Chapter 2

Limits and continuity

17
 Limits and continuity
Formal Definition of a Limit:

Geometrically, the definition means that for any lines 𝑦 = 𝑏1 , 𝑦 = 𝑏2 below and
above the line 𝑦 = 𝐿 , there exist vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎1 , 𝑥 = 𝑎2 to the left and right
of 𝑥 = 𝑎 so that the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = 𝑎1 and 𝑥 = 𝑎2 lies between the
lines 𝑦 = 𝑏1 and 𝑦 = 𝑏2 . The key phrase in the above statement is “for every open
interval 𝐷”, which means that even if 𝐷 is very, very small (that is, 𝑓(𝑥) is very,
very close to 𝐿), it still is possible to find interval where 𝑓(𝑥) is defined for all
values except possibly 𝑥 = 𝑎 .

We say that the limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑎 is 𝐿 written as lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 , if for
𝑥→𝑎
every
𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀 ⟹ |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿.

18
Example 1: Use the definition of a limit to prove that

lim(2𝑥 + 1) = 7.
𝑥→3

Solution

Let 𝜀 > 0 such that |2𝑥 + 1 − 7| < 𝜀 ⟹ |2𝑥 − 6| < 𝜀

⟹ |2(𝑥 − 3)| < 𝜀
𝜀
⟹ |𝑥 − 3| <
2
𝜀
Hence if we take 𝛿 = , we have the result.
2

Exercises: Use the definition of a limit to prove that

1. lim (3𝑥 − 1) = 2.
𝑥→1
2. lim (6𝑥 + 5) = 5.
𝑥→0
3. lim (3𝑥 + 4) = 1.
𝑥→−1

Evaluating Limits

In this section we will continue our discussion of limits and focus on ways to
evaluate limits. We will observe the limits of a few basic functions and then
introduce a set of laws for working with limits. We will conclude the lesson with a
theorem that will allow us to use an indirect method to find the limit of a function.

Direct Substitution and Basic Limits

Let’s begin with some observations about limits of basic functions. Consider the
following limit problems:

lim 5 , lim 𝑥.
𝑥→2 𝑥→4

These are examples of limits of basic constant and linear functions, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 and
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

We note that each of these functions are defined for all real numbers. If we apply
our techniques for finding the limits we see that

19
 lim 5 = 5 , lim 𝑥 = 4,
𝑥→2 𝑥→4

and observe that for each the limit equals the value of the function at the value of
interest:

lim 5 = 𝑓(5) = 5 , lim 𝑥 = 𝑓(4) = 4.

𝑥→2 𝑥→4

Hence lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎). This will also be true for some of our other basic
𝑥→𝑎
functions, in particular all polynomial and radical functions, provided that the
function is defined at 𝑥 = 𝑎. For example, lim 𝑥 3 = 𝑓(3) = 27 and lim √𝑥 =
𝑥→3 𝑥→4
𝑓(4) = 2. The properties of functions that make these facts true will be discussed
later. For now, we wish to use this idea for evaluating limits of basic functions.
However, in order to evaluate limits of more complex function we will need some
properties of limits, just as we needed laws for dealing with complex problems
involving exponents. A simple example illustrates the need we have for such laws.

Example 1:

Evaluate lim( 𝑥 3 + √2𝑥 ). The problem here is that while we know that the limit
𝑥→2
of each individual function of the sum exists, lim 𝑥 3 = 8 and lim √2𝑥 = 2 , our
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
basic limits above do not tell us what happens when we find the limit of a sum of
functions. We will state a set of properties for dealing with such sophisticated
functions.

Some rules

Let Lim f ( x)  h Lim g ( x)  k and a constant c, then

x a x a
1) Lim c f ( x)  c Lim f ( x)
x a x a
2) Lim  f ( x)  g ( x)  Lim f ( x)  Lim g ( x)
x a xa xa
3) Lim  f ( x)  g ( x)  Lim f ( x)  Lim g ( x)
x a xa xa

f ( x) Lim f ( x)
4) Lim  xa , Lim g ( x)  0
x a g ( x) Lim g ( x) xa
xa
5) Lim ( f ( x))n  ( Lim f ( x))n , n is real
x a xa

20
 xm  am
6) Lim  m a m1 , m is rational
x a xa
x  a m m mn , m &n are rational numbers.
m
6) Lim  a
x a x n  a n n
sin x
7) Lim 1
x 0 x
tan x
8) Lim 1
x 0 x

With these properties we can evaluate a wide range of polynomial and radical
functions. Recalling our example above, we see that

lim( 𝑥 3 + √2𝑥 ) = lim( 𝑥 3 ) + lim(√2𝑥 ) = 8 + 2 = 10.

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Example 2:

Find the following limit if it exists

lim (2𝑥 2 − √−𝑥 ).

𝑥→−4

Since the limit of each function within the parentheses exists, we can apply our
properties and find

lim (2𝑥 2 − √−𝑥 ) = lim 2𝑥 2 − lim √−𝑥.

𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4

1
Observe that the second limit, lim √−𝑥, is an application of Law #2 with 𝑛 = . So
𝑥→−4 2
2 2
we have lim (2𝑥 − √−𝑥 ) = lim 2𝑥 − lim √−𝑥 = 32 − 2 = 30.
𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4

In most cases of sophisticated functions, we simplify the task by applying the

Properties as indicated. We want to examine a few exceptions to these rules that will
require additional analysis.

Strategies for Evaluating Limits of Rational Functions

Let’s recall our example

𝑥2 − 1
lim .
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1

21
We saw that the function did not have to be defined at a particular value for the limit
to exist. In this example, the function was not defined for 𝑥 = 1. However we were
able to evaluate the limit numerically by checking functional values around 𝑥 =
1and found
2
𝑥 −1
lim = 2.
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1

Note that if we tried to evaluate by direct substitution, we would get the quantity
0⁄ , which we refer to as an indeterminate form. In particular, Property 4 for finding
0
limits does not apply since lim (𝑥 − 1 ) = 0. Hence in order to evaluate the limit
𝑥→1
without using numerical or graphical techniques we make the following observation.
The numerator of the function can be factored, with one factor common to the
denominator, and the fraction simplified as follows:

𝑥 2 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
= = 𝑥 + 1.
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
In making this simplification, we are indicating that the original function can be
𝑥 2 −1
viewed as a linear function for values close to but not equal to , that is, =
𝑥−1
𝑥 + 1. for 𝑥 ≠ 1. In terms of our limits, we can say

𝑥2 − 1
lim = lim(𝑥 + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥→1

𝑥 2 +5
Example 2: Find lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥

This is another case where direct substitution to evaluate the limit gives the
indeterminate form 0⁄0. Reducing the fraction as before gives:

𝑥 2 +5
lim = lim (𝑥 + 5) = 5.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

√𝑥−3
Example 3: Find lim .
𝑥→9 𝑥−9

In order to evaluate the limit, we need to recall that the difference of squares of real
numbers can be factored as 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦).

We then rewrite and simplify the original function as follows:

22
 √𝑥 − 3 √𝑥 − 3 1
= = .
𝑥−9 (√𝑥 + 3)(√𝑥 − 3) √𝑥 + 3

√𝑥−3 1 1
Hence lim = lim = .
𝑥→9 𝑥−9 𝑥→9 √𝑥+3 6

You will solve similar examples in the homework where some clever applications
of factoring to reduce fractions will enable you to evaluate the limit.

Limits of Composite Functions

While we can use the Properties to find limits of composite functions, composite
functions will present some difficulties that we will fully discuss in the next Lesson.
We can illustrate with the following examples, one where the limit exists and the
other where the limit does not exist.

Example 4:
1
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . Find lim (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥).
𝑥+1 𝑥→−1
1
We see that (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = and by direct substitution we have
𝑥 2 +1
1 1
lim (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = = .
𝑥→−1 (−1)2 +1 2
Example 5:
1
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑔(𝑥) = −1. Then we have that 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is undefined and
𝑥+1
we get the indeterminate form 1⁄0. Hence lim (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→−1

Squeeze (or, sandwich) Theorem

Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for 𝑥 near 𝑎, and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎

In other words, if we can find bounds for a function that have the same limit, then
the limit of the function that they bound must have the same limit.

23
Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric Functions: If 𝑐 is any real number in the domain of the given

function, then

lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑐 , lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑐 , lim tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑐,

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑐 , lim csc 𝑥 = csc 𝑐 , lim cot 𝑥 = cot 𝑐.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example:
𝑥
Compute the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑥 = 𝜋.
sin 𝑥−2 cos 𝑥
We have
𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
lim = =
𝑥→𝜋 sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 sin 𝜋 − 2 cos 𝜋 2

Special Trigonometric Limits:

This topic states the limits of the trigonometric functions and also two very useful
limits involving sine and cosine. These special limits can either be proved with
L'Hopital’s rule or with the squeeze rule. Examples are given which illustrate there
usefulness. The following trigonometric limits hold:

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 1
lim = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

Example 7: Find lim 𝑥 2 cos(10𝜋𝑥).

𝑥→0

From the graph we note that:

24
 1. The function is bounded by the graphs of 𝑥 2 and −𝑥 2
2. lim 𝑥 2 = lim (−𝑥 2 ) = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Hence the Squeeze Theorem applies and we conclude that lim 𝑥 2 cos(10𝜋𝑥) = 0.
𝑥→0

Review Questions

Find each of the following limits if they exist.

𝑥 2 −16 √𝑥−2 𝑥−2

1. lim( 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4) & lim & lim & lim
𝑥→2 𝑥→4 𝑥−4 𝑥→4 𝑥−4 𝑥→−1 𝑥+1
10𝑥−2 √𝑥+3−2 𝑥 2 −25
2. lim & lim & lim
𝑥→−1 3𝑥+1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→5 𝑥 3 −125
1 1
3. Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . We found lim (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = . Find
𝑥+1 𝑥→−1 2

lim (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥).
𝑥→−1

4. Consider function 𝑓(𝑥) such that 5𝑥 − 11 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 9 for 𝑥 ≥

0. Use the Squeeze Theorem to find lim𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→5
1
5. Use the Squeeze Theorem to show that lim 𝑥 4 sin ( ) = 0.
𝑥 𝑥→0

Review Answers

𝑥 2 −16 √𝑥−2 1 𝑥−2

1. lim( 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4) = 2 & lim = 8 & lim = & lim does
𝑥→2 𝑥→4 𝑥−4 𝑥→4 𝑥−4 4 𝑥→−1 𝑥+1

not exist.
10𝑥−2 √𝑥+3−2 1 𝑥 2 −25 2
2. lim = 6 & lim = & lim =
𝑥→−1 3𝑥+1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 4 𝑥→5 𝑥 3 −125 15

3. lim (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥). does not exist since 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) is undefined.

𝑥→−1

4. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 14 since lim (5𝑥 − 11) = lim (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 9) = 14.

𝑥→5 𝑥→5 𝑥→5
1
5. Note that 𝑥 4 ≥ sin ( ) ≥ −𝑥 4 , and since lim 𝑥 4 = lim (−𝑥 4 ) = 0, , then
𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
1
by the Squeeze Theorem we must have lim 𝑥 4 sin ( ) = 0.
𝑥 𝑥→0

25
Examples
Find the following limits:
tan x  sin x sin 3 x
2) Lim 1) Lim
x 0 x3 x 0 tan 5 x
1  cos 2 x  tan 2 x cos 5 x  cos x
4) Lim 3) Lim
x 0 x sin x x 0 x2
Solutions
sin 3x sin 3x x
1) Lim  Lim 
x 0 tan 5 x x 0 x tan 5 x
sin 3 x
3 Lim
x 0 3 x 3
 
tan 5 x 5
5 Lim
x 0 5 x
 1 
sin x   1
tan x  sin x  cos x 
2) Lim  Lim
x 0 x 3 x 0 x 3

 1  cos x 
sin x  
 Lim  cos x 
x 0 x3
sin x 1  cos x 1
 Lim  Lim  Lim
x 0 x x 0 x 2 x 0 cos x
1  cos x 2 sin 2 ( x / 2)
 Lim  Lim
x 0 x2 x 0 x2
2 sin 2 ( x / 2) 1 1
 Lim  2 
x 0 ( x / 2)  4
2
4 2
cos 5 x  cos x
3) Lim
x 0 x2
By using the property
( a  b) x ( a  b) x
cos ax  cos bx  2 sin sin
2 2
cos 5 x  cos x  2 sin 3x sin 2 x
3) Lim  Lim
x 0 x 2 x 0 x2
3 sin 3x 2 sin 2 x
 2 Lim  Lim  12
x 0 3x x 0 2x
26
 1  cos 2 x  tan 2 x 1  cos 2 x
4) Lim  Lim
x 0 x sin x x 0 x sin x
2 2
tan x 2 sin x sin x
 Lim  Lim  Lim 2 1  3
x 0 x sin x x 0 x sin x x 0 x cos 2 x

2 Find the limit when x tends to 3

 x3  1 x3
f ( x)  
8 x  2 x3
Solution
Lim f ( x)  Lim ( x 3  1)  27  1  26
 
x 3 x 3
Lim f ( x)  Lim (8 x  2)  24  2  26
 
x 3 x 3
So we have Lim f ( x)  26
x 3

Exercises
Find the limits:

sin 2 x sin x 1  cos x  sin x 2 1  cos x  sin 5x

lim & lim & lim & lim
x 0 2x x 0 2x 2 x 0 2x 2 x 0 sin 4x

Evaluate:
sin x sin x 41  cos x 
1. lim

2. lim 3. lim
x x x 0 2x x 0 x
2

cos x tan x sin 3x sin 3x

4. lim 5. lim 6. lim
x 0 x x 0 3x x 0 2x
7. lim
sin 2 x
x 0 sin 3x
8. lim
x 0
sin 5x
9. lim
x 0
1  cos 4 x
x
tan x cos 2 x
10. lim 11. lim
x 0 x x0 2

27
  
sin x x
6


12. f x   
sin x
 x 
 x 6
 1 x 
cos x x 

a) lim f x  b) lim f x  c) lim f x  d) lim f x 
x  x  2
x x
6 4


e) f   f) f  
6
Find the following limits
5 x  4 tan x 2 x 2  3x  14
b) Lim a) Lim 2
x 0 x x 2 x  3 x  2
x8  1 x 4  16
d ) Lim 5 c) Lim
x 1 x  1 x 2 x  2  2
sin 7 x tan 5 x
f ) Lim e) Lim
x 0 sin 3 x x 0 x cos 3 x
1  cos 2 x x6 3
h) Lim g ) Lim
x 0 1  cos 4 x x 3 x  1  2

x 4  16 x  ( / 2)
j ) Lim 3 i) Lim
x 0 x  8 x  / 2 cos x

Infinite Limits

In this lesson we will discuss infinite limits. In our discussion the notion of infinity
is discussed in two contexts. First, we can discuss infinite limits in terms of the value
a function as we increase without bound. In this case we speak of the limit of
𝑓(𝑥)as 𝑥 approaches ∞and write lim 𝑓(𝑥) . We could similarly refer to the limit
𝑥→∞
of 𝑓(𝑥)as 𝑥 approaches −∞ and write lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→−∞

The second context in which we speak of infinite limits involves situations where
the function values increase without bound. For example, in the case of a rational
x 1
function such as f ( x)  , a function we discussed in previous lessons:
x2 1

28
At 𝑥 = 1, we have the situation where the graph grows without bound in both a
positive and a negative direction. We say that we have a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 =
1, and this is indicated by the dotted line in the graph above. In this example we note
that lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist. But we could compute both one-sided limits as follows.
𝑥→1

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞.

𝑥→1− 𝑥→1

More formally, we define these as follows:

Definition:

We observe that as 𝑥 increases in the positive direction, the function values tend to
get smaller. The same is true if we decrease in the negative direction. Some of
these extreme values are indicated in the following table.

(𝑥 + 1)
Suppose we look at the function 𝑓(𝑥) = ⁄(𝑥 2 − 1) and determine the
infinite limits lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

The definition for negative infinite limits is similar. The right-hand limit of the
function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is infinite, and we write lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, if for every positive
𝑥→𝑎
number 𝑘, there exists an open interval (𝑎 , 𝑎 + 𝛿) contained in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥),
such that 𝑓(𝑥) is in (𝑘 , ∞) for every 𝑥 in (𝑎 , 𝑎 + 𝛿).

29
The following example shows how we can use this fact in evaluating limits of
1
rational functions. Since our original function was roughly of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = ,
𝑥
1
this enables us to determine limits for all other functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = with
𝑥𝑝
1
𝑝 > 0. Specifically, we are able to conclude that lim = 0. This shows how we
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑝
can find infinite limits of functions by examining the end behavior of the function
1
(𝑥) = 𝑝 , 𝑝 > 0
𝑥
We observe that the values are getting closer to 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 Hence lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and
𝑥→∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
𝑥→−∞

2𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 +𝑥−1
Example 1: Find lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 6 −𝑥 5 +3𝑥 4 −2𝑥+1

Solution:

Note that we have the indeterminate form, so Limit does not hold. However, if we
first divide both numerator and denominator by the quantity 𝑥 6 , we will then have a
function of the form

2𝑥 3 𝑥 2 𝑥 1 2 1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) 6 − 6+ 6− 6 3 − 4+ 5− 6
= 6 𝑥 5 𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 3𝑥 2𝑥 1 1 3 2 1
− + − + 1 − + 2 − +
𝑥6 𝑥6 𝑥6 𝑥6 𝑥6 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥5 𝑥6

We observe that the limits lim 𝑓(𝑥)and lim 𝑔(𝑥)both exist. In particular,
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞
2𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 +𝑥−1 0
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 1. Hence we have lim = = 0.
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 6 −𝑥 5 +3𝑥 4 −2𝑥+1 1

Review Questions

In problems 1 - 7, find the limits if they exist.

(𝑥+2)2 (𝑥+2)2 (𝑥+2)2 2𝑥−1
1. lim+ & lim & lim+ & lim
𝑥→3 (𝑥−2)2 −1 𝑥→∞ (𝑥−2)2 −1 𝑥→1 (𝑥−2)2 −1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥+1
𝑥 5 +3𝑥 4 +1 3𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1 2𝑥 2 −𝑥+3
2. lim & lim & lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 3 −1 𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 5 −2𝑥 3 +2𝑥−3

In problems 8 - 10, analyze the given function and identify all asymptotes and the
end behavior of the graph.

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 (𝑥 + 4)2
3. 𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 4)2 − 1

4. 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2

2𝑥 2 − 8
5. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+2
Review Answers
(𝑥+2)2 (𝑥+2)2 (𝑥+2)2
1. lim+ = +∞ & lim =1 & lim+ = −∞
𝑥→3 (𝑥−2)2 −1 𝑥→∞ (𝑥−2)2 −1 𝑥→1 (𝑥−2)2 −1
2𝑥−1
& lim =2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥+1
𝑥 5 +3𝑥 4 +1 3𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1 3 2𝑥 2 −𝑥+3
2. lim = −∞& lim = & lim =0
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 3 −1 𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3 2 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 5 −2𝑥 3 +2𝑥−3
3. Zero at 𝑥 = −4; vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 3, 5; 𝑓(𝑥) → 1 as 𝑥 → ±∞
4. Zero at 𝑥 = 1; no vertical asymptotes; 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞ as 𝑥 → ∞ ; 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞
as 𝑥 → −∞
5. Zero at 𝑥 = 2 no vertical asymptotes but there is a discontinuity at 𝑥 = −2
𝑓(𝑥) → −∞ as 𝑥 → −∞.

Example (a) Show that for x > 0, ( x  1)(x  3)  ( x  1)(x  3)  x  2 .

x2
(b) Hence find lim[ ( x  1)(x  3)  x] .
x 

N.B. lim(1  1 ) n  e for any positive integer n.

n n

Example Evaluate lim(1  1 ) x  e by sandwich rule.

x  x
1
1
Theorem lim(1  ) x  e  lim(1  y ) y  e
x  x y 0

x2

(b) lim x 2  1 

2 1
1
Example Evaluate (a) lim(1  x) x
(c) lim x 1 x
x 0 x  x  1 x 1
 
1
1
N.B. 1. lim (1  ) x  e 2. lim(1  x)  e .x
x   x x 0
1
2
Exercise (a) lim(1  3x) x (b) lim(1  )  x
x 0 x  x

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 (c) lim(1  tan x) cot x (d) x 1 x
lim( )
x  x  x 1
Example Show that each of the following limits does not exist.
x 1
(a) lim x  2 (b) lim (c) lim e x
x 2 x 0 x x 0
1 1
Example By Sandwich rule, show that lim(a  b ) x does not exist for a  b  0 .
x x

x 0

Solution If a  b  0 then b  1 If a  b  0 and x 0 then

a
1 1 1 1
If x  0 then ( b ) x  1 x  1 b a
( )x 1  ( )x 1
a a b
1 1 1 1 1 1
b a
 a  (a  b ) x  a{1  ( ) x }x  a  2 x
x x
b  (a x  b x ) x  b{( ) x  1}x  b  2 x
a b
As lim 2  1 , by sandwich rule,
x
As lim b  2  b , by sandwich rule,
x
x 0 x 0
1 1 1 1
we have lim(a  b )  a
x x x
we have lim(a  b ) x  b
x x

x 0 x 0

1 1
Since a  b, lim(a  b ) x does not exist.
x x ( Why ? )
x 0

Continuity of a Function

32
Continuity of a function at a point
Let f be a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let c be a point in the
domain of f. Then f is continuous at c if

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).

𝑥→−𝑐

More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the
function at x = c exist and are equal to each other, i.e.,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 − 𝑥→𝑐
then f is said to be continuous at x = c.

Continuity in an interval
(i) f is said to be continuous in an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at
every point in this interval.
(ii) f is said to be continuous in the closed interval [a, b] if

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Geometrical meaning of continuity
(i) Function f will be continuous at x = c if there is no break in the graph of
the function at the point (c, f (c)) .
(ii) In an interval, function is said to be continuous if there is no break in the
graph of the function in the entire
interval.
Discontinuity
The function f will be discontinuous at x =
a in any of the following cases :

2 x  1, x  2
Example Show that f ( x)   is discontinuous at x = 2.
4 , x=2

Solution Since f(2) = 4 and lim f ( x)  lim(2x  1)  5  f (2) ,

x 2 x 2

so f(x) is discontinuous at x = 2.

1  cos x
Example Let f ( x)   x 2 , x  0 .
 a , x=0
(a) Find lim f ( x) .
x0

(b) Find a if f(x) is continuous at x = 0.

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Continuity of some of the common functions

Continuity of composite functions

Let f and g be real valued functions such that (fog) is defined at a. If g is continuous
at a and f is continuous at g (a), then (fog) is continuous at

Example 2 Discuss the continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 x 𝑐𝑜𝑠 x.

35
Solution Since 𝑠𝑖𝑛 x and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 x are continuous functions and product of two
continuous function is a continuous function, therefore
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 x 𝑐𝑜𝑠 x
is a continuous function.

36
Exercises

For what values of x are each of the following functions discontinuous?

37
Find out whether the given function is continuous or discontinuous :

38