Mathematics Science Strand

Mathematics

Unit 1: Problem Solving and

Investigations

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ii Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Acknowledgements

Materials written and compiled by Lousie Quinn and Amkat Mai.

With contributions from:

* Mr. Stephen Tapi * Mr. Rotzoki Karkar
* Mr. Edwin Sikil * Mr. Hauka Tova
* Br. Tony Gaul * Mr. Casper Hahambu
* Mr. Morgan Gwangilo * Mr. Jazy Magia
* Mr. Kawa Sibiya * Mr Synell Ko’ou
* Mr Paul Pasingan * Mr Siegeru Woda
* Ms. Mea Dobunaba * Mr. Peter Seth
* Mr Robert Sine * Mr John Griffin

Incorporating suggestions from the Mathematics staff of:

Balob Teachers College
Holy Trinity Teachers College
Kabaleo Teachers College
Madang Teachers College
St Benedict’s Teachers College
PNG Education Institute

Many of the activities found within this material have been developed from the work of Wally
Green in ‘Problems and Investigations’, (1998) Department of Education PNG.

Layout and diagrams supported by Nick Lauer.

Date: 24 June 2002

PASTEP
Primary and Secondary Teacher Education Project
Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID)
GRM International

Papua New Guinea-Australia Development Cooperation Program

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations iii

Unit outline

Unit # Modules

1.1 Non-routine Problems

(core)

Unit 1 1.2 Investigations

(core)

Problem
1.3 Real World Problems
Solving
(core)
and
Investigations
1.4 Application of Chance Processes and
Probability
(core)

1.5 Strategy Ga mes

(recommended)

1.6 Problem Posing

(recommended)

Icons

& Read or research

@ Write or summarise

F Activity or discussion

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iv Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Table of contents

Unit 1 –Problem Solving and Investigations .........................................................1

Rationale....................................................................................................................1
Aims ..........................................................................................................................1
Objectives .................................................................................................................1
Unit outline.................................................................................................................2
How to use this material............................................................................................2
Assessment ..............................................................................................................2
Inclusive Curriculum .................................................................................................2
Objectives .................................................................................................................3
Concepts and skills to be developed........................................................................3
Introduction: Co-operative Learning ..........................................................................4
What is Problem Solving? – Part 1...........................................................................4
Topic 1: Non-Routine Problems.................................................................................7
Problems ...................................................................................................................7
What is Problem Solving? – Part 2...........................................................................9
References ..............................................................................................................11
Topic 2: Strategies for Solving Problems.............................................................. 13
Problems to be solved ............................................................................................13
Strategies for solving problems ..............................................................................15
References – for further reading ............................................................................. 20
Module 1.2 – Investigations .................................................................................... 22
Objectives ...............................................................................................................22
Concepts and skills to be developed......................................................................22
Topic 1: An Investigation.......................................................................................... 23
3 digit number investigation.....................................................................................25
Pythagorean Triads investigation............................................................................27
Topic 2: Investigations in the Primary School........................................................ 30
A probability investigation........................................................................................30
References – for further reading ............................................................................. 33
Module 1.3 – Real World Problems ....................................................................... 34
Objectives ...............................................................................................................34
Concepts and skills to be developed......................................................................34
Topic 1: A Written Report........................................................................................ 35
References – for further reading ............................................................................. 38
Module 1.4 – Applications of Chance Processes and Probability................ 39
Objectives ...............................................................................................................39
Concepts and skills to be developed......................................................................39
Topic 1: Probability .................................................................................................. 40
Crazy animals .........................................................................................................41
References – for further reading ............................................................................. 54

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Module 1.5 – Strategy Games..................................................................................55

Objectives ............................................................................................................... 55
Concepts and skills to be developed...................................................................... 55
Topic 1: Games of Chance and Games of Strategy.............................................56
Topic 2: Strategy Games .........................................................................................58
References – for further reading ..............................................................................65
Module 1.6 – Problem Posing .................................................................................66
Objectives ............................................................................................................... 66
Concepts and skills to be developed...................................................................... 66
Topic 1: Problem Posing..........................................................................................67
Topic 2: Problem Posing in the Primary School....................................................68
References – for further reading..............................................................................70
Unit Glossary...............................................................................................................71
Extension Activity for Unit 1 ....................................................................................75
Implementing a Problem Solving Program.............................................................76

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vi Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

[Notes]

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 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 1

Unit 1 –Problem Solving and Investigations

Rationale
Problem solving involves the application of mathematical skills and reasoning to problems
encountered in everyday life. Real world problems are not presented in a neat and orderly
manner like a page of ‘sums’ so it is important for us to understand the mathematical
operations and procedures so that in a problem-solving situation we know which operations
and procedures will solve the problem. It is essential that we develop our mathematical
reasoning so we will have confidence in our ability to use different approaches to solve
unfamiliar problems in everyday situations. Problem solving activities provide the bridge
between the mathematics class and the real world, allowing us to develop an understanding of
the value and importance of mathematics in our lives. The ability to solve problems is crucial
for the development of productive citizenship.
When children start school, they love problems and puzzles and this can be nurtured through
developing a problem solving approach to the teaching of mathematics. Problem solving
provides an opportunity for presenting challenging, creative and enjoyable mathematical
experiences.

Aims
This unit aims to produce beginning teachers who are:
• confident in their ability to solve a range of problems using a variety of strategies
• reflective and critical
• able to articulate their mathematical thinking
• confident and competent to teach problem solving in the Primary School (Grades
3-8).

Objectives
As a result of studying this unit you will:
• understand what is meant by a problem in mathematics
• appreciate the importance of developing your own problem solving skills and also
those of children in the primary school
• have developed strategies to help understand a problem, distinguishing between
what is given and what is to be found, determining an approach and then apply it
• have solved problems in a group situation and realised the importance of a
cooperative learning and student centred approach to problem solving
• understand the value of making an hypothesis and learning from the results so that
the hypothesis can be improved and therefore a solution found
• be able to include problem solving in your teaching of the mathematical concepts in
the primary school curriculum.

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2 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Unit outline
‘Problem Solving and Investigations’ is a 3-credit point unit. To successfully complete this unit
you should complete the following core modules:
Module 1.1 Non- Routine Problems
Module 1.2 Investigations
Module 1.3 Real World Problems
Module 1.4 Application of Chance Processes and Probability
Depending on time available, you may also complete the following recommended modules:
Module 1.5 Strategy Games
Module 1.6 Problem Posing
Each of these modules should take between 6 to 9 hours of lectures to complete. It is also
expected that you will spend an equivalent number of non-contact time studying the ideas and
concepts raised in this unit.

How to use this material

This material has been produced to support your studies in this unit. The material aims to
support the development of your own mathematical knowledge and skills, as well as prepare
you to teach mathematics in primary schools.
The material for this unit has been arranged according to modules. For each module the
objectives and the concepts and skills to be developed within the module are stated. This
information is followed by a series of topics. The topics consist of readings as well as activities
for you to complete. Extension activities have also been included. Your lecturer will guide you
through the materials during the lecture program. At times your lecturer may ask you to
complete activities and reading as homework. Sometimes you may work directly from the
book during lectures. Your lecturer may also include additional information and topics.
A glossary can be found at the end of the unit to assist you in reading the material.

Assessment
Your lecturer will provide assessment details. A range of different assessment tasks will be
given which require you to show your understanding of the concepts and skills covered by this
unit.

Inclusive Curriculum
In the delivery of this unit it is expected that every person will be provided with an opportunity
to participate in and contribute to activities without fear or favour. Activities will be presented
to cater for a range of abilities and will be gender inclusive. Assessment tasks will cater for a
range of different learning styles.
You will be encouraged to plan activities for use in the primary school mathematics classroom
which are gender inclusive and present positive and non-stereotypical representations of
people.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 3

Module 1.1 - Non-Routine Problems

Non-Routine Problems is a core module within the ‘Problem Solving and Investigation’
unit. During this module you will be introduced to problem solving and in particular to non-
routine problems. A range of strategies that can be applied in solving non-routine problems will
be explored and you will be asked to consider how you could adopt a problem solving
approach in the teaching of mathematics in the primary schools. A range of problems will be
presented for you to solve, varying in difficulty. Co-operative learning skills will also be
developed, as you work together to solve problems.

Objectives
On the completion of this module you will be able to:
• differentiate between routine and non-routine problems
• identify a range of strategies to solve non-routine problems and apply these
• articulate the processes used to solve non-routine problems
• identify how non-routine problems could be used in the primary classroom.

Concepts and skills to be developed

During this module the following concepts and skills will be developed.
• Co-operative learning skills
• Problem solving skills
• Comprehension skills
• Analytical skills
• Mathematical content knowledge associated with the selected problems

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Introduction: Co-operative Learning

& @ 1.1 Activity 1

Read Part 1 of the article ‘What is Problem Solving’ and highlight the
important ideas.
Write a journal (one page) outlining your past experiences in problem
solving. Consider what you have done in school as well as your problem
solving experiences in the community.

What is Problem Solving? – Part 1

(Adapted from B. Marr and S. Helme, 1991, Breaking The Maths Barrier, Department of
Employment and Training, Canberra, Australia)

Problem solving is the application of mathematical skills and reasoning to problems

encountered in everyday life. Such problems range from the simple to the complex, for
example:
• working out how much medicine to give a child and measuring it correctly;
• using or interpreting statistics at work to predict demand for goods so that an
order can be placed with a wholesaler.

Such real-life problems never appear as a neatly ordered and graded page of straightforward
'sums'. To solve real-life problems we need to be able to draw upon our mathematical skills
and use them to reach a solution which is reasonable and appropriate for the particular
situation.
However, many basic maths students lack confidence with anything more complex than a
worksheet full of sums which reinforce a single skill or concept, and are afraid to take risks
and experiment with different approaches to solving an unfamiliar problem.
Many students have difficulty in deciding for themselves which operation or procedure is
needed to solve a problem. For example a problem such as ‘How many 43t stamps can I
buy with K5.00?’ is difficult if students are unable to decide for themselves how to go about
it.
Fear of making a mistake, low self-confidence and little knowledge of the problem solving
process all contribute to students' difficulties in applying their mathematical skills and
knowledge to non-standard or real-life problems.
The dangers of teaching mathematical procedures at the expense of mathematical reasoning
are now well documented. For example, a national U.S. survey (Burns, 1990) found that

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 5

about 80% of 17 year olds could calculate the answer to 3.04 x 5.3 = ? (answer 16.112).
However, less that half 40% of students could select the correct alternative to the same
question when asked to select the most appropriate approximation from the following
alternatives:
a) 1.6
b) 16
c) 160
d) 1600
e) I don't know
This question examined students' abilities to reason that if you multiplied a bit more than 3 by a
bit more that 5 the answer would be about 16. That is the only answer from the choices that
makes sense, yet only one in three students successfully solved the problem.
Problem solving activities are one way of bridging the gap between the numeracy class and the
real world, so that students develop skills and strategies for solving a wide range of different
types of problem.

What is a problem solving activity?

A problem is a question or activity which is challenging to the student. Calculating change from
shopping may challenge some students, whereas others would need a much more complex
problem if they were to be challenged in any significant way. A question becomes a problem
when the answer is not immediately obvious to the student and it requires more than a guess or
a simple calculation to reach a solution. There are a number of other criteria which help define
a problem solving activity.
• The method of solution is not immediately obvious and students need to decide for
themselves how to solve it. This may be a simple decision about whether to divide
or multiply or a systematic application of a number of problem solving strategies.
• There are a number of different approaches, or strategies, which lead to a solution.
• There may be more than one correct or reasonable solution. For example, a
question such as ‘How many ways can you make K1 using 5t, 10t, 20t and 50t
coins?' Or asking students to brainstorm all the words that describe a shape. (This
encourages creativity and divergent thinking).
• There is more than one step to a solution. For example, 'my age this year is a
multiple of 7. Next year it will be a multiple of 5. I am not yet 50. How old am I?'
In order to solve the problem the student has to work out the multiples of 7, then
the multiples of 5 and finally match them to reach the solution of 14 or 49.

How do students benefit from Problem Solving?

Problem solving activities in a numeracy class benefit students in two ways. First students learn
about problem solving. Problem solving activities introduce them to the problem solving
process itself; the range of strategies or approaches that can be used to solve an unfamiliar
problem. For example, to find all the numbers you can make with the digits 1, 2 and 3 requires
students to be thorough and systematic in their approach. This is an important problem solving
skill.

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Second, problem-solving activities can be used to introduce new concepts or reinforce existing
ones. Take for example the following problem: If A = 1, B=2, C=3 etc. how many points is
your name worth? This problem involves matching letters with numbers and gives students
practice in addition. To solve a challenging extension of this problem: can you find a word
worth 50 or 100 points? Students need to try out different words until they are successful.
Thus students are learning the age-old strategy of 'guess and check’ and of course,
persistence. Meanwhile students also get lots of practice in addition!

How to begin with Problem Solving

The best foundation for success with problem solving is a positive and supportive learning
environment where students feel comfortable about taking risks.
Teachers should acknowledge students' existing problem solving skills, perhaps by reminding
them that everyday life is a constant process of problem solving. Take for instance the
following everyday situations:
• Have I got enough money to catch the PMV and buy lunch?
• How much meat should I buy for dinner tonight with four extra visitors?
• What time should I leave home to get to work on time if I have to pick up a
newspaper on the way and drop my child off at school?

All these involve mathematical skills such as addition, subtraction and estimation, and problem
solving strategies such as planning and carrying out the plan in a systematic way. Activities
done at home such as fixing the bike or making a cake need to be done in steps or stages (and
in the right order!). A step-by-step approach is also a vital skill for solving more complex
mathematical problems.
To encourage students with problem solving the teacher needs to model the problem solving
process, by exploring and discussing different approaches, including ones that may not lead to
a solution. This is important because many students are afraid of making a mistake, and
believing that maths problems have instant solutions, give up very quickly. If, however, they
see the teacher trying different approaches and finally reaching a solution they will be more
likely to 'have a go' themselves.
Many students are still firm believers in the myth that there is only one 'proper' way to solve a
problem. For example, even an apparently simple and straightforward problem such as ‘Can
you make 30 toea using exactly 3 coins?’ can be done using the coins themselves, diagrams
of coins or written numbers. Each approach is valid. This problem also has more than one
correct solution which helps break down the myth that maths problems only ever have one
answer.
Finally, and most importantly, problem
solving is best done in pairs or small
groups. Working together on problems
encourages students to verbalise what
they are thinking and doing; to discuss,
explain and perhaps defend their
method of solution. This verbal
interaction of course enhances learning.

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Topic 1: Non-Routine Problems

A problem is a non-routine problem when:
• the solution is not immediately obvious
• the method of finding a solution is not immediately known.

A good non-routine problem should also:

• make students feel that they have a reasonable chance of finding a solution
• motivates students to try to find a solution.

What a particular person considers to be a non-routine problem will depend on their level of
understanding and whether or not they have solved similar problems before.

F 1.1 Activity 2 - Solving non-routine problems

Read through the problems below. Highlight which problems you consider
to be ‘non-routine problems’. Compare your list with a peer. Did you select
the same or different problems? Why do you think any difference may
have occurred?
Select three problems that either you or your peer have identified as non-
routine problems and solve together. Be prepared to share your solutions.

Problems
1. Adult tickets cost K6.00 and student tickets cost K4.00. Judy sold 13 tickets for
K66.00. How many adult tickets did she sell?
2. Moses got into an elevator. He went down 5 floors, up 6 floors, and down 7 floors.
He was then on the second floor. On what floor did Moses get into the elevator?
3. The head of fish is 1/3 as long as its body. The tail of the fish is as long as its head and
its body combined. The total length of the fish is 48cm. How long is each part of the
fish.
4. A road is built to connect each pair of cities. How many roads for 12 cities if each
road can connect only two cities?
5. Freda is starting a youth group. She is the only member now, but her plans are to have
every member find 2 new members each week. If her plan works, how many
members will the group have had the end of 1 month.

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6. Every white car in the Ela Motors car yard was a Toyota Twin Cab. Half of all the red
cars were Toyota Twin Cab. Half of all Toyota Twin Cabs were white. There are 40
red cars and 30 white cars. How many Toyota Twin Cabs are not white or red?
7. Joseph and 8 friends spent a day at the Morobe show. At the end of the day, they
decided to pair up for Ferris Wheel rides so that each friend would ride with each of
the other friends exactly once. How many rides must be taken?
8. A piece of string art is made by connecting nails that are evenly
spaced on the vertical axis to nails evenly spaced on the
horizontal axis with straight lines made of coloured strings. The
same number of nails is used on each axis. Connect the nail
farthest from the origin on one axis to the nail nearest the origin
on the other axis. Continue in this manner until all nails are
connected. How many segments of string are used and how
many intersections do they make if you connect 8 nails on each
axis?
An example of a guitar
constructed through string
art

9. Sara averaged 12 kilometres an hour riding her bike to the market against the wind.
She averaged 18 kilometres an hour riding home with the wind to her back. If it took
her 4 hours to return, how long did it take for the total trip?
10. Cathy and Albert live 126km apart. They want to leave their homes at the same time,
ride their bikes towards each other, meet for lunch at 12 o’clock, and then go climb a
hill. Albert rides 18 kilometres an hour. Cathy rides 24 kilometres and hour. What is
the latest time they can leave home?
11. Stephen is writing numbers from 1 to 1000. He stops to rest after writing a total of
630 digits. What is the last number he wrote.
12. A motorboat travels at 25km an hour in still water. The Sepik River has a current of 5
km an hour. What is the average speed for a trip of 60km downstream and then back
to the starting point?

& 1.1 Activity 3

Read Part 2 of the article ‘What is Problem Solving’ What process did you
work through when you attempted to solve the problems in 1.1 Activity 2?
What strategies did you use? Be prepared to discuss your answers with
the class.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 9

What is Problem Solving? – Part 2

(Adapted from B. Marr and S. Helme, 1991, Breaking The Maths Barrier, Department of
Employment and Training, Canberra, Australia)

The fundamentals of problem solving

The process of problem solving can be divided into three phases:
• Understanding the problem
• Solving the problem
• Checking the answer

Understanding the problem

Students need to start by reading (or listening to) the problem very carefully to make sure they
understand what they are being asked to do. This may involve:
• several readings (or repetitions by a speaker)
• thinking about the problem for themselves for a few minutes
• discussing it with others in a small group and reaching agreement on what it is
before they start
• writing the problem down using their own words, symbols or diagrams
• restating the problem verbally using their own words.

Once students have a clear idea of what they know and what they need to find out they are
ready to begin solving the problem.

Solving the problem

Solving a problem involves exploring different approaches and finding one which successfully
solves the problem. Strategies to focus on with numeracy students are listed below.

1. Use hands-on materials

Manipulative aids encourage risk taking and therefore are a very valuable and important tool in
problem solving. Pieces of paper or objects such as counters or matchsticks which can be
moved around encourage students to try out different combinations.

2. Draw a diagram
A diagram or sketch can help students visualise and organise the information in the problem
and also provide a record of their solution process. For example, to solve the money problems
students may find it helpful to draw the coins themselves and label them.

3. Guess and check

This strategy involves making a guess and seeing where it leads. For example, to solve the
problem: 'Can you make seven toea using exactly three coins?' students need to start by
exploring different combinations of coins until they find one that works.

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10 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

4. Organise the information

When exploring a problem, students need to work
systematically. Lists, charts and tables are a powerful
way of organising seemingly confusing information.
They encourage students to be systematic and to keep
track of important information. For example, the
problem 'what day will it be the day after tomorrow
if four days ago was Friday?' is best solved if
students start by making a list of the days of the week.

5. Look for patterns

Awareness of patterns and relationships is fundamental
to learning and understanding mathematics, as well as a
valuable problem solving strategy. Take, for instance, the nine times table:
1 X9 =9 7 x 9 = 63
2 x 9 = 18 8 x 9 = 72
3 x 9 = 27 9 x 9 = 81
4 x 9 = 36 10 x 9 = 90
5 x 9 = 45 11 x 9 = 99
6 x 9 = 54 12 x 9 = 108

The patterns and relationships include:

• the sum of the digits in the answer is 9
• there is a descending and ascending pattern of numbers in the answers
• the initial digit in the answer is one less than the number of 9's (up to 10 times 9).

Awareness of these patterns simplifies the task of learning and remembering.

6. Break the problem into parts

To solve many problems, more than one step is required. This involves breaking the problem
into parts and solving each part in turn.
For example, solving magic squares requires deciding first what the numbers add up to and
then filling in the rest of the squares according to the pattern.

7. Make it simpler
For students, making it simpler usually means replacing the hard numbers in the problem with
easier ones to make sure they are on the right track. For example, to solve a problem such as:
School fees for one semester are K635.50 if you pay at the beginning
of the semester or K37 per fortnight if you pay it each fortnight.
Which is the cheapest way of paying the school fees?
This problem involves deciding which operation to use to work out a solution. Rounding off
the numbers first can help students get a rough answer which will reassure them that they have

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 11

used an appropriate method. For example, rounding the K635.50 to K640 and either dividing
or multiplying by 20 (the approximate number of fortnights in a semester) enables students to
see that dividing by 20 gives a more likely answer (K32.00) than multiplying by 20
(K12800.00). Once students are confident with their method they can go back and complete
the problem using the exact figures and probably a calculator. Working the other way,
rounding the K37 to K40.00 and multiplying by 20 (rather than dividing) gives an approximate
answer of K800.00. Estimation is a fundamental numeracy skill and an invaluable aid to
problem solving. Estimation prior to solving the problem gives an indication of the size of the
answer and helps the student decide whether their final answer is reasonable. This is essential
when using a calculator when wrong keys are often pressed by mistake.

Checking the answer

Checking the answer is an integral part of problem solving; a problem is not really solved
unless the solution has been checked or verified. For examples if we are trying to fix a bike or
make a cake, the final test is whether the bike works and the cake is moist or rises properly.
Students who can check their own work are also becoming independent and autonomous
learners.
Students should start by re-reading the problem to make sure they answered the actual
question asked. For example, a solution to 'How many ways can you find to make one kina
using other coins?' should include a statement about how many different ways were actually
found, and not simply a record of one or two possibilities. For open-ended questions like this
one, students also need to think about whether they have included all possibilities, and how to
tell whether or not they have found them all.
Calculations also need to be checked. 'Does my answer make sense?' is a question all
students should ask themselves, and have the skills to answer. Students should be encouraged
to solve the problems using another method in order to check their answer.
The following problem illustrates the importance of producing a sensible answer.
You are responsible for organising PMV’s to transport a group of students to a
big sporting event. A PMV seats 14 and you have 119 students to transport.
How many PMV’s will you need to organise?

Producing a reasonable answer to this question needs an appreciation of the situation. If a

student uses a calculator to divide 119 by 14 the answer they will get is 8.5, which would not
make sense. Students with an appreciation of the situation would realise that they need to
organise 9 buses.
The information in this section is presented in summary form in the following handout, ‘A
Problem Solving Guide’.

References
Burns, K. (1990). The Maths Solution: Using Groups of Four. In Davidson, N. (Ed.1990)
‘Co-operative Learning in Mathematics: A Handbook for Teachers.’ Menlo Park.
California. Addison Wesley.
Thiering, S. (1989). Problem Solving and Mathematical Literacy, Good Practice in Adult
Literacy, Vol. 1, No 5, September 1990. p. 10- 12.

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12 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Problem Solving Guide

1. Understand the problem
Make sure you understand the problem and what you are being asked to do. The following
strategies may help.
• Read (or listen to) the problem carefully, several times if necessary.
• Think about it for yourself for a few minutes.
• Discuss the problem with others and reach agreement on what to do.
• Write the problem down (or say it aloud) using your own words.

2. Solve the problem

Explore ways of solving the problem until you find an approach which works,
Strategies to use include:
• use hands-on materials
• draw a diagram
• guess and check
• organise the information (e.g. lists, charts or tables)
• look for patterns
• break the problem into parts
• make it simpler (e.g. by estimating)

3. Check the answer

• A problem is not fully solved until the solution is checked.
• Re-read the problem.
• Make sure you have answered the question asked.
• Check calculations.
• Check solutions using another method.
• Check that your answer makes sense.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 13

Topic 2: Strategies for Solving Problems

A range of strategies can be used to solve problems. Some people construct tables, some
draw diagrams, others use concrete materials. There are many ways to solve a problem and
different people may use different strategies to solve the same problem.

& F1.1 Activity 4

Read through the problems listed below. Most of these problems are taken
from the Grade 7 and 8 Mathematics book (Department of Education PNG,
Secondary School Mathematics). Solve each problem yourself and write down
the strategy that you used to solve the problem.
After solving the problems read ‘Strategies for Solving Problems’. Did you
use the same strategies or different ones? Did you reach the same
solutions?

Problems to be solved

1. How many cars are needed to transport 82 children if each car can take 6 children?

2. Here are three piles of number blocks. Make the number sum the same for each pile,
by moving one block from one pile to another.

3. Seven loaded trucks contain 63 tonnes. How many tonnes would there be in 3 loaded
trucks?

4. I have just thought of a number. I multiply by 3. Then I add 4. Then I divide by 7. The
result is 4. What is the number I started with?

5. For carrying goods between two towns, a truck driver charges K 4.00 for the first
10 kg and K 1.00 for each additional 5 kg or part thereof. How much does it cost to
send 112 kg of cargo between the two towns?

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14 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

6. A taxi driver charges a fixed amount when the meter is turned on and 60 toea per
kilometre travelled. If a 9-km ride costs K 6.35, then what is the fixed charge?

7. What is the least number of coins needed to be able to pay the exact price of any
article costing from 1 toea to 1 kina.

8. Mr. Nou kept a record of the odometer readings and the amount of petrol added,
each time he filled the tank. Find the rate of petrol consumption

Odometer reading in Number of litres to fill

kilometres the tank.
41, 684 17
41, 969 26
42, 134 19

9. How many numbers between 10 and 1000 have a digit sum of 8?

10. Using only the numbers 1 to 9, fill in the remaining numbers in the figure, so that the
totals along the joining lines in any direction are the same.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 15

Strategies for solving problems

1. Read carefully and then do basic operations (if applicable)

How many cars are needed to transport 82 children if each car can take 6
children?

• Be sure of what is actually required

• Extract all useful information
• Detect tricks, traps or distractions
• Look for a simple method hidden amongst the details

In some examples, like this one, the calculation is quite simple. The hard thing is to read the
information and the question to see what is required.
Only simple division is required, dividing 82 by 6 to give 13 and remainder 4.
You then have to think what the remainder 4 means in this problem. In this case it means you
need an extra vehicle, so that 14 vehicles are required. (You can’t leave the 4 kids behind!)
(Reference: Department of Education PNG, Secondary School Mathematics 7A p.35 problem )

2. Guess and check strategy (and think)

Here are three piles of number blocks. Make the number sum the same for
each pile, by moving one block from one pile to another.

• Check: What is the sum of the numbers on each pile? The totals are 6, 12, 18
(first diagram)
• Think: Since we can only move one block, we will have to move a block off the
pile with the biggest total, and put it onto the pile with the smallest total.
• Guess: try moving the 5 from pile 3 to pile 1 (second diagram).
• Check: What is the sum of the numbers on each pile? 11, 12, 13 (better, but still
not correct).
• Think: Whatever you move, the totals have to add up to 12. So, we have to move
a block off the original pile 3 to make its total go from 18 to 12. This is a reduction
by 6. We have to make pile 1 total go from 6 to 12. This is an increase of 6.
• Guess: try moving the 6 block from pile 3 to pile 1. (third diagram)
• Check: What is the sum of the numbers on each pile? 12, 12, 12.
This is the required result.
(Reference: Department of Education PNG, Secondary School Mathematics 7A Unit 3 page 34)

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16 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

3. Unit method

Seven loaded trucks contain 63 tonnes.

How many tonnes would there be in 3 loaded trucks?

Method: Find how many tonnes in ONE loaded truck (by division)
Find how many tonnes in THREE loaded trucks (by multiplication)
In this case: 7 trucks contain 63 tonnes
1 truck contains 63 ÷ 7 = 9 tonnes
3 trucks contain 9 × 3 = 27 tonnes

Other examples of problems involving the unit method can be found in Department of
Education PNG, Secondary School Mathematics 7A: p37 Q2, p39 Q13.

4. Backwards method

I have just thought of a number. I multiply by 3. Then I add 4. Then I divide by

7. The result is 4.What is the number I started with?

Work backwards: The last number was 4.

This was the result of dividing by 7.
So the second last number was
4 × 7 = 28
This was the result of adding 4.
So the third last number was
28 − 4 = 24.
This was the result of multiplying the start number by 3.
So the start number was 24 ÷ 3 = 8.
In the backwards method:
• we work through the steps backwards
• we do the reverse operations (example : + is the reverse of − )

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 17

5. Break problem into steps

For carrying goods between two towns, a truck driver charges K 4.00 for the
first 10 kg and K 1.00 for each additional 5 kg or part thereof. How much does
it cost to send 112 kg of cargo between the two towns?

Step 1: Work out the first 10 kg. Cost = K 4.00 and remaining
weight = 102 kg.

Step 2: How many 5 kg lots (or part thereof) in the remaining weight?
102 ÷ 5 = 20 lots and 2kg remaining. This is counted as 21 lots of 5kg.

Step 3: Cost of the 21 lots of 5 kg is K 21.00 (21 x K1)

Step 4: Total cost = K 4.00 + K 21.00 = K 25.00

(Reference: Department of Education PNG, Secondary School Mathematics 7A pp. 40 q24.)

6. Convert words to symbols

A taxi driver charges a fixed amount when the meter is turned on and 60 toea
per kilometre travelled. If a 9-km ride costs K 6.35, then what is the fixed
charge?

Use the symbol ‘F’ for the fixed charge.

Then 6.35 = F + 0.60 × 9
6.35 = F + 5.40
F = 6.35 − 5.40
F = 0.95
So, the fixed charge was 95 toea.
(Reference: Department of Education PNG, Secondary School Mathematics 7A pp. 34 problem 2.)

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18 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

7. Build a list or table

What is the least number of coins needed to be able to pay the exact price of
any article costing from 1 toea to 1 kina.

Amount Coins needed Amount Coins needed

1 toea 1 toea 10 toea 10 toea
2 toea 2 toea 20 toea 20 toea
3 toea 1 toea + 2 toea 30 toea 10 toea + 20 toea
4 toea 2 toea + 2 toea 40 toea 20 toea + 20 toea
5 toea 5 toea 50 toea 50 toea
6 toea 5 toea + 1 toea 60 toea 50 toea + 10 toea
7 toea 5 toea + 2 toea 70 toea 50 toea + 20 toea
8 toea 5 toea + 2 toea + 1 80 toea 50 toea + 20 toea + 10
toea toea
9 toea 5 toea + 2 toea + 2 90 toea 50 toea + 20 toea + 20
toea toea
1 kina 1 kina

So you could make up any amount from 1 toea to 1 kina, if you had:
One 1 toea coin
Two 2 toea coins
One 5 toea coin
One 10 toea coin
Two 20 toea coins
One 50 toea coin
One 1 kina coin
For example, you could make up 74 toea using 50t + 20t + 2t + 2t
Application to real life: If you run a business where you need to pay out a lot of coins, then
make sure you have twice as many 2t and 20t coins compared to the others.
(Reference: Department of Education PNG, Secondary School Mathematics 7A pp. 40 q21.)

8. Disregarding useless information

Mr. Nou kept a record of the odometer readings and the amount of petrol
added, each time he filled the tank. Find the rate of petrol consumption.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 19

Odometer reading in Number of litres to fill

kilometres the tank
41, 684 17
41, 969 26
42, 134 19

The 17 litres is useless information. The real information is 26 litres used to travel
41,969 − 41, 648 = 285 km and
19 litres used to travel 42,134 − 41, 969 = 165 km
This gives average rate of consumption = 285 ÷ 26 = 10.96 km per litre for the first part
And 165 ÷ 19 = 8.68 km per litre for the second part.
Or, overall, (42,134 − 41683) ÷ (19 + 26) = 450 ÷ 45 = 10 km per litre.
(Reference: Department of Education PNG, Secondary School Mathematics 7B pp. 59 q17.)

9. Look for patterns

How many numbers between 10 and 1000 have a digit sum of 8?

For a start, write the ones from 10 to 100 (the 2 digit ones)
17, 26, 35 …
Notice a pattern (the first digit increases by 1, and the second digit decreases by 1).
This makes it easier to finish the pattern up to 100:
17, 26, 35, 44, 53, 62, 71, 80 and
that’s all in the range 10 to 100 (8 examples)

Next, write the ones from 100 to 200, using the pattern found in the 10 to 100
107, 116, 125, 134, 143, 152, 161, 170,
and that’s all (8 examples)

Next, write the ones from 200 to 500, using the pattern found in the 100 to 200
206, 215, 224, 233, 242, 251, 260, and that’s all (7 examples)
306, 316, 324, 333, 342, 350, and that’s all (6 examples)
404, 413, 422, 431, 440, and that’s all (5 examples)

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20 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Notice the pattern of decreasing number of examples in each row.

Without writing out the examples, we could say that there will be 4 examples in the 5
hundreds, 3 examples in the 6 hundreds, 2 examples in the 7 hundreds and only 1 example in
the 8 hundreds (800 itself). Nothing in the 9 hundreds.

Total result will be 8 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 44 numbers between 10 and

1000 with a digit total of 8.
(Reference: Department of Education PNG, Secondary School Mathematics 8B pp. 54 q7.)

10. Look for standard examples

Using the numbers 1 to 9 fill in the remaining numbers in the figure, so that the
totals along the joining lines in any direction are the same.

The figure is just a Chinese Magic Square,

turned around 45 degrees and skewed a
little.
The students may have done magic
squares already, so this becomes a
standard example, following a pattern.
Anyone who has seen Chinese Magic squares
knows that they:
• have rows, diagonals and columns
which add up to 15
• contain only the numbers 1 to 9
• always have 5 in the middle,
• always have even numbers on the
corners, and odd numbers in between
the evens.
This pattern can help to fill in the diagram in the example (though it could be done
without knowing about Magic Squares).

References – for further reading

Clement, Ken and Ellerton, Nerida (1991), Polya, Kruletskii and the Restaurant Problem,
Deakin University: Geelong, Victoria, Australia
Department of Education PNG, (1993), Secondary Mathematics 7A & 7B
Department of Education PNG, (1993), Secondary Mathematics 8A & 8B
Gould, Peter (1993), Cooperative problem Solving in Mathematics – Grade 5 –8, The
Mathematics Association of New South Wales, Inc
Green, Wally, (1998), Problems and Investigations, Department of Education PNG

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 21

Lowrie, T. (1999), ‘Developing Children’s Mathematical Power’ in Australian Primary

Mathematics Classroom Vol. 4 No. 2, p8 –11, Australian Association of Mathematics
Teachers Inc.
O’Daffer, Phares G. ed., (1988), Problem Solving Tips for Teachers, National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics: Reston Virginia

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 22 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Module 1.2 – Investigations

16⇐⇐⇐⇐15⇐⇐⇐⇐9⇐⇐⇐
⇐4⇐⇐⇐⇐3⇐⇐⇐⇐1
1,2,4,8 1,3,5 1,3 1,2 1

Module 1.2:Investigations is a core module within the ‘Problem Solving and

Investigations’ unit. During this module you will investigate open-ended problems and have
the opportunity to make important mathematical discoveries for yourself. Working
collaboratively you will investigate a range of problems across the various mathematics content
areas.

Objectives
On the completion of this module you will be able to:
• work co-operatively to complete a range of investigations
• articulate the processes you have worked through to complete the investigations
• identify how mathematical investigations develop mathematical thinking
• consider how investigations can be used in the primary school.

Concepts and skills to be developed

• Co-operative learning
• Analytical skills
• Data collection
• Recording mathematical ideas
• Making and testing conjectures
• Explanation

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 23

Topic 1: An Investigation
An investigation is an open-ended problem in which students can choose to go in different
directions. Investigations give the students the opportunity to make important mathematical
discoveries that they will remember much longer than if they were told them by the teacher.
They encourage students to use high order intellectual skills which are far more important than
the mathematical concepts involved.
An important aspect in carrying out investigations is the need to make guesses and to test
them. It doesn’t matter if the guess is right or wrong, what is important is to be willing to
deduce information from the data gathered, to predict what will happen in other cases, and
then to learn from any extra information obtained. The fear of being wrong needs to be
overcome as it hampers exploration and understanding.
Situations to be investigated are generally open-ended but can be more restricted when
introducing the concept, particularly in the primary school classroom, or if the teacher has a
particular concept in mind that s/he wants the students to explore.
Investigations are an excellent way to establish cooperative learning strategies in the
classroom. Most investigation require you to:
1. Explore the investigation
2. Gather and record data
3. Look for patterns
4. Make conjectures (guesses)
5. Test the conjecture and then refine it and test it again
6. Explain or prove results
7. Make generalisations
8. Extend the problem
9. Communicate findings

When planning investigation activities for primary school children it is not expected that young
children would complete all these steps. Children could be encouraged to complete the first
five steps outlined above and then shared their findings with others.

(Adapted from Green, Wally, 1998, Problems and Investigations, Department of Education PNG pp. 14)

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24 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

F 1.2 Activity 1
Complete one of the following investigations, working through the steps
outlined above. Prepare to discuss your findings.

(i) 3 Digit Number Investigation

Write down a three-digit number. e.g. 5 4 1
Reverse the digits and subtract smaller from larger. - 145
Reverse the digits of the results and add. 396
Investigate. + 693
1089

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(ii) Pythagorean Triads

Pythagoras’s theorem states that a 2 + b 2 = c2

a = shortest side
a b b = next side
c = hypotenuse (side opposite right angle)
c

A Pythagorean triad is defined as a set of three counting numbers

which obey Pythagoras’s theorem.
For example; a=3, b=4, c=5
a2 + b 2 = c 2
3 2 + 4 2 = 52
9+ 16 = 25
25 = 25

Investigation: Can you find another Pythagorean Triad?

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 25

An example of how you may approach each of these investigations is set out below.

3 digit number investigation

Exploration
Read the investigation, discuss what the investigation is saying and asking you to do.

Gather and record data

792 543 921 482 691
- 297 - 345 - 129 - 284 - 196
495 198 792 198 495

+ 594 + 891 + 297 + 891 + 594

1089 1089 1089 1089 1089

Looking for patterns

Discuss what you have noticed and what patterns you can see.

Making conjectures
Based on the data collected and the patterns seen, make a conjecture.
• The final result is always 1089
• After the subtraction step the middle digit is always 9 and the result is divisible by
9

Gather more data to test conjectures

683 471 813 766 211
- 386 - 174 -318 - 667 -112
297 297 495 99 99
+792 + 792 + 594 + 99 + 99
1089 1089 1089 198 198

Revise conjecture
If two adjacent integers are the same, the difference will be 99 and the sum 198.

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26 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Verify Conjecture
554 887 922 661 574
- 455 - 788 - 229 -166 -475
99 99 693 495 99
+99 + 99 + 396 + 594 + 99
198 198 1089 1089 198

Organise data
Numbers that have resulted in a difference of 99 and a sum of 198 are
766, 211, 554, 887, 574
Look carefully at these numbers and see if there is anything about them which is the same.
Look at the digits. Make a conjecture.

The first and third digits differ by 1.

Organise the data by grouping numbers with the same difference between the first and the third
digits.

Digits differ by 2 543, 482 Difference 198, sum 1089

Digits differ by 3 683, 471, Difference 297, sum 1089
Digits differ by 4
Digits differ by 5 792, 691, 813, 661 Difference 495, sum 1089
Digits differ by 6
Digits differ by 7 922 Difference 693, sum 1089
Digits differ by 8 921 Difference 792, sum 1089
Digits differ by 9

Revise conjectures (generalisations)

The difference between the digits appears to be central to the result. Examination of the
results, particularly the results of the subtraction, leads to the following conjectures:
• The final result is 1089 unless the first and last digits differ by 1 in which case it is
99
• After the subtraction, the middle digit is always 9 and the other two digits are given
by multiplying the difference of the first and the third digits, as listed in the table
above, by 9. For example for 471 the difference between 4 and 1 is 3. If we
multiple 3 x 9 we get 27. Therefore after the subtraction the result is 297.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 27

Verify
The important conjecture to verify at this stage is the second one and this is done by choosing
numbers that have a digit difference of 4, 6 or 9 as there were none of these in the data
gathered.

864: 8-4= 4, 4x9 = 36 After subtraction: 396

713: 7-3= 4, 4x9 = 36 After subtraction: 396
842: 8-2 = 6 6x9 = 54 After subtraction: 594
920: 9-0 = 9 9x8 =81 After subtraction: 891
Check:
864 713 842 920
- 468 - 317 - 248 - 092
396 396 594 891

Conjecture verifies.

Extend the problem

Consider 2 digit numbers
73 91 87 52
-37 - 19 -79 -25
36 72 09 27
+ 63 + 27 + 90 + 72
99 99 99 99

Conjectures
• The results of the subtraction is the product of the difference of the digits and 9
• The sum is always 99

Pythagorean Triads investigation

Gather and record data

Try a = 1, b = 1, c = ?
a2 + b2 = c2
12 + 12 = c2
1 + 1 = c2

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28 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

c2 = 2
There is no counting number whose square is 2. So there is no Pythagorean Triad
starting with a = 1 and b =2

Conjecture
You can make Pythagorean triads by taking 3, 4, and 5 and multiplying them by a constant
number, e.g. multiply by 2, gives 6, 8 and 10. However, the 6, 8, 10 triangle is the same shape
at the 3, 4, 5 triangle, just twice the size.
To get a different shape, the number ‘a’ should be a PRIME NUMBER. The next prime
number after 3 is 5.
Using the ‘guess and check’ strategy find the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ which give a counting
number value for ‘c’.

a b a2 b2 c2 c
5 6 25 36 61 7.8102…
5 7 25 49 74 8.6023
5 8 25 64 89 9.4340…
5 9 25 81 106 10.2956
5 10 25 100 125 11.1803
5 11 25 121 146 12.0830
5 12 25 144 169 13

In this case the value of ‘b’ has to be greater than ‘a’ so start with b = 6 and continue until we
recognise c2 as a square of a counting number e.g. 169.
In this case, the Pythagorean Triad is 6, 12, 13. Can we find a Pythagorean Triad
starting with 7?

a b a2 b2 c2 c
7 8 49 64 113 10.6301
7 9 49 81 130 11.4081
7 10 49 100 149 12.2066
7 11 49 121 170 13.0834
7 12 49 144 193 13.8924
7 13 49 169 218 14.7648
7 14 49 195 244 15.6205
7 15 49 225 274 16.5529

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 29

7 16 49 256 305 17.4642

7 17 49 289 338 18.3848
7 18 49 324 373 19.3132
7 19 49 361 410 20.2485
7 20 49 400 449 21.1896
7 21 49 441 490 22.1359
7 22 49 484 533 23.0868
7 23 49 529 578 24.0416
7 24 49 572 625 25

The Pythagorean Triad where ‘a’ = 7 is 7, 24, 25

Look for patterns

Can we see a pattern in the Pythagorean Triads found so far?
a b c
3 4 5
5 12 13
7 24 25
For example c = b + 1 and b + c = a2

Conjecture
Can we use this pattern to find the Pythagorean triad for the next prime number which is 11

Testing conjecture
If a = 11, then b + c = 112 = 121 and c = b+1 we need to find two consecutive numbers
which add up to 121
The Pythagorean triad is 11. 60, 61
112 + 602 = 121 + 3600 = 3721 = 612

Test again
Can we use this pattern to find the Pythagorean Triad beginning with the next prime number
which is 13?
If a = 13, then b + c = 132 = 169 and if c = b + 1 we need to find two consecutive numbers
which add up to 169 (e.g. b + b + 1 = 169 so 2b = 168 therefore b = 84 and c = 85.
The Pythorean triad is 13, 84, 85

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30 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Topic 2: Investigations in the Primary School

Investigations can be used in the primary school to develop children’s mathematical
understandings and thinking. When planning investigation activities for primary school children
it is not expected that young children would complete all these steps outlined above. Children
could be encouraged to:
1. Explore the investigation
2. Gather and record data
3. Look for patterns
4. Make and test conjectures (guesses)
5. Test the conjecture and then refine it and test it again
6. Share their findings

Below is an example of an investigation developed for Grade 4 children.

& 1.2 Activity 2

Read through the investigation. What are the children doing during this
investigation? What mathematical ideas are they developing? How are
the children recording their ideas? What do you see as the advantages
and disadvantages of using this approach to teach mathematics?
Be prepared to share your responses with others

A probability investigation

Grade 4
Objective
Perform simple trials and record results

The investigation
Six is the hardest number to get when you throw a die. Investigate

Prior Learning
Children would have had experience playing games involving the use of die.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 31

Exploration
Discuss the investigation with the children.
Talk about situations where we use dice.
Ask children what they have found the hardest number to throw when using a die.
Ask children how they might find out which number is the hardest to throw.

Gathering data and recording ideas

Organise children to work in small groups to carry out their investigation into whether a 6 is the
hardest number to throw.
Children have the choice of what method they will use to gather their data and record their
ideas.
One possible method is outlined below.
Throw a die 10 times and record the results on a table

Number Tally
1 11
2
3 11
4 1
5 111
6 11

Look for patterns and making conjectures

Ask children to look for patterns and to make a ‘guess’ (conjecture) about what they have
found out.

For example based on the table of results shown above children might say:
‘ 2 is the hardest number to throw’
‘ Odd numbers are the easiest to throw’

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32 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Testing the conjecture

Allow children time to test out their conjectures.
For example, children might decide to throw the die again, this time 100 times to test their
conjecture. They would need to record their findings.

Number Tally
1 1111 1111 1111 11
2 1111 1111 1111 1111
3 1111 1111 111
4 1111 1111 1111 111
5 1111 1111 1111 1
6 1111 1111 1111 1

Refine conjecture and test again

Ask children to review the results, look for new patterns, and rethink their conjecture. Ask
children questions like:
Do these results give you the same patterns as you got before?
Do these results support your guess from before?
What patterns can you see?
Can you make any new guesses (conjectures)?
How could you test these?

Based on the table above children might make the following conjecture:
‘3 is the hardest number to throw’ or
‘ all numbers have about the same chance of coming up’

Test again and draw conclusions

Allow children to test their conjecture again.
For example children might combine their results with the results from another group to see if
their conjecture is right.
Ask children to draw conclusions about which number is the hardest number to throw with a
die

Share findings
Allow an opportunity for children to share their findings.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 33

Children can talk about how they gathered information, the guesses they made, further tests
they carried out and the conclusions they came to.
Children can display their work.

Class discussion
Conduct a class discussion about what conclusions can be made about which number is the
hardest number to throw with a die.

F 1.2 Activity 3
Use the curriculum documents to identify a topic which you could teach
through an investigation. Plan an investigation suitable to use with
primary school children. Identify
• the grade level
• the investigations
• the stages you would encourage children to work through and the type of
information you would expect at each stage.
Consider if your investigation
• is gender inclusive
• could be adapted to cater for children with special needs

References – for further reading

Green, Wally (1998), Problems and Investigations, Department of Education PNG

Honsberger, Ross (1997), In Polya’s Footsteps: Miscellaneous Problems and Essays. The
Mathematics Association of America.

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Module 1.3 – Real World Problems

Module 1.3: Real World Problems is a core module within the ‘Problem Solving and
Investigations’ unit. During this module you will develop an understanding of how
mathematics is applied in real life situations. The module allows mathematical content to be
presented in an integrated way and provides you with an opportunity to articulate your
mathematical thinking.

Objectives
On the completion of this module you will be able to:
• solve a range of real world problems
• consider how real world problems can be used to develop mathematical
understandings.
• articulate processes used to solve problems.

Concepts and skills to be developed

• Problem solving.
• Collaborative learning skills.
• Report writing.
• Research skills.
• Oral presentation skills.
• Mathematical content knowledge associated with the various problems.

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Topic 1: A Written Report

F 1.3 Activity 1
Read the following written report which discusses an investigation carried
out into a real world problem. Note down the information contained in the
report.
Discuss with your peers the mathematical understandings which were
used to conduct this investigation.

Problems between Lecturers and Students

(Adapted from a report written by a group of Year One MTC students in 2000)

Introduction
This report investigates the problems experienced at the Teachers College between Lecturers
and Staff. The report has been written with the hope that it may solve some of these problems
and improve the way in which staff and students work together.
What motivated our group to investigate this topic is that everyday after classes students tend
to complain about lecturers. Sometimes lecturers behave in a way which upsets student and
the lecturers don’t even realise this. The report hopes to increase staff awareness of the areas
which students complain about so that people can change their practices and build stronger
working relationships between staff and students. This would reduce the number of problems
experienced at the college.
The investigation did not ask students to identify specific lecturers. People were asked to
identify general problems. Our aim was not to hurt or create grudges between lectures and
students, but to establish better understandings between people.
To carry out our investigation a survey was conducted. Results were collected and the data
gathered analysised. The results were then used to make recommendations about how the
relationships between students and lecturers could be improved.

Data collection
A table was drawn up listing 10 different ways that lecturers behave which cause a negative
response from students. Data was collected by randomly selecting students and asking them to
identify which of the behaviours listed on the table they had see evidence of in their classes.
Students were asked to put a tick (ü) if they had seen evidence of the behaviour listed, and to
place a cross (x) if they had not seen a lecturer behave in this way. Overall, 285 students

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36 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

provided us with information about their experiences with lecturers at the college. An example
of one group of data collected can be seen below in Table 1.

Data representation
After we had collected all our data, we developed a frequency table to help us analysis our
information. The frequency table showed us the number of students who had seen evidence of
a lecturer behaving in a particular way which caused them to have a negative response
towards lecturers. Table 2 shows the results.

Table 2: Frequency Table

The information from our frequency table was used to construct a bar graph. This can be seen
in Figure 1. We used a scale of 1mm = 2 students. On the horizontal axis we have the number
of students who saw evidence of a lecturer behaving in a particular way which caused them to
have a negative response towards lecturers. On the vertical axis we have listed the behaviours
which cause students to have a negative response towards lecturers.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 37

Figure 1: Bar graph showing lecturers behaviour which has caused students to have
negative responses to lecturers

Interpreting the data

By looking at the bar graph, we can see that the main reason why students have a negative
response towards lecturers is because they feel lecturers do not explain the marking criteria for
assignments clearly. Out of the 285 students surveyed, 222 students identified this as an area
of concern which is 78%. Teaching overtime was the next most common behaviour that
caused students to have a negative response to lecturers, with 74% or 212 students out of the
285 surveyed saying they had seen evidence of this. The other two major behaviours which
caused students to respond negatively towards lecturers are when lecturers interfere in
students personal affairs (68%) and when lecturers show favouritism to certain students
(62%).
The behaviour which students found the least evidence of was mistreatment, with only 27% or
78 out of 285, seeing any evidence of lecturers mistreating students.

Recommendations
This investigation aimed to find out why students have a negative attitude towards lecturers.
The results from this investigation provide useful information for lecturers on the types of
behaviours which cause students to develop negative feelings.
As a result of carrying out this investigation the following recommendations are made:

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1. The finding from this investigation be made available to all lecturers so they are made
aware of students feelings.
2. Professional development activities are carried out with lecturers to assist them in
clearly writing and explaining marking criteria for assignments
3. The college administration reminds lecturers of the time allocated for lectures and
monitors this to ensure classes do not go overtime.
4. All staff be asked to reflect on their own behaviour and consider how they can
improve on their own practice to ensure students and staff have a positive working
relationship
5. Students be encouraged to speak with lecturers or wardens when they are confused
about assignments or feel that a lecturer has behaved in an inappropriate way.

Mathematics used
To complete this research into a problem an understanding of a number of mathematical
concepts was required. We first needed to be able to organise our information into a table and
to tally our results. We then had to add the results to find out the frequency of each of the
behaviours observed by students. We needed to be able to understand percentages and to
draw a bar graph to scale.

Conclusion
This investigation developed out of a real problem which was being experienced by students at
the college. Students have been complaining about lecturers and are developing negative
feelings towards the staff. This research has attempted to identify the main behaviours which
are causing students to complain about lecturers, so that lecturers can be made more aware of
how their behaviour affects students. The recommendations made as a result of this
investigation suggest ways in which lecturers and students can work together to establish a
good working relationship.

References – for further reading

Clement, Ken and Ellerton Nerida. (1991), Polya, Kruletskii and the restaurant problem.
Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
Department of Education PNG, (1993), Secondary Mathematics 7A, 7B
Department of Education PNG, (1993), Secondary Mathematics 8A, 8B
Green, Wally. (1998), Problems and Investigations, Department of Education. PNG
Marr, Beth, and Helme, Sue (1990), ‘Problem Solving’ in Breaking the Maths Barrier,
Department of Employment and Training, Canberra, Australia

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Module 1.4 – Applications of Chance

Processes and Probability

Module 1.4: Applications of Chance Processes and Probability is a core module within
the ‘Problem Solving and Investigations’ unit. During this module you will collect your
own data and investigate concepts of chance, experimental and theoretical probability.

Objectives
On the completion of this module you will be able to:
• identify the probability of an event occurring
• discuss the relationship between experimental and theoretical probability
• differentiate between dependent and independent events

Concepts and skills to be developed

• Data collection.
• Interpreting data.
• Calculating probability.

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Topic 1: Probability
Probability involves exploring the likelihood of a particular event occurring. For example
deciding on the likelihood of it raining today, or the likelihood of getting a ‘6’ when you throw
a die.
Probability is a strand within the Lower Primary Mathematics Syllabus and the Upper Primary
Mathematics Syllabus and can be taught through an investigative approach. Children can be
provided with an opportunity to explore the investigation, make predictions, develop
experiments to test their ideas, and gather and analysing their results before sharing their
findings.

F 1.4 Activity 1 - An investigation exploring probability

Below is an example of an investigation exploring probability. Work
through the investigation (you can design your own animals if you like).
Discuss the following questions with a peer and write down your response.
Be prepared to discuss your answers with the class.
• What mathematical understandings were developed by the
investigation?
• What curriculum areas were integrated into the investigation?
• What is the role of the teacher during the investigation?
• List down the activities the children were involved in.
• What is your opinion of the value of teaching probability through an
investigative approach? Give your reasons.

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Crazy animals
Adapted from ‘Myths and Misconceptions’ in Lovitt, Charles and Lowe, Ian (1993) Chance
and Data Investigations Vol. 1. Curriculum Corporation, Carton Victoria, Australia. p 22-
31

The popular children's book of mixing heads, bodies and legs of

animals together to make 'crazy animals' is the basis for this
investigation. Turning it into a dice game brings out many
probability ideas. Group work creates lots of opportunities for
informal language to develop to describe the various events.

Features

Teaching and learning

• Use of firsthand data
• Group work
• Link with children's books and art
• Link with measurement
• Problem solving
• Writing a story about the chances
• Symbolic representation
• Physical graphing

Major mathematical content

• Using everyday language to describe chance events
• Recognising and describing less likely events and more likely
events
• Making predictions on the basis of informal probability
assumptions
• Systematically collecting and organising data to find
underlying patterns
• Mathematical content is further discussed in the Content
epilogue.

Equipment and preparation

Photocopies of the parts of animals (either designed by students or using
the worksheets)
One die or labelled wooden cube for each student, possibly using small
sticky circles to replace the numbers
Copies of Worksheet 3 for the analysis section

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Expected timing
Anything from three to ten class sessions
A teacher's story

I got this idea from a crazy animal book one of my Year 1 children brought to school. Firstly I
introduced the idea of mixing parts of the body, by having children cut the heads from photos
from magazines and swap them over. This gave everyone a good laugh! Then I encouraged
the children to make crazy animals from cardboard boxes and write stories about them. As the
topic developed I continued to link language and mathematics.
I saw the chance to explore probability concepts. We made three animals - the giraffe, duck
and horse - and three parts for each - the head, body and legs. Because I had a rather young
class, I decided to use only two animals to begin with. After making and counting lots of
different crazy animals we created a dice game. I rolled the dice for all the class and they
constructed the animal. We talked about the 'chance' of making a giraffe or a horse.
I wanted to get the children talking and exploring with each other the probabilities involved, so
then I had each student create their own animal using dice. They were then very eager to see
what everyone else had made, and it was great to see them all checking and comparing and
finding exact or near matches. I asked questions such as what dice rolls would have been
needed for them to match exactly.
I asked children who had made the same animal to get together. This showed the eight
different combinations; it was like a human graph. We then pasted the animals on a large
poster -and made another graph. This was a great opportunity to focus on each combination
and its chance of being created.
In follow-up lessons I added a third animal and repeated the activities above. It was interesting
to note the transfer of understandings to this new, more complex situation.
Finally, I asked students to write a story about the chances of getting the animal you want.
Reading the stories gave me much insight into their understandings and the language they had
acquired.
Another option I tried was to introduce secondhand data - a worksheet of the results of games
played by someone else. Students were able to see the data as representing a real game and
to be able to analyse it and summarise what happened.

Comments
It was a wonderful opportunity to integrate many aspects of learning. They had a wonderfully
creative time making up animals so that they would have the most ridiculous names. I was
surprised how well my students seemed to understand the mathematics involved.

Summary of the stages in this investigation

1. Introduction from a children's book
2. Designing and drawing two animals
3. Making up different animals

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4. Some dice games

5. Predicting the number of whole and part giraffes
6. Adding a third animal
7. Analysis of second-hand data
8. Writing a story
9. Consolidation

1 Introduction from a children's book

I used a crazy animal book that one of the
children had got from the library.

How do the people making the book make

sure the parts join up?

2 Designing and drawing two animals

I decided to initially use just two animals, a giraffe
and a horse, and three segments, being the head,
body and legs. I gave out copies of the giraffe and
horse on Worksheet 1 and everyone cut these up
into the three segments.

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3 Making up different animals

Students then made lots of different
animals from combinations of the two
animals.
How many different animals can we
make?
We stuck these animals up next to each
other. When we could not find any more
we agreed the answer was eight. These
included a complete giraffe and a
complete horse.

The informal discussion about whether

we had found all of them showed me
much about their emerging problem
solving strategies.

The students enjoyed colouring in their new creations, and also naming them. In fact the funny
names were a highlight of the activity.

4 Some dice games

For the more extensive activities that follow, it is useful to have the parts assembled into
books. Cut the animals from the worksheet with an extra centimetre to the left of each animal.
Put them together to make a book and staple along the left of the pictures. Then, and only
then, cut the animals into three parts, making sure that the staples hold the book together. This
reduces the chance of losing parts of animals.

Game 1: Making random animals and human graphs

I took a large die and put stickers marked H and G over the dots - three of each. Thus we
rolled either a giraffe (G) or a horse (H) part. After I had demonstrated what to do by having
the class make an animal as I rolled the die, I had each child make their own animal according
to the dice they rolled.

Now I would like each of you to construct your own crazy animal using dice.
'Roll' the head first, then the body, then the legs.
I've rolled a G - that's a giraffe head.
Now I've rolled an H that's a horse body.
Now another H - the horse legs. What shall I call the animal? Gir-or-se?

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After everyone had a complete animal in front of them, I put up the names of each of the eight
animals around the room (Gir-a-ffe, Gir-a-se, Gir-or-se, Gir-or-ffe, H-a-ffe, H-a-se,
H-or-ffe, H-or-se). Children then moved to the spot with the name of 'their creation'.

We checked whether we had all eight groups, and how big each was. We talked about the
chance of making a particular animal. We also talked about which group was likely to be the
biggest.

We played the game several times, keeping a tally of how many of each kind were made.
We could expect them to be about equal, but for small numbers of cases chance plays some
tricks, not always doing the expected.

Tallies were close so the children agreed that each had the same chance of being made.

Game 2: How many of each animal will we

make in the class?
This game focuses on the chance of a single event
occurring. One student chooses an animal (such as
the complete giraffe) as our target. Everyone then
makes an animal with their dice and stands up if
they make our target. On average we had about
three ‘successes’ for each trial.
It was fascinating to listen to the explanations as to
why we should only expect about three giraffes for
our class of 24 children.

Game 3: Making your favourite animal

This game focuses on the number of trials expected to make a particular animal. I asked them
to each make their favourite -the one they liked the best. They then rolled the dice, making
animals and writing down each name until they made their favourite. We tallied how many goes
it took.
Gir-or-ffe - H-or-ffe - Gir-a-se - Gir-or-ffe H-a-ffe - Gir-or-se! My favourite! I made it,
Some were 'lucky' and got it almost straight away; some took about 20 sets of rolls. On
average it took each child about eight goes.

Game 4: Rolling three dice together

We sped up the rolling by having three different coloured dice: one for the head, one for the
body and one for the legs. In pairs I asked one person to roll the three dice together and the
other to make the animal the dice showed. There was lots of useful small group discussion in
recognition and ordering.
It took a while, but the underlying probability concepts were clearly shown.

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5 Predicting the number of whole and part giraffes

Children had noticed in hoping to get a giraffe that sometimes they were close, such as getting
two parts of the giraffe, like the 'head and legs' or the 'head and body'; sometimes they only
got one part of a giraffe and sometimes none. I decided to explore these possibilities as they
give different results which initially
surprised the students.

I had them list each crazy animal name

as: complete giraffes (Gir-a-ffe) two
parts giraffe (Gir-a-se, Gir-or-ffe,
H-a-ffe) one part giraffe (Gir-or-se,
H-a-se, H-or-ffe) no parts giraffe
(H-or-se)
This time when they grouped their
results they found there were many
more in the 'two parts', and 'one part'
group. They had an interesting time
trying to explain why.
They saw that three groups had
combined, because they could get two parts giraffe in three different ways: head and body,
head and legs, and body and legs.

Before we all roll, how many do you think we will make in the class in each
group?
Where are our original eight groups?

This creates four groups and the expected proportions are: complete giraffe (1 in 8), two parts
giraffe (3 in 8), one part giraffe (3 in 8), no parts giraffe (1 in 8).

6 Adding a third animal

Some classes could start with three animals at once. All the stages can be repeated:
• recognising all the possibilities (stage 3)
• playing the dice games and finding others who had made the same (stage 4)
• predicting the number of whole or part giraffes (stage 5)

I handed out the duck (see Worksheet) and we began to explore the increased number of
combinations.

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My class was surprised by the total of 27 different animals. One child amazed me by
explaining that 27 was all the possible results there could be, since 27 = 3 x 3 x 3. They
arranged them into sets, in which overlaps showed animals having parts of each other.
For the dice game we used 2 and 5 for giraffes, 3 and 6 for horses and 1 and 4 for ducks.

After 18 rolls we had six crazy animals, and children said that there was definitely more chance
of getting a horse! They agreed to roll 99 times and name all 27 crazy animals.

They explored questions such as ‘How many complete animals were there? Was it what they
expected? Which animal part was most common? Why?’

7 Analysis of second-hand data

The printout on Worksheet 3 is a presentation of the results of 40 games. Challenge students
to 'read' the worksheet and tell what happened in the 40 games. The summary table is one
way of tabulating the information.

Analysing the worksheet was an excellent link between the activity and its symbolic
representation.
Students liked looking through the games to find how many complete or part giraffes there
were. It taught them to look systematically.

It is an important step for students to begin to be able to analyse second-hand data.

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8 Writing a story
The final aspect of the lesson was allowing students to write a story in the form of a letter to a
friend in another school, telling him or her about the game and which animals were most likely
to be created.

I found it illuminating to read their stories; it told me much about their language and
understanding about chance events.

9 Consolidation
I used Worksheet 2 and had students design their own animals. They listed all the 27 possible
crazy animals, and grouped them into sets according to how many parts they had.
Children had great fun designing their own. They found that even simple well-known animals,
like cat, dog, bird make some funny names when mixed up, cog, cird, dat, dad, did, bat, bog
and so on.

Content epilogue: background information for teachers

Consider just two animals (horse and giraffe) and three parts for each (head, body and legs).

How many possible animals are there?

A tree diagram can show the various

combinations.
With two choices at each branch, the total
of eight could be obtained by multiplying
2 x 2 x 2.
So for three animals, given three options
at each branch, the total will be
3 x 3 x 3 = 27.
Try drawing the tree diagram to find all 27
different animals.

The probability of making a complete animal

Given eight different combinations, the chance of a complete giraffe being made is one chance
out of eight; that is, we would expect one student out of every eight to create a complete

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 49

giraffe. If there are 16 students in the class, we would expect two giraffes. If we had 24
students, we would expect three giraffes. If we had 200 people we would expect 25 giraffes.
With three animals and 27 different combinations, the chance of a complete giraffe is one in
27. So if we had 27 children in the group we would expect one complete giraffe (and also one
horse and one duck).

Natural variability
The theoretical probability described above gives a long-term prediction; that is, it tells us the
fraction of a very large number of crazy animals that will be one particular result. For relatively
small numbers of rolls of the dice, this fraction cannot be expected to give the outcome.

The multiplication and addition laws

This investigation gives examples of these 'laws' in action. The laws are simply common sense
rules that enable complex probabilities to be worked out from simpler ones.

Multiplication
Three different rolls of a die are used to decide whether each of 'head', 'body' and 'legs' are
from a giraffe or a horse. To find the probability of getting a complete giraffe we can multiply
the fractions for the probabilities of getting a giraffe head, a giraffe body and giraffe legs.
So the probability of getting a complete giraffe is: ½ x ½ x ½

Addition
To get the probability of all the 'two-part giraffe' animals we can add the probability of getting
each one. Since each crazy animal has the same probability of being created, 1/8 and there are
three crazy animals with two-parts giraffe, the probability of getting a two-part-giraffe animal is
3/8. These laws really are just common sense formalised.

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F 1.4 Activity 2
Work collaboratively to complete one of the investigations listed below.
Prepare a presentation of your findings. In your presentation you will need
to include:
• the investigation topic
• peoples initial perceptions of the outcome
• the experiment you designed to test your perceptions
• the data gathered
• an analyses of the data
• a discussion which tries to explain the reasons for any differences
between perceptions and the reality the experiment exposed.

1. The game show

Three boxes are offered to a contestant, one of which has a prize, the other two are booby
prizes. Only the compere knows the box with the real prize.
The contestant chooses a box.
Before the chosen box is opened, the compere opens one of the remaining boxes which
contains a booby prize and then the contestant is then offered a chance to change their mind.
Should they change their mind?

2. Lotto
One player, choosing 6 numbers between 1 and 45, marks their card with six consecutive
numbers. Almost everyone scoffs at the logic of such a choice, believing that the numbers are
much more likely to be spread out in a non-consecutive pattern. Would other combinations
have a better chance?

3. The two cards

You are shown all sides of two cards. On one card both sides are marked A. On the other
card, one side is marked A, and the other is marked B.
Now the two cards are shuffled and one is laid out on the table, so that you can see one side
only. It is marked A. You are offered an even money bet, which you win if the bottom of the
card on the table is B. Is it a fair bet?
Out of 30 such situations, how many times will the back of the card on the table be marked B?

4. Four marbles
You have four marbles, two of one colour and two of another. They are placed in a small
round-bottomed bowl and given a good stir. When they settle it will be either pattern A, with

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54 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

the same colour opposite, or pattern B, with the same colour side by side. Out of 30 such
experiments how many do you expect to be A and how many B?

5. Two dice
Throw two dice and record the difference between the two numbers
e.g. if 3 and 5 are thrown, the score is 2
Investigate
Some of the decisions you will have to make include:
• How many times will you carry out the experiment?
• How will you record the outcomes, will you use a table, an organised list?
• Can you work out both the experimental and theoretical probabilities?
• Which statistical concepts will you use to help analyse the data?
• How will you present your findings?

6. Three Dice
Select a number from 1 to 6 and then throw three dice. If your number appears
• once, you win K2
• twice, you win K3
• three times, you win K10

Is this a fair game? Investigate

7. Frequent letters
In English which are the most frequently used letters of the alphabet? In your vernacular, which
are the most frequently used letters? Investigate

Investigations 1 to 4 are from Lovitt, Charles and Lowe, Ian (1993) Chance and Data
Investigations Vol. 1. Curriculum Corporation, Carton Victoria, Australia pp. 80
Investigations 5 to 7 are from Green, Wally, 1998, Problems and Investigations,
Department of Education PNG

References – for further reading

Green, Wally, (1998). Problems and Investigations, Department of Education PNG

Greer, A. (1980). A First Course in Statistics, Stanley Thornes Publishers LTD England
Lovitt, Charles and Lowe, Ian (1993). Chance and Data Investigations Vol. 1. Curriculum
Corporation, Carton Victoria, Australia.
Lovitt, Charles & Lowe, Ian (1993). Chance and Data Investigations Vol. 2. Curriculum
Corporation, Carton Victoria, Australia. p 75

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Module 1.5 – Strategy Games

Module 1.5 Strategy Games is a recommended module within the ‘Problem Solving and
Investigations’ unit. During this module you will become familiar with a range of strategy
games and consider how these games support the development of mathematical thinking. The
application of strategy games into the primary school curriculum will be considered.

Objectives
On the completion of this module you will be able to:
• differentiate between games of chance and games of strategy
• identify the strategies used to play a range of different games
• suggest ways in which strategy games could be used in the teaching of
mathematics in primary schools.

Concepts and skills to be developed

• Problem solving skills.
• Mathematical content knowledge associated with the various games.
• Oral presentation skills.

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Topic 1: Games of Chance and Games of Strategy

& 1.5 Activity 1

Read the following article: Playing Mathematical Games. What do you
see as the difference between games of chance and games of strategy?
What ‘games’ do you know which fit Gough’s definition?

Playing mathematical games

(adapted from: Gough, J. Playing Mathematical Games , APMC Vol. 4, No 2 1999)

A ‘strategy game’ needs to have two or more players, who take turns, each competing to
achieve a ‘winning’ situation of some kind, with each player able to have some choice about
how to move at any time through the game. Snakes and Ladders is not a ‘strategy game’: even
though the players take ‘turns’, and the first to the end is the ‘winner’, the players have no
choice about what they can do in their turn – they just follow the dice, plus the possible
consequences of ending on a ladder or snake. It is pure luck. They have no choice. There is
no interaction between players, so that that what one player does on their turn effects what the
next player does on their turn.

Games of luck and chance

A genuine strategy game can have an element of luck, using a dice, spinner, coin, or a draw
card or domino. But no ‘strategy game’ is one hundred percent luck. Players must be able to
choose how to use their luck, as happens in the dice-driven games such as Monopoly and
Backgammon.
Bingo, although it shares many features of a game, is not a ‘strategy game’ by my definition.
Players have no choice about what to do when a number is called: they either have or do not
have the number. It is pure luck, pure chance.

Games of skill and choice

Clearly skill and choice are important aspects of a real game, although some games combine
this with some amount of luck. Also ‘races’, where two or more players each try to be the first
to correctly answer a mathematical question, are not ‘strategy games’: what one player does in
a turn does not effect what another player can do in the next turn, except perhaps to eliminate
one or more unsuccessful players.
One exception to these general game characteristics is the ‘guess my secret’ game, where
logic and successive rounds of ‘questions and elimination’ aim to discover a ‘secret’.
Mastermind is a classic example of a logic game that fits this pattern. Also Guess My Number,

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where the person with a secret chooses a secret number between 0 – 10 000 is another
example of a logic game.

The best strategy games

The best strategy games are those that students want to play when the time is available. Few
children will choose to play games such as Table Races, Fraction Bingo, or Buzz or any other
standard mathematical practice games, except to ‘please the teacher’ in the school context.
Yet many students willingly play Draughts, Ludo, Hearts, 500, and other strategy games.
Apart from the arithmetic involved in scoring and problem solving in developing good playing
strategies, students are rarely aware of mathematics in these games, and regard them as non-
mathematical.
Strategy games involve a great deal of repetitive practice, but these games are not only good
for practice. Good strategy games are in themselves learning experiences, not merely practice
experiences. The strategy games become a context in which students are keen to learn
something new.

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Topic 2: Strategy Games

F 1.5 Activity 2 - Hearts

‘Hearts’ is a card game for four players and is an example of a strategy
game. The rules for playing ‘Hearts’ are set out below. Read through the
rules and then spend some time playing the game. Identify some
‘winning’ strategies. After playing a number of games discuss with your
peers the strategies you are using to try to win the game. Be prepared to
discuss your strategies with the class.

Hearts
Hearts is a card game for 4 players

Material

A pack of playing cards

The object of Hearts

The object of Hearts is to have the lowest score at

the end of the game.

To play Hearts
1. The game is played with four players. Deal the cards one at a time to each player until
everyone has 13 cards.
2. Look at your cards and choose three cards to pass to an opponent. For the first hand
pass your cards to the player on your right, for the second hand pass the cards to the
player opposite you and for the third hand pass the card to the player on your left. For
every fourth hand no cards are passed.
3. The player who has the two of clubs starts the play by leading with it, placing it face up
in the middle of the table.
4. Each player, moving clockwise, selects a card to play. You must play a card in the
same suit. If you do not have one, you can play any card, except that you cannot play
a heart or the queen of spades on the first round.

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Note
• The person who plays the highest card of the same suit as the first card played
wins the trick. The player who wins then starts the next round by selecting a card
to lead. You cannot lead with a heart until a heart has been played on a previous
trick.

To score Hearts
• At the end of each hand, you get one point for each heart in your hand and 13
points for the queen of spades. The game continues until one player gets 100
points or more.
• If you win all the hearts and the queen of spades in one hand (this is called
Shooting the Moon), then you get zero points and each other player is penalized
26 points.

F1.5 Activity 3 - A selection of strategy games

Below are a number of strategy games which you can play. Read through
the rules and spend time playing the different games. Identify winning
strategies. Be prepared to discuss your strategies with the class.

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Rim
This game is taken from the book On Numbers and Games by John Conway (Academic
Press, 1976).

What you need

• Paper and pencil

How to play
• To set the game up, draw some dots that are
randomly placed on the paper, like this:

• At each turn, a player draws a closed loop that goes

through at least one dot and does not meet any other
loop. (A closed loop is a line that starts and stops on
the same dot and doesn't cross itself anywhere in
between.)

• The player who draws the last possible loop loses.

• Here is how a round which starts with the dots above might begin:

1. 2.

3. 4.

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Endless Noughts and Crosses

This is a game for two players.

What you need

• You will need a sheet of grid paper (or rule lines down a sheet of writing paper).

How to play

• The game is played like the ordinary game of noughts and crosses, with each player
taking turns to mark a square with a nought or a cross, but the game does not end with
the first string of three noughts or crosses. You keep going until either the grid is full or
both players have had enough!

• The winner is the player who has the most strings-of-three. You might find it helpful to
use different colour pens or to keep score as you play.

Playing on such a large grid means that the game is very unlikely to end in a draw and there is
plenty of time to think about strategies for winning.

Once you have mastered strings-of-three, try a game with strings-of-four, then strings-of-five,
maybe even strings-of-six!

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Wari

This is a simple version of an ancient game played all over the world. It is also called Mancala.
This is a game for two players.

What you need

• You will need a game board like the one below. You could easily draw one or you
can use an egg carton.
• You will also need 48 counters (or beads, pebbles or buttons).

How to play
• Each player takes a side of six holes on the board.

• Put 4 counters in each hole.

• Player 1 picks up the whole pile of counters from one of his/her own holes and puts
them one by one into the next several holes, in a clockwise direction around the board.
(This may take you around into the other player's side of the board).

• Player 2 does the same sort of thing with a pile from his/her side.

• If a player puts the last counter from a pile into one of the other player's holes, and
brings the total there to either 2 or 3, he/she wins those counters and takes them from
the board.

• Play continues in this way until one side of the board is completely empty.

• The winner is the player who has won the most counters.

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Star Duel – Return Match

This is a game for two players

What you need

• 8 counters
• Playing board with an 8 pointed star (see below)

How to play
• Place a counter on each point of the star.
• Decide which player will go first.
• Players in turn either remove one counter or remove two counters joined by a line.
• The player removing the last counter wins the game.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 65

Crocogator

A game for two players

This game is taken from a book of board games for 2 players by Frank Tapson and Alan Parr
called 'Pick a Pair'.

What you need

• You need 9 counters for the crocodiles and 9 different counters for the alligators.

How to play
• One player has 9 crocodiles on the spots. The crocodiles can move one square at
a time in any direction.
• The other player has 9 alligators on the stars. Alligators can move 1 or 2 squares
at a time but only parallel to the sides of the squares and not horizontally or
vertically through the corners of the squares.
• The 3 coloured squares are islands.
• Players take turns moving their pieces and the object of the game is for a player to
be the first to get one of his/her pieces on each of the three islands.
• Only one piece is allowed in any square. If one piece lands on another, then the
piece landed on is removed. There is no jumping. These rules apply in the
coloured squares as well.

References – for further reading

Green, Wally, (1998), Problems and Investigations, Department of Education PNG

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Module 1.6 – Problem Posing

Module 1.6 Problem Posing is a recommended module within the ‘Problem Solving and
Investigations’ unit. During this module you will have an opportunity to pose a range of
different problems and consider what is involved in developing good problems. Also you will
consider how the process of problem posing can support the development of your own
mathematical thinking.

Objectives
On the completion of this module you will be able to:
• write a range of problems suitable for your peers
• write a range of problems suitable for use in the primary school
• solve a range of problems developed by your peers
• identify what makes a good problem and the skills developed when posing
problems.

Concepts and skills to be developed

• Problem posing.
• Problem solving.
• Critical thinking and reasoning.
• Mathematical concepts related to the types of problems posed and solved.
• Validation skills.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 67

Topic 1: Problem Posing

The ability to pose problems is an important skill which teachers need to develop. Teachers
need to be able to pose a range of challenging and interesting problems which will motivate
children to learn and further develop children’s mathematical understandings.

F 1.6 Activity 1 - Posing problems

Work with your peer to pose two problems for each of the situations listed
below. The first problem should be suitable for your peers and the second
problem should be suitable for use with children in the primary school.
Remember that when writing a good problem:
• the method of solution should not be immediately known
• the student must feel that he/she has a reasonable chance of
finding a solution
• the student should want to try to find the solution i.e. the
problem should be of interest.

Pose a problem:
•
(a) that gives a particular answer e.g. 24 m 2

(b) about a particular mathematics topic e.g. probability

(c) which involves the use of a specific mathematics concept e.g.

equivalent fractions

(d) which involves the use of a specific mathematics method e.g. division

(e) based on a specific problem structure e.g. John and Susan have a
total of 15 bananas, Susan and Matthew have a total of 19 bananas.
Matthew and John have a total of 22 bananas. How many bananas
does each person have?

(f) which has more than one solution e.g. draw shapes with a perimeter of
10 cm

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68 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

Topic 2: Problem Posing in the Primary School

Encouraging children to pose their own problems has advantages. Through posing problems,
children can demonstrate their own mathematical understandings as well as provide the teacher
with an understanding into the types of learning experiences and activities that children find
challenging and enjoyable.

& 1.6 Activity 2

Read the article below and highlight the main ideas. Identify the
advantages of encouraging children to posed problems.

Posing problems and solving problems

(adapted from Lowrie, T. Posing Problems and Solving Problems, APMC, Vol. 4. No. 4,
1999)

Problem posing is an important activity which goes with problem solving and lies at the heart of
mathematical activity. Three types of problem-posing experiences that provide opportunities
for children to engage in mathematical activity have been identified by Silver (1995).
Silver believes that problem posing could occur:
• prior to problem solving when problems are being developed from a particular
situation, e.g. we need to build a chicken house to keep the school’s chickens in.
What might be some of the mathematical problems we need to solve to do this?
• during problem solving when the individual intentionally changes the problem’s
goals or conditions, e.g. we only have 24 metres of chicken wire to go around the
chicken house, not 36 metres as first thought. What problems does this pose?
or
• after solving a problem when experiences from the problem solving context are
modified or applied to a new situation e.g. We have to build a fence around the
school garden to keep the pigs out. What materials will be need? How much will
we need?

One way to encourage children to pose problems is to ask them to write problems for a friend
to solve. Some researchers (Ellerton, 1986; Mamona-Downs 1993) have found that, for
motivational purposes, it is helpful to have someone in mind when designing problems. Ellerton
(1986) found that encouraging students to write problems for a friend was a useful way of
understanding that person’s mathematical ability. In such problem solving situations problem
posers are forced to consider the individual for whom they are designing the problem.

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Problem posing situations allow children to have some control over the curriculum content and
the type of learning activities presented in the classroom. Also, the tasks or activities children
construct may provide insights into the beliefs or attitudes that children have towards
mathematics. The way in which problem posers represent problems, for example, may reflect
the type of problem solving experiences they have been use to solving in the classroom.

Suggestions for classroom development

An environment that encourages the children to pose problems for friends to solve increases
the likelihood of the student developing mathematical power (Lowie 1999). In order to create
teaching/learning situations that provide positive problem posing situations, the classroom
teacher should:
1. Encourage students to pose problems for friends whom are at or near their own
‘standard’ until they become more competent in generating problems;
2. Ensure that students work co-operatively in solving the problems so that the person
who posed the problem gains feedback on the appropriateness of the problem they
have designed;
3. Ask individuals to indicate the type of understandings and strategies the problem
solver will need to use in order to solve the problem successfully before a friend
develops a solution;
4. Encourage problem solving teams to discuss with one another the extent to which they
found problems to be difficult, confusing, motivating or challenging;
5. Provide opportunities for less able students to work co-operatively with a peer who
challenges the individual to engage in mathematics at a higher level than they are usually
accustomed; and
6. Challenge students to move beyond traditional ‘word problems’ by designing
problems that are open ended and associated with real life experiences.

References
Ellerton, N.F. (1986). ‘Children’s made-up mathematical problems: A new perspective on
talented mathematicians’. Education Studies in Mathematics, 17, 261-271.
Lowrie, T. (1999). ‘Developing mathematical power’. Australian Primary Mathematics
Classroom, 4 (2), 8-11.
Mamona-Downs, J. (1993). ‘On analysing problem posing’. In I. Hirabayashi, N. Nohada,
K. Shigematsu, 7 F.L. Lin (Ed), Proceedings of the 17th International Conference
for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 111 (pp. 41-47). Tsukuba,
Japan: International Group of Psychology of Mathematics Education.
Silver, E. A. (1995). ‘The nature and use of open problems in mathematics education:
Mathematical and pedagogical perspectives’. International Reviews on Mathematics
Education, 27 (2), 67 –72.

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References – for further reading

Lowie, T. (1999) ‘Posing Problems and Solving Problems’ in Australian Primary

Mathematics Classroom Vol. 4 No. 4, Australian Association of Mathematics
Teachers.
Shuk-kwan, S. Leung & Rui-Xiang Wu (2000) Sharing problem posing and problem solving
at home through dairy writing’ in Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom Vol. 5
No. 1, Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers.
Stoyanova, Elena (1998) ‘Posing Problems in Mathematics Classrooms’ in Research in
Mathematics Education: A Contemporary perspective. Ed. McIntosh, A & Ellerton,
N. MASTEC, Edith Cowen University Perth, Western Australia.
Stoyanova, Elena (1999) ‘Extending students’ problem solving via problem posing’ in ‘amt,
the australian mathematics teacher’ Vol. 55 Number 3, August 1999, The Australian
Association of Mathematics Teachers Inc.

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 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 71

Unit Glossary
Routine problems A problem is a routine problem when we know immediately the
method to use to reach a solution. It is type of problem which we have
solved many times before and involves simple practice.

For example, there are 5 children and 25 bananas. How many

bananas will each child get if we share them equally?

NOTE: This problem would be considered a routine problem for

Grade 7 children. However, for Grade 3 who are just beginning to
learn about division it may be a considered a non-routine problem.

Non – routine
problems A problem is a non-routine problem when:
- the solution is not immediately obvious
- the method of finding a solution is not immediately known

A good non-routine problem should also

- make students feel that they have a reasonable chance of finding a
solution
- motivates students to try to find a solution

For example, the head of fish is ? as long as its body. The tail of
the fish is as long as its head and its body combined. The total
length of the fish is 48cm. How long is each part of the fish?

Investigation: An open-ended problem in which you choose the direction of your

inquiry. Investigations provide an opportunity to make important
mathematical discoveries and encourage students to use high order
intellectual skills. An important aspect in carrying out investigations is
the need to make guesses and to test them. From the data gathered
you need to collect information, to predict what will happen in other
cases, and learn from any the extra information obtained. It is a
mathematical inquiry to obtain facts.

Conjecture: A guess
An opinion formed without sufficient evidence

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Generalisation: To give a general example rather than a specific example

For example, consider the following sequence 2,4,6,8,10, _,_,_

The third number in the sequence is 6, the fifth number is10 the eighth term is
16. These are all specific examples.

If we make a generalisation we would say that we could find any number in

the sequence by multiplying it by 2, that is nth term = 2n. For example, the
10th number in the sequence will be 20

Real World
Problems: Problems which apply to real life situations. In solving real world problems, the
mathematics is integrated and you are able to see how mathematics is applied
in a real situation.

Chance: The possibility or probability of an event happening

Theoretical
probability: The calculated probability of an event occurring based on the possible
outcomes. For example if you toss a K1 coin 10 times, the theoretical
probability of getting a kumul is 5/10 and getting a pukpuk is 5/10.

Experimental
probability: The number of times a particular event occurs during trial. For
example if I toss a K1 coin 10 times the actually results may be 6/10
kumuls and 4/10 pukpuks.

Probability: Probability is the likelihood or chance of an event occurring. For

example if a coin is tosses, the probability of getting a kumul is ½ or
0.5.

Pr (event occurs) = number of favourable outcomes (or results)

total number of outcomes (or results)

Independent
event An independent event is one which has no effect on the events which
follow. For example if a die is rolled three times, what happens on the
first roll does not affect what happens on the second or third roll. The
three rolls of the die are independent events.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 73

Dependent
events A dependent event is one which has an effect on the event which
follows. The probability of the second event occurring depends on
what happened in the first event. For example, consider a bag contains
3 red balls and 2 blue balls. A ball is drawn at random from the bag
and not replaced. The probability that it is red is 3/5. If you draw a
second ball from the bag the probability that this is also red is 2/4.
Therefore the probability of drawing two red balls is 3/5 x 2/4 = 6/20 =
3
/10

Multiplication law
of probability. To calculate the probability of events occurring we use the
multiplication law of probability.
If P (E1) = the probability of the first event happening
P (E2) = the probability of the second event happening
P (E3) = the probability of the third event happening
and P (E1E2E3) = the probability that E1, E2, and E3 occur then P
(E1E2E3) = P (E1) x P (E2) x P (E3).

In general,
P (E1E2…En) = P (E1) x P (E2) x…. x P (En)

Mutually exclusive
events If events can not happen at the same time they are said to be mutually
exclusive. Consider throwing a die once, and finding the probability of
a 3 or a 4 occurring. It is not possible for a 3 and a 4 to occur
together. Therefore, the event of throwing a 3 and a 4 in a single roll of
the die are mutually exclusive.

If E1, E2, ….En are mutually exclusive events then the probability of
one of the events occurring is
P (E1 + E2 + …En) = P (E1) + P (E2) + …P (En)

Non – mutually
exclusive events If events can happen at the same time they are said to be non-
mutually exclusive events. For example if you have a pack of playing
cards and cut it once, the event of drawing a Jack and drawing a
Diamond are not mutually exclusive, because the Jack of Diamond can
be cut.

If E1, E2, ….E3 are non- mutually exclusive events then the probability
of one of the events occurring is
P (E1) + P (E2) – P (E1E2)

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74 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

In the example above this would mean that the probability of cutting the Jack
of Diamonds would be calculated by

(Jack of Diamonds) = P (E1) + P (E2) – P (E1E2)

= 4/52 + 13/52 – (4/52 x 13/52)

= 17/52 – 1/52
= 16/52
= 4/13

Strategy games A strategy game should be for two or more players and must have a
set of rules for the players to follow. The rules should establish the
goals for the players and their individual goals should be in conflict,
that is each player is trying to beat the other players. In a strategy
game, the players should be able to choose their own path or action in
an attempt to reach their individual goals. It should be apparent when
one of the players has won the game.

Trick In cards you are said to win a ‘trick’ when you win a round of cards.
For example if you are playing a card game such as Hearts, the player
with the highest card of the same suit wins. If Player1 leads the 4
Diamonds, Player 2 plays the King of Diamonds, Player 3 the 7 of
Diamonds and Player 4 the 2 of Diamonds, then the winner is Player
2. Player 2 is said to have won the trick

Suit In a pack of playing cards you have four different suits. They are
Hearts, Diamonds, Clubs and Spades. In the card game Hearts you
must follow suit. If a Club is lead for example, then the following
players must follow suit and play a Club.

Problem
posing The generation of a new problem

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Extension Activity for Unit 1

& Unit 1 Activity - Implementing Problem Solving

Read the following article ‘Implementing a Problem-solving Program’ and
consider how problem solving can be implemented in to primary schools
in PNG. Choose one of the ‘Strategy Spotlights’ and prepare a seminar
presentation which discusses the issues raised.

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Implementing a Problem Solving Program

(Adapted from ‘Implementing a Problem Solving Program’ in Problem Solving Tips for Teachers, by
O’Daffer, Phares G. (1996), National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, Virginia.)

Teaching problem solving can be a objects to help choose the right operation
comfortable, interesting, and enjoyable for solving a simple problem.
experience for teachers if they have good
"Asking Questions to Evaluate Problem
problems, have a commitment to using
Solving" focuses on the role of a unique
them, and have effective techniques for
type of questioning designed to help
doing the following:
evaluate both students' attitudes and their
• Using co-operative learning groups problem-solving abilities.
• Developing a positive classroom It is hoped that the tips in this section will
atmosphere help you broaden your classroom
problem-solving perspective and your
• Teaching problem-solving
strategies and skills approach to teaching problem solving.
Remember that although right answers are
• Guiding students in a important, students' growth in using an
problem-solving situation effective problem-solving process should
• Working with students with special be given highest priority.
needs
• Evaluating students'
problem-solving abilities
The articles in this section give some ideas
that will help teachers’ plan and carry out a
classroom problem-solving program. 1: Organising the classroom for
problem solving
"Organising for Problem Solving," gives
ideas for using co-operative learning A growing body of research points to the
groups and choosing problems amenable benefits of having students learn in small
to group problem solving. cooperative groups. When students work
in cooperative groups, the active
"Teaching the Basics through Problem participation of each student is maximized.
Solving," shows how problem solving can More students have the chance to speak
be used in the crowded curriculum to help than in whole class discussions, resulting in
students develop basic skills. more opportunities for students to clarify
"Helping Students Approach Problems," their thinking. Also, many students feel
and "Hands-on Thinking Activities for more comfortable in small-group settings
Young Children," give ideas for helping and are therefore more willing to explain
students become independent problem their ideas, speculate, question, and
solvers. respond to the ideas of others. In small
cooperative groups, students' opportunities
"Problem Extensions for Gifted Problem
to learn with understanding are supported
Solvers," presents ways to develop and
and enhanced.
emphasizes the importance of having slow
or handicapped learners use countable

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 77

Choosing problems suitable for co-

operative groups
• Choose problems for which a
collaborative effort will benefit
students, both in sharing ideas, and
in accomplishing the task.
• Select problems that allow for
different approaches.
• Be sure students understand both
the problem and how they are to
present their results.
• When appropriate, have students An example for older children -
post their findings for the class. "number bracelets"
• Allow for discussion time to In this activity, students look for patterns
summarize, during which groups while practicing basic addition facts.
present their findings and respond Several benefits emerge as students tackle
to other groups’ results. this problem in groups. They share the
task, thus making the work manageable,
An early grade example - "making and they are able to check their
change" conjectures and evidence with each other.
Young children need opportunities for Students start by writing any two numbers
continued practice both with basic facts from 0 to 9 and applying the following
and with money. "Making change" is a procedure: Add the two numbers and
problem-solving activity that offers both record just the digit that appears in the
kinds of practice and also lends itself to ones place in the sum. For example, if you
cooperative group work. start with "'8 and 9," then the number that
Each group of students works to find all comes next is '7." Then add the last two
the ways they could be given K0.50,' For numbers, the '9' and the '7," and record
example, they could receive two 20 toeas "6." Continue in this way, "8 9 7 6 3 9 2
and a ten toea, or one 20 toea and six 5 …," until the pattern begins to repeat.
toeas, and so on. They make a group Each group of students is asked to answer
record of their findings to present to the following questions:
the-class. During a follow-up discussion,
• How many different possible pairs
they also need to tell why they think they've
of numbers can you use to start?
found all the ways.
• What is the shortest bracelet you
can find?
• What is the longest bracelet?
• Investigate the odd-even patterns
in all your bracelets.
• Make up one more question and
try to answer it.

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the cluster labelled two, and so

forth.
• Numbered slips of paper can be
drawn from a 'hat' to determine
þ Guidelines for cooperative group random groupings of either three or
members four.
Three rules are useful when students work
in cooperative groups. The rules need to þ How large should groups be?
be explained to the students and discussed, A co-operative group requires no magic
as they are only as useful as they are number of children to work. At some
understood and practiced. times, students work best in pairs, although
• You are responsible for your own groups of three to six students are
work and behaviour. successful in other situations. What is
important is that groups are small enough
• You must be willing to help any
for all students to participate.
group member who asks.
• You may ask the teacher for help þ A caution
only when everyone in your group
Seating students in small groups does not
has the same question.
magically produce instantly successful co-
The third rule often puts the greatest operative group work. Practice,
demand on teachers when first encouragement, and discussion are
implementing cooperative groups. Children required, but it is well worth the effort.
typically ask for individual help. Asking
children to check with their group, rather
than giving them help at that time, is not a
usual teacher response. However, it is an
invaluable response for encouraging
students to become more independent and
to rely on each other. Assure students that
you will come and discuss whatever
problem the entire group faces.

þ How to group students

It is important for students to be willing to
work and learn with all their classmates.
Grouping students randomly accomplishes
this objective.
• Students can move their desks into
clusters of four each. The teacher
labels each cluster with the number
of a playing card-ace, two, three
and so on. The corresponding
cards are shuffled and distributed.
Children who hold aces go to the
ace cluster, children with twos to

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 79

cubes long. Teachers will see and learn a

good deal about their students thinking
abilities from watching how they approach
the problem of finding different
arrangements. (Though finding all the
2: Teaching the basics through possible trains may be beyond the ability of
problem solving young children, it is a challenging problem
for older children, and even adults.)
Too often, teaching problem solving and
teaching basic skills are seen as separate Children record each train pictorially by
emphases, each requiring its own time colouring on squared paper and
allotment in a crowded curriculum. symbolically by writing an arithmetic
However, double mileage is possible when sentence to match. Thus, a concrete
problem solving is used as the vehicle for experience is preserved in a visual record
helping students develop an understanding and is connected to appropriate
of the basics. symbolism. See figure 1.
Having children report their findings, either
Guidelines for lessons that integrate by sharing in a whole-class discussion or
problem solving into other areas by having small groups of children compare
their individual results, can help stimulate
• Present a problem that is them to investigate the problem further.
interesting and requires that Though the goal in this lesson is to explore
students think and reason the number five, the problem is appropriate
• Permit students the opportunity to for other numbers as well.
develop and extend their
understanding of basic mathematics
concepts and skills.
• Give frequent opportunities for
students to express their thinking in
words, both to the teacher and to
other students. This verbalization
helps them formulate their own
thoughts, clarify their ideas, get
reactions from others, and hear
others' points of view.
• Use concrete materials whenever
appropriate to help make
mathematics concepts real and
meaningful.
An example for older students
An early grade example For many students, teaching about
Young children need many experiences fractions focuses too early on teaching the
with numbers less than ten to help them see rules and procedures for working with
relationships and learn the basic addition fractional symbols. In contrast, problem
facts. Using interlocking cubes of only two solving lessons put the emphasis on
colours, children build all the different developing students' understanding of
colour arrangements of trains that are five

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80 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

fraction concepts and relating these to • Students make a prediction about

appropriate symbolism. the outcome.
For example, the following is a problem for • They use objects to collect the
students to work on in small groups: information.
Three people are to share two • They count, grouping the objects
small pepperoni pizzas equally. into tens and ones and, if required,
Show how much one person hundreds.
gets and describe it in writing. Example: "How many buttons do we have
Figure 2 shows solutions from four groups on our clothes today altogether?" Discuss
of students. Though they differ, each was individual estimates. Children then count
verified to be correct when the students their own buttons and set out that number
explained their thinking. From group and of small counters. In small groups, they
class discussion of solutions and ideas, organise their counters into piles of tens
children re-examine their ideas and deepen and ones. (Small cups are useful for
their understanding. collecting tens.) Collect the tens and ones
so that extra ones can be combined to
make more tens, and 10 tens can be made
into a group of a hundred. The total is
recorded to reveal the actual count and
compared with estimates.

þ Other estimation activities

• The number of cubes to cover a
book or desktop.
• The number of linked paper clips
to frame a piece of paper.
• The number of brothers and sisters
for all class members.
• The number of beans to fill a small
jar.
• Children can help think of
other things to estimate and count.

þ Place Value through Estimation

Problems.
Second and third graders benefit from
many experiences in which they use tens
and ones to organise large numbers of
objects. Estimation activities offer the
opportunity for problem-solving lessons
that allow this experience. A three-step
format is suggested for these activities:

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 81

statement? ... Could our answer be 10 and

3? ... Why not?
Note that the preceding teacher questions
hold students accountable by asking them
explicit questions to check for
3: Helping students approach a understanding. Also, throughout the
problem discussion, class members rather than the
What do your students do if they don't teacher should be involved in evaluating
know what to do, or where to start? Do each response to determine if it fits the
they wait for someone, namely, the problem and their thinking. Have some
teacher, to tell them what to do? What do explicit questions planned for each
you do to help them? Rereading the problem. These questions are especially
problem and having them describe the necessary if you or your students are new
situation in their own words are two at problem solving.
strategies that may be helpful but are often The goal of problem solving is to help
not sufficient. students develop strategies so that they will
Other helpful ideas include identifying the become independent problem solvers.
known, the unknown, extra information, Gradually students should become
the relationship between the known and independent and devise questions on their
unknown, and what constitutes a own.
reasonable result regarding number size Another step toward helping students
and labels. These ideas are general become independent thinkers would be
strategies. Research indicates that introducing a problem and having the
questions or hints tailored specifically to the students generate questions to help them
problem are more helpful to the students understand the problem. These questions
than asking them general questions. could be listed on the chalkboard and
Examples of explicit questions are given evaluated by the class. The focus should be
here, in contrast to general questions such on understanding the problem, not devising
as "What is known?" These questions and a plan or solving the problem. To
hints should serve as a model for the type emphasize this point, the students could
of questioning and thinking that students solve the problems later in smaller groups,
should eventually do independently when as part of a homework assignment, or not
they approach problems. solve them at all.
Example: What are two numbers
whose product is 18 and whose
difference is 7?
Questions: How many numbers are we
looking for? What do we know about the
numbers? ... You said the product must be þ Drawing diagrams and acting it
18. What is meant by product? ... Give an out
example of numbers with a product of 18
Two strategies that can be helpful for
.... Julie, what is your response to John's
understanding a problem, as well as
answer? ... Could our answer be 3, 5, and
devising a plan, are drawing diagrams and
7? . . Why not? Could our answer be 6
acting it out. These strategies create
and 3? ... Tom, do you agree with that
student ownership of the problem by

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having students’ talk through the situation percent is K60.00? You said 20 percent
without using numbers. was the part. Will the coat cost K20.00?
Example: Jessica has twenty four-sided ... If 20 percent is the discount, will we
decorative tiles that she can use to subtract 20? ... What would be the whole
design a square pattern. The design will if we could subtract 20? ... Since our
be framed with trim. How much trim whole is K60.00, will we subtract more or
does she need? Each tile measures ten less than K20.00? ... Estimate about how
centimetres on an edge. much will be subtracted.

Questions: Imagine that you are Jessica

þ Using Easier Numbers
and you are going to plan this project
today. How would you organise your National assessment results have
work? ... Describe what you plan to do documented students' lack of
first with the materials. What is Jessica understanding of the concepts of common
making? ... How are the tiles to be and decimal fractions and good student
arranged? ... What patterns are possible? performance on one-step word problems
... You drew a picture of a four-by-five involving whole numbers. In each of the
arrangement of tiles.... Will she use all the next three problems simply choose the
tiles? ... How large will the design be? ... correct operations. Do not solve!
You drew a picture of a square and Susan was cooking for a large
labelled it "4 x 4." What does the '4' group. After feeding 17/23 of the
represent? If the problem asks for how group she finished cleaning out a
much trim, why are you concerned with the container that held 3 litres. How
tiles? ... What is the shape of an individual much should she have ordered to
tile? ... Does the trim go around each tile? feed the entire group?
Would it help to find the perimeter of each
Scott looked at the work that was
tile? The area?
left. He had finished 3/11 of it by
Wednesday and had assumed it
þ Part-whole would take 13 and 5/7 days. How
Part-whole analyses are helpful in devising many days has he finished on the
plans and understanding the problem in project?
proportions and percents, as well as in
Sarah had 3.2 kilograms of
addition and subtraction. Part-whole
hamburger that she placed into
analysis is a strategy for solving percent
packages of 0.2 kilograms each.
problems, but it is crucial that students can
How many containers did she fill?
understand and analyse the situation in
these terms. In a class of preservice primary school
teachers all students missed at least one
question and some missed all three.
Problem: Todd had budgeted K45.00 for Through class discussion the students were
a new coat. Did he have enough to buy the introduced to the strategy of substituting
one on sale for K59.99 with 20% off? whole numbers less than 20 for the
Questions: Describe the series of fractions or using more ordinary fractions,
decisions that Todd will need to make.... In such as 1/2. In re-testing, all but a few
percent problems we've used part-whole students were able to answer similar
strategies. Describe this problem in terms questions correctly. The students' lack of
of part and whole.... Why are you understanding of fractions resulted in not
considering K60.00 the whole? ... What understanding a situation that they could

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 83

normally solve. These students are not

untypical. How would your students do?
Have they been introduced to the strategy
of using simpler numbers to help
understanding?

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84 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

different shape with the same attribute of

face, colour, and size?)
One doesn't belong
Select four pieces, and arrange them as
4: Hands-on thinking activities for shown in figure 2. Play the "Sesame Street"
young children game of "One of these things is not like the
other." Ask children to decide which piece
Children in kindergarten and primary
is different and why. Frequently, more than
grades can engage in significant problem
one solution will be correct, as in the cur-
solving through a wide variety of activities
rent example.
involving physical materials. The use of
materials in problem-solving contexts
permits children to experiment with
different situations and relations, to create
shapes, and to make measurements, all
without symbolic or written materials. A
variety of examples are suggested here just
to whet the appetite. Secret sorting rules
Decide on a sorting rule such as "red or not
Logic with attribute pieces
red", but do not tell the class. Begin to sort
Attribute blocks with different shapes, the pieces into two piles. The children try
colours, and sizes are popular and useful. to decide what the rule is. When identifying
A nice set of blocks with four attributes this rule becomes easy, choose compound
can be made from poster board. Draw two rules, such as large and smiley" or "red or
sets of large shapes and two sets of small triangle,"
shapes on each of three colours of poster
board. After cutting these shapes out, draw
Patterns
a happy face on both sides on one set and
a sad face on the other set. If four shapes Select one attribute and begin a simple
and three colours are used, a total of repeat pattern. Let children try to find a
forty-eight pieces will be in the set. Here piece that could go next in the pattern.
are just a few activities to get you started. Encourage children to explain their choices.
Praise good ideas even when they are not
the ones you had in mind. The pattern
shown in figure 3 is an ABB pattern using
shape.

How is yours different?

Let each child select a piece. The teacher
holds up a piece and asks different children Geoboard problems
to explain how their piece is alike or How many ways?
different. "Does anyone have a piece that is
like (or different from) mine in just one Many good problems on the geoboard
way?" (For example, does someone have a stem from questions such as "How many

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 85

ways .. ?. A few are suggested here, but board, made with tape on the floor, or
you will enjoy making up many more. drawn with chalk on the playground.
Different pairs of paths can be given to
How many _____________ can you find?
different groups. The problem-solving and
• shapes with five sides measurement task is to decide which path
• shapes with four corners but no is longer. You can give more or less help in
nails inside arriving at a solution, depending on the age
• shapes that touch only six nails of the children. The possibilities include
• shapes that you can put this laying units such as paper clips or drinking
straws along each path and comparing. A
piece inside (small cardboard
string or rope could be placed along each
cut outs that cover three or four
path and compared directly. A single unit
squares of the board)
of length could be moved end over end to
Very young children may feel more measure each path. Or perhaps standard
comfortable with searching for three or units such as meters or centimetres could
four shapes instead of trying to find many. be used. Each group may invent its own
Mirror images methods and then discuss and compare
how different groups made decisions.
Symmetry is a good concept for offering a
challenge and promoting thinking. Stretch a
band making a straight line down the centre
of the board or from corner to corner.
Have children make a simple shape on one
side of the line so that it touches or joins
the line (see fig. 4). Now challenge them to
make the mirror image of their shape on Area
the other side of the line. A mirror can be
used to check the result. A similar, but generally a bit more difficult,
task involves deciding which of two regions
is larger. Again, these regions could be
drawn on poster board, or larger regions
could be drawn on the floor or playground
with tape. More assistance will be needed
to help children understand that size or
Halves area means how much surface is inside the
region and not how tall or wide it is. The
Make a large rectangle on the geoboard problem involves finding ways to measure
and challenge your students to find four or that surface.
five ways to divide it into two equal parts
with rubber bands (see fig. 5). The actual
number of possibilities will depend on the
size of the rectangle.

Measurement
Length
Give groups of two or three children two
paths between two points as shown in
figure 6. These could be drawn on poster

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86 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

that rejected expressions "don't

work." When possible, help students
"see" how the chosen expression
simulates the action in the problem:

5: Determining the correct operation

with the slow or handicapped learner
An extension of patterning underlies a • Reverse the foregoing procedures.
student's ability to decide which of the four (This is a very important step!)
basic operations apply in solving a simple Direct students to read the problem,
oral or written word problem. Many write from a presented list the
learning handicapped and slower students arithmetic expression they think "fits"
cannot "see" what is set forth by the words the problem, and then use an
of a problem - that a situation really fits the appropriate model to check their
pattern of addition, or division. answer.
Problem: • Have students change the numbers in
Roy has 26 biscuits. He wants to give them given, similar problems to form new
to his 3 friends-the same number to each. problems. Then ask them
How many biscuits will each friend get? independently to write an expression
How many extras will be left? they think "fits" the action of the
problem and use an appropriate
Miscued by the phrase "how many will be model to check the expression.
left," a typical response of slow or
• Have students identify which
handicapped students is to subtract. An
problems among those given involve
approach to building students' success in
the specified operation (e.g. division)
problem-solving situations like this is
and use an appropriate model to
outlined in the following small steps:
check their thinking.
• Use countable objects (or another The basic thrust of the instructional
appropriate model) to analyse and sequence just outlined is to highlight the
discuss the word problem. Use operation embedded in the basic structure
vocabulary that emphasizes the basic or action of a problem. Parallel examples
concept of the operation. (in this are then provided so that basic similarities
problem, we share among, or divide between problems begin to emerge.
the biscuits.) The students Identifying just those problems that involve
themselves should move or group a given operation is a final step. Note that
the objects. Encourage them to hands-on involvement by the child and
verbalize what they are doing: modelling of appropriate language by the
"Sharing 26 among 3." teacher are integral to the interaction
between teacher and student.
This sequence has been extended
successfully and applied to multistep
problems.
• Select the best arithmetic expression
from a presented list (e.g. 26 - 3, 26
÷ 3, 26 + 3) to represent the action
in the problem. Use objects to verify

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 87

problems on this page." Before

students begin work, call on
individuals to tell, in their own
words, how they sort out division
þ Classroom climate
problems as opposed to other types
Many handicapped and slower students of problems.
have reading difficulties that interfere with
success in problem solving. To help: þ Look ahead
• Rely more on small, co-operative Provide activities that build prerequisites to
groups small successes in problem solving:
• Create a "buddy" system. Ask a • Include a basic-fact review as part of a
student to be Johnny or Mary's daily assignment. Present the review in
buddy for a while. This buddy can a way that forces decision making,
read and interpret difficult words. which is the heart of problem solving.
Allow the system to function even For example, "Find and do five
during tests. If the child with the problems that have an answer of 7."
learning difficulty becomes too
• Once every two weeks observe slower
dependent on the helper or is too
or handicapped learners as each use
easily drawn off task, the buddy
countable objects, base- ten blocks, or
assignment can be changed without
other appropriate materials to check a
issue.
written answer. Interact to help
students use appropriate language to
þ Sponge activities
describe what they are doing, ("Start
Routinely provide occasions that force
with 35; share among 4", or "517 is the
students to think about the basic structure
whole. We'll take away part, the
of a problem situation. Fill otherwise
231…)
wasted gaps during transition periods with
short sponge activities that invite on task • Provide numeric problems with
behaviour from even the slowest, most answers, but without signs. Help
affected learner. students develop reasoning skills
by asking them to decide which
• Put thumbs up if you think I should sign "fits" and to tell why it does.
divide to solve the problem.
As mentioned previously,
Otherwise, put thumbs down.
emphasise appropriate language.
• Use fingers, chest high, to form +, -, From time to time have students
x, ÷ to show me what you think I use appropriate models to check
should do first to solve this problem. their thinking
Alternatively: 8¨2=6
• Create bulletin-board displays or 8¨2=4
furnish individual cards and invite
Students to sort problems according
to the arithmetic operation needed to 42
solve them. Make an answer key 38
available for self-checking. 1586
• Structure assignments specifically to
include sorting by problem type. For
4387
example, "just do the division word
2155

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88 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

6542

þ Problem corner: special help

Many students with learning difficulties "go
blank" when they see problems with
troublesome fractions, decimals, or larger
whole numbers. Teach these students to
help themselves. Help them learn to
substitute small whole numbers for difficult
numbers until they decide what operations
to carry out.

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 89

would you need? (144) How many

hexagons are required to make a larger
hexagon? (Can you try to explain why it
cannot be done?)
(4-8) If you use only two colours (shapes)
of blocks, can you make a hexagon? A
6: Problem extensions for gifted regular hexagon? What combinations of
problem solvers blocks will work? How many of each
Teachers often search for ways to shape will you need? Can you make a
differentiate learning experiences for their hexagon with three shapes? Four? Five?
students with high abilities. Problem solving
with appropriate extensions offers a very New concepts and vocabulary
viable tool for meeting needs at various Problem: If a book that has 167 pages is
ability levels. With practice, creating open and the sum of the page numbers is
extensions becomes easy and interesting. 137, what pages are showing? (68, 69)
In fact, students will soon help by creating
their own extensions through brainstorming
in cooperative learning groups.
Extensions seem to fall into four major
categories: (1) reaching for a pattern or
generalization, (2) introducing new
concepts or vocabulary from other areas of
mathematics, (3) extending divergent
thinking (creativity), and (4) initiating
discussions that present opportunities for
value judgments. The grade level
suggestions for using the following
problems should be interpreted with
flexibility. Wide variations of interest,
ability, and experience occur at any grade
level.

Pattern and generalization Extensions

Problem: If you use pattern blocks, how
(1-3) If page 1 is on the right side of the
many triangles are required to make a
book and page 2 is on the left, will page 39
larger, similar triangle (fig 1)?
be on the right, or the left? (right) Will page
86 be on the right or the, left? (left) How
Extensions many sheets of paper, are in the book?
(84)
(K - 2) Can you make an even larger
triangle? If nine triangles were in the (4-8) If the product of the pages that are
bottom row, how many triangles would showing is 16 002, what are the page
you have used? (81) numbers? (126, 127)

(2-4) How many smaller squares are What is the probability that when you open
needed to make a larger square? If twelve the book, one of the page numbers is a
were in the bottom how many, squares multiple of three? (55/84) Or that on

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90 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

exactly one of the pages the sum of the þ To make value judgments
digits is greater than ten? (7/84) Or that the • Select problems that involve some
tens digit of the page number on the right is form of personal or societal dilemma
greater than the ones digit? (29/79; 79 (food supplies, animal
right-hand pages have a tens digit.) experimentation, nuclear power, and
so on).
Creativity • After solving the initial problem
Problem: propose an open-ended dilemma
that forces students to make value
A farmer has a hen, a cat, and a bag of
judgements.
seed to carry across the river. His boat can
only carry him and one other item. He • Discus the consequences of various
cannot leave the cat alone with the hen or "solutions" on everyone or everything
the hen alone with the seed. How can he potentially affected.
get them all across the river?
þ To enhance creativity
Extensions (1-8) Add another animal or • Choose problems that lend
object to the farmer's load. Now how themselves to acting out, drawing a
many trips will it take to get everything picture, working backward, and
across safely? What kinds of things (or logical thinking.
animals) can the farmer add? What kinds
• Have students hold onto their
of things will not work? (Note: Any
creative nonmathematical solutions
additional animal that can cause harm to
until a solution has been found using
one of the original animals or seeds
the actual situation and restrictions in
provides an experience with a problem
the problem. (Example: Taping the
with no solution. Students can prove that
hen's beak shut in the creativity
no solution exists!)
problem would violate the original
problem.) Then make it a point to
discuss these solutions later.
• Encourage students to alter a
problem so as to create a new
situation. Decide if the new problem
has a solution, look for further
variations, or prove the impossibility
þ Leading students to form of a solution.
generalisations
• Start with a problem that lends itself
to an organised list or table from
which a pattern can be noticed.
• Change the numbers in a systematic
manner
• Jump to a much larger number to
force a generalisation.
• Have students verbalise the pattern.
• Express the pattern using
mathematical symbols

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Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations 91

Here are some sample questions you might

ask while a student is solving this problem
or after a solution has been found.
• To help evaluate the student's ability
to understand the problem, ask –
"Can you describe this problem in
7: Asking questions to evaluate your own words?
problem solving What does 'get out of the well'
Sometimes we ask questions that are mean?"
designed primarily to stimulate students to "Does this problem remind you of
think. Other times questions are asked to any others you have solved before?"
give students help in solving a problem. But "What did you do to help you
have you thought about how you could ask understand this problem?"
questions to help evaluate your students' "How do you know that 10 is not
thinking and attitudes about problem the correct answer?"
solving?
• To help evaluate the student's ability
Checking a student's written work for a to deal with data, ask –
problem gives you important information "How did you decide which data
about that student's ability to solve are needed to solve this problem?"
problems, but it does not provide much
"How do you know that the depth
information about the student's thinking or
how the student feels about problem of the well is needed to solve the
solving. Evaluative questions of the problem?"
following types can help fill this information • To help evaluate the student's ability
gap: to choose appropriate strategies, ask
–
• How did you... ?
"Can you suggest some strategies
• Why did you... ? that might help you solve this
• What did you try... ? problem?"
• How do you know that...? • To help evaluate the student's ability
• Have you... ? to carry out a plan, ask -
• How did you happen to. .? "Have you used strategies in solving
the problem?
• How did you decide... ?
Which ones?"
• Can you describe ... ?
What did you do first to solve this
• Are you sure that. , . ?
problem?
• What do you think ... ? Can you describe your solution to
• How do you feel about... ? the problem?"
Consider the following problem: • To help evaluate the student's ability
A frog is at the bottom of a well 10 metres to determine the reasonableness of
deep and 2 metres across the top. On the an answer, ask -
first day she climbs up 5 metres but at night "Are you sure this is the answer to
slips back 4 metres. If she does this each the problem? Why?"
day, on what day will she get out of the "Do you think there might be other
well? answers?"

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92 Unit 1: Problem Solving and Investigations

• To help evaluate the student's pieces was heavier than the other
attitudes and beliefs, ask - seven. She was right and found the
"Do you like to solve problems like heavier coin by using a balance
this? Why or why not?" ' scale and only two weighings. How
do you think she did it?
"How do you feel about your
experience with this problem?"
"Do you think there might be
another way to solve this problem?"
As your students answer questions like
these, you may wish to record your
evaluations using a checklist like the one in
figure 1. Remember, good questions will
allow you to evaluate aspects of your
students' performance and attitudes that
are difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate
using other evaluation techniques. The (Solution: Place three coins on each
information gleaned from your evaluative balance. If they balance, the heavier coin
questions can then be used to help you can be found by trying to balance the other
plan subsequent instruction. two coins. If they don't balance, try to
balance two of the coins from the heavier
set of three. If they balance, the third coin
is the heavy coin. If they don't balance, the
heavier coin is determined.)

þ Classroom Climate
When you ask questions for evaluation
purposes, remember these considerations:
• Ask the questions in a friendly, re-
laxed, non-threatening manner.
• Reduce students' anxiety by discuss-
ing with them your use of questioning
techniques for the purpose of
assessment.
• Be sure students know that you are
evaluating them to find ways to help
them become better problem solvers
þ Problem Corner
and not for the purpose of assigning
You may wish to ask evaluative questions a grade.
as students in grades 6-8 solve this
• Share with students insights
"golden" problem. It is a good problem for
gleaned from your evaluative
assessing a student's ability to describe and
questions that they could use to
explain his or her solution.
improve their problem solving
A seller had eight gold coins that skills.
he claimed had the same weight.
The coin dealer who wanted to buy
them suspected that one of the

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