their work. Group members also
have to respect the leader’s technical skill. At a minimum, the manager of specialists has to be
snowproof (not readily bluffed about technical matters by group members).

Credibility and Integrity. Studies show that honesty is the most sought after leadership traits. Group
members however measure honesty by the deeds (behavior) of leaders. Leaders are considered honest
when they follow through on promises. In a related study, it was found that of all the behaviors
describing leadership the most essential was the leader’s display of trust of others.

Insight into People and Situation. Insight is a depth of understanding that requires intuition and
common sense. It is a skill associated with cognitive ability and could be classified as a trait or behavior.
A leader with good insight is able to make better work assignments, do a better job of training members,
and be sensitive to people’s feelings. The reason is that such a leader makes a careful assessment of the
strengths and weaknesses of group members. Another advantage of being insightful is that the leader
can size up the situation and adapt his or her leadership approach accordingly.

Maintaining High Standards. Effective leaders consistently hold group members to high standards of
performance which raises productivity. Setting high expectations for others becomes selffulfilling
prophecy. Workers tend to live up to the expectations set for them by supervisors (the Pygmalion
Effect). Setting high expectations might take the form of encouraging team members to establish
difficult goals.

Stability Under Pressure. Effective leaders are steady performers even under heavy workloads and
uncertain conditions. Remaining steady under uncertain conditions contributes to effectiveness because
it helps subordinates cope with the situation. When the leader remains calm, group members are
reassured that things will work out satisfactorily.

Recovery Quickly from Setbacks. Effective leaders are resilient, they bounce back quickly from setbacks.
They do not even think about failure and they don’t even use the word. Instead, they use the word,
glitch, mistake, bugle, and setback. In practice, this means that the leader sets an example for
subordinates by not crumbling when something goes wrong. Instead the leader tries to conduct
business as usual.

Supportiveness. Supportive behavior towards the subordinates is frequently associated with leadership
effectiveness. A supportive leader is one who gives praise and encouragement to subordinates
increasing morale and productivity. Supportive leadership also contributes to preventing burnout among
group members.

Power Sharing. A dominant trend in workplace is for managers to share authority and power with team
members. power sharing is the basis of empowerment, a manager sharing power with team members to
help them achieve greater confidence in their abilities.

3 Key Leadership Styles

A leadership style is a leader’s characteristic way of behaving in most situations. The leadership
continuum, or classical approach to understanding leaders, classifies leaders according to how much
authority they retain for themselves versus how much is turned over to the group. Three points on the
continuum are autocratic, participative, ad free-rein leaders.

Autocratic

Participative

Free-rein

Consultative

Consensus

Democratic

Autocratic Leader attempts to retain most of the authority granted to the group. Autocratic leaders
make all the major decisions and assume subordinates will comply without question. Leaders who use
this style give minimum consideration to what group members are likely to think about an order or
decision. An autocrat is sometimes seen as rigid and demanding by have to be made rapidly or when
group members. Although authoritarian (a synonym for autocratic) style of leadership is not in vogue,
many successful leaders are autocratic. This style of leadership works best in situations where decisions
or when group opinion is not needed.
A participative leader is one who shares decision-making authority with the group. Although the
participative style is usually associated with a strong people orientation, one observes that the
participative leader can be tough-minded. This type of leadership has 3 sub-types”.

1. Consultative leaders. A consultative leader solicits opinion from the group before making a decision
yet does not feel obliged to accept the group thinking. Leaders of this type make it clear they alone have
the authority to make the final decisions. A standard way to practice consultative leadership would be to
call a group meeting and discuss an issue before making a decision.

2. Consensual Leaders. A consensual leader encourages group discussion about an issue then makes a
decision that reflects the consensus of group members. Consensus leaders thus turn over more
authority to the group than do consultative leaders. The consensus style results in long delays in
decision-making because every party involved has to agree.

3. Democratic Leaders. A democratic leader confers final authority on the group. He or she functions as
a collector of opinion and takes a vote before making a decision. Democratic leaders turn over so much
authority to the group that they are sometimes called free-rein leaders. The group usually achieves its
goals when working under a democratic leader. Democratic leadership has more relevance for
community activities than for most work settings.

Free-rein Leadership (The Subordinate-Centered Styles) A free-rein leader is one who turns over
virtually all authority to the group. The free-rein style leadership style is also referred to as laizzes-faire
(allow them to do). They issue general goals and guidelines to the group and then do not get involved
again unless requested. The only limits directly imposed on the group are those specified by the leader’s
boss. Such extreme degree of group freedom is rarely encountered in a work organization.

A real problem with free-rein leadership in practice is that it frustrates many subordinates. Most people
feel a leader is paid to give direction and advice. People often characterize a free-rein leader as weak
and ineffective.

Transformational and Charismatic Leadership. An important development in understanding leaders and

leadership is the emphasis on the type of leader who, through charm and talent, captivates the
imagination of others. The transformational leader is one who helps organization and people make
positive changes. Transformational leadership is a combination of charisma, inspirational leadership, and
intellectual stimulation. The transformational leader exerts more influence on people than a
transactional leader, who mainly conducts transactions with group members. (Transactional leaders
trade money, jobs, and security for compliance.)

The transformational leader is adept at turning around failing situations, but can also move an
organization to performing adequately to a much higher levels of achievement.

How Transformations Take Place Transformation takes place in one or three ways:

1. Transformational leader raises people’s awareness of the importance and value of certain rewards
and how to achieve them. The leader might point out the pride workers would experience if the firm
became number one in its field and the financial rewards associated with such success.

2. The transformational leader gets people to look beyond their self-interests for the sake of the group
and the organization.
3. The transformational leader helps people to go beyond a focus on minor satisfaction as a quest for
self-fulfillment. In this way, people are urged to move to a higher point on the need hierarchy.

The Link between Charisma and Transformational Leadership

Unethical Charismatic Leader Ethical Charismatic Leader

Uses personal power only for personal gain or Uses power
impact
Promotes own personal vision Aligns vision with followers’ needs and
aspirations
Censures critical or opposing views Considers and learns from criticisms
Demands own decisions be accepted without Stimulates followers to think independently and
question to question the leader’s view
One-way communication Open, two-way communication
Insensitive to followers’ needs Coaches, develops, and supports followers;
shares recognition with others
Relies on convenient external moral standards to Relies on internal moral standards to satisfy
satisfy self-interests organizational and societal interests

Transformational leaders have charisma, the ability to lead others based on personal charm, magnetism,
inspiration, and emotion. Charisma is the basis of referent power. To label a leader as charismatic does
not mean that everybody grants him or her referent power. The best a charismatic leader can hope for
is that the majority of people in the organization grant him/her referent power. The following are some
significant qualities and actions of charismatic leaders:

1. Charismatic leaders have vision. A major requirement of a charismatic leader is that the person offers
the organization an exciting image of where the organization is headed and how to get there. A vision is
more than a forecast. It describes an ideal version of the future organization or an organizational unit. A
sense of vision inspires an organization to perform well.

2. Charismatic leaders are masterful communicators. To inspire people, the charismatic leaders use
colorful language and exciting metaphors and analogies.

3. Charismatic leaders inspire trust. People believe so strongly in the integrity of the charismatic leaders
that they will risk their careers to pursue the chief’s vision.

4. Charismatic leaders help group members feel capable. The charismatic leader recognizes the
importance of effort-to performance expectancies. One technique used to help people feel more
competent is to let them achieve success on relatively easy projects.

5. Charismatic leaders have energy and an action-oriented leadership style. Most charismatic leaders are
energetic and serve as a model for getting things done on time.

Qualities and Practices of Ethical Versus Unethical Charismatic Leaders

Superleadership: Leading Others to Lead Themselves An important goal for leaders is to become
Superleader, one who leads others to lead themselves. When people are self-directing, they require a
minimum of external control. A superleader leads others to lead themselves by acting as a teacher and a
coach and not as a director.

The key aspect of Superleadership deals with learning the right thought patterns. The Superleadership
Theory contends that the leader must teach team members how to develop productive thinking. The
purpose of productive or constructive thinking is to enable workers to gain control over their own
behavior. A central part of Superleadership is the leader serving as a model of constructive thought
patterns.

The Heart, Head, and Hand of Leadership

The heart of leadership has to do with what a person believes, values, dreams about, and is committed
to or that person’s personal vision. The head of leadership has to do with the theories of practice each
of us has developed over time and our ability to reflect on the situations we face in light of these
theories. The process of reflection combined with our personal vision becomes the basis for our
strategies and actions. The hand of leadership has to do with the actions we take, the decisions we
make, the leadership and management behaviors we use as our strategies become institutionalized in
the form of school programs, policies, and procedures. Blumberg (in Llagas, et al. 2016) emphasized that
bringing together head, heart and hand in practice would result to transforming the school from being
an organization into an institutional culture. Institutionalization happens in an organization over time,
reflecting the organization’s distinctive history, the people who create and embody interest in
developing its own culture.

French, W. & Bell, Jr., C.H. (1995). Organization Development, Behavioral Science Interventions for
Organization Development, 5th ed. N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc.