- On 2nd Sem – Prelim

Biology 2
Gr 12 – STEM
LESSON 1 Overview of the Human Anatomy
Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a Greek word “Anatome” meaning to cut up. It is the study of structures
that make up the body and how those structures relate with each other. The study of anatomy includes many sub specialties.
These are Gross anatomy, Microscopic anatomy, Developmental anatomy and Embryology.

Types of Anatomy
Anatomy could be classified into:

Human Anatomy – Human anatomy involves the study of the physical structure of the human body. It focuses on numerous
systems, including circulatory, digestive, endocrine, skeletal, lymphatic, nervous, respiratory, urinary, reproductive and muscular
systems.

Plant Anatomy – Also called the phytotomy. It is the study of the internal structure of a plant including the tissues, root system,
stem, leaves, flower, fruit and seeds.

Animal Anatomy – Also called the zootomy. It deals with the study of the internal structure of an animal including the cells,
tissues, organs, bones and other organs of the animal body.

Two types of Human Anatomy

Gross anatomy: studies body structure without microscope.
Gross anatomy can be further subdivided into three different fields:
a. Surface anatomy (or superficial anatomy) is the study of external anatomical features without dissection.
b. Regional anatomy focuses on specific external and internal regions of the body (such as the head or chest) and how
different systems work together in that region.
c. Systemic anatomy focuses on the anatomy of different organ systems, such as the respiratory or nervous system.

Microscopic anatomy (Histology): requires the use of microscope to study tissues that form the various organs of the body.
Within microscopic anatomy, two topics of study are of great importance:
a. Cytology, the study of the structure and function of cells
b. Histology, the study of the organization and details of biological tissues

Dissection - the process of disassembling an organism to determine its internal structure and understand the functions and
relationships of its components.

Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for study of nature. It is the study of how the body and its part
work or function. Hence, Anatomy and physiology are studied together to give students a full appreciation and understanding of
human body.

Homeostasis: When structure and function are coordinated the body achieves a relative stability of its internal environment
called homeostasis / staying the same. Although the external environmental changes constantly, the internal environment of a
healthy body remains the same with in normal limits.
Under normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the brain to
chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various organs directly into the blood streams. Some of the functions
controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body temperature, breathing and heart rate.

Level of Structural Organization of the Body

The human body has different structural levels of organization, starting with atoms molecules and compounds and
increasing in size and complexity to cells, tissues, organs and the systems that make up the complete organism.
Atoms molecules and compounds: - At its simplest level, the body is composed of atoms. The most common elements
in living organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur.
Atoms → Molecule → Compounds.
Cell: The smallest independent units of life. All life depends on the many chemical activities of cells. Some of the basic
functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction.
Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function. The various tissues of the body are
divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue.
Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and body cavities.
Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part of skin, bone and tendons.
Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscles.
Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli and transmits nerve
impulses.
Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform specific function. For
example: Stomach is made of all type of tissues.
System: Is a group of organs that work together to perform major function. For example: Respiratory system contains
several organs.
Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire organism.
 Table: 1.1 Directional terms
(source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2nd ed, pp
15)

Term Definition Example

Superior (cranial) Toward the head. The leg is superior to the foot.
Inferior (caudal) Toward the feet. The foot is inferior to the leg.
Anterior (ventral) Toward the front part of the body. The nose is anterior to the ears.
Posterior (dorsal) Towards the back of the body. The ears are posterior to the nose.
Medial Towards the midline of the body. The nose is medial to the eyes.
Lateral Away from the midline of the body. The eyes are lateral to the nose.
Proximal Toward (nearer) the trunk of the body The shoulder is proximal to the wrist.
or the attached end of a limb.
Distal Away (farther) from the trunk of the body The wrist is distal to the forearm.
or the attached end of a limb.
Superficial Nearer the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to the heart.
Deep Farther from the surface of the body. The heart is deeper to the ribs.
Peripheral Away from the central axis of the body. Peripheral nerves radiate away from
the brain and spinal cord.
Body parts Regions
The body can generally be described
to have areas of:
Axial body part: - It is the part of the body
near the axis of the body. This includes
head, neck, thorax (chest), abdomen, and
pelvis.
Appendicular body part: - It is the part of
the body out of the axis line. This includes
the upper and lower extremities. It is
customary to subdivide the abdominal area
into nine regions or more easily in to four
quadrants.

Body Planes and Sections

Body planes are imaginary surfaces
or planes lines that divide the body in to
sections. This helps for further identification
of specific areas.
Sagittal plane: - divides the body into right
and left half.
- Mid sagittal plane: - divides body into equal left and right halves.
- Para sagittal plane: - divides body into unequal left and right
Frontal plane: - divides the body into asymmetrical anterior and posterior sections.
Transverse plane: - divides the body into upper and lower body section.

Body Cavities
The cavities of the body house the internal organs, which commonly referred to as the viscera. The two main body
cavities are the larger ventral (anterior) and the smaller, dorsal (posterior) body cavity.
The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity. The Thoracic cavity
houses lung and heart. It is protected by the rib cage & associated musculature and the sternum anteriorly. It consists of the right
and left pleural cavities and mediastinum (the portion of tissues and organs that separates the left and right lung). Abdominal
cavity contains the stomach, intestine, liver, spleen and gallbladder. The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, rectum, and
portions of the reproductive organs.
The dorsal body cavity: it constitutes the cephalic cavity containing brain and the vertebral canal containing the spinal
cord.

There are 11 organ systems:

 Skeletal system
The skeletal system consists of bones, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. It forms the framework of the body, making it
possible to move and stand upright.
 Muscular system
Three muscle types make up the muscular system - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles.
 Nervous system
The nervous system consists of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The brain and spinal cord form the central
part, but all the peripheral nerves - the peripheral portion.
 Cardiovascular system
The heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries form the cardiovascular system. It provides blood circulation and transport of
oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and other molecules of biological significance.
 Digestive system
 The digestive system consists of the main digestive organs - mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines,
rectum, and the accessory organs
 Respiratory system
Formed by the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and the diaphragm, the respiratory system's
primary function is gas exchange between blood and the air in the alveolar sacs.
 Endocrine system
The endocrine system consists of glands that produce specific biologically active hormones. Ex. Thymus, Pineal glands
 Renal and urinary system
The kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra make up the urinary system. This system's primary function is the filtration
and excretion of excess water and biological waste products like urea.
 Male and female reproductive system
Their main functions are the production of sex cells, fertilization, and in the case of females - nourishing and housing the
fertilized egg until the fetus is ready for delivery.
 Integumentary system
The integumentary system consists of skin, hair, and nails. Its primary function is protection and regulation of body
temperature.
 Immune and lymphatic system
It consists of lymph nodes and the spleen, which are essential members of the immune system responsible for detecting
and neutralizing foreign pathogens. The primary function of the immune system is the detection and destruction of
pathogens.