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10.1.1. Explain GPS coordinate system

PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY Definition
KARAIKUDI For thousands of years, navigators have looked
SYLLABUS to the sky for direction. Today, celestial navigation has
DRAUGHTMAN (SUBJECT CODE: 388) simply switched from using natural objects to human-
UNIT 10: GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM created satellites. A constellation of satellites, called the
10.1 Introduction of GPS: Global Positioning System, and hand-held receivers
Explain GPS coordinate system, Describe Geographic allow for very accurate navigation.
latitude and longitude, GPS equipment
10.2 Satellite and Conventional Geodetic system: What is GPS?
What is satellite system, Define Geodetic system The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
10.3 GPS coordinate system and component Total satellite-based navigation system made up of a network
Station of GPS & System segment Total Station: of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department
Explain GPS coordinate system, Describe Geographic of Defense that continuously transmit coded
Latitude and Longitude, Explain and describe information, which makes it possible to precisely
component Total Station GPS receiver identify locations on earth by measuring the distance
10.4 GPS segment Total Station: from the satellites.
Define GPS segment
10.5 Principle of Operation of GPS and surveying Advantages of GPS
with GPS:  GPS may be used to identify or define the
State the Principle of Operation of GPS, Describe the
geographical co-ordinates associated with satellite
role of transit in GPS
imager. GPS is also used to reduce the distortions
10.6 Remote sensing:
and to improve the accuracy of these images
Explain Remote sensing, Distinguish between GPS, GIS
positional. GPS receivers can be used to collect
and Total Station
accurate geographical coordinates at these
10.7 GPS signal code - GPS basics:
locations.
Introduction to digital signal, explain data acquisition
 GPS can be used in the ground to get satellite
system, describe signal processing, Explain code an
images. When a particular satellite image has a
basics
region of unusual or unrecognized reflectivity the
coordinates of that region can be loaded into GPS
STUDY MATERIAL
receiver.
UNIT 10: GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
 GPS has developed into cost effective tool for
10.1 Introduction of GPS:
updating GIS or computer aided design system.
The GPS is an excellent device user can, generally
see the sky and is able to get close to the objects to
be mapped.

Setup and use of GPS equipment

 GPS, or Global Positioning System, Devices are
ubiquitous these days. They are on our phones, in
our cars, and attached to many of our favourite
apps.
 Today, We can use our GPS to get directions and
find new places to eat and play, but learning how
to use them can seem complicated thanks to the
variety of different GPS styles. Luckily, all GPS
devices are pretty simple to use.

Using simple GPS equipment

1. Buy a smart phone or car GPS to get directions
and your location:

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The GPS market is flooded with different devices, latitude and longitude are represented by
option and features. Unless you plan or using your GPS numbers, known as degrees, which measures your
in the wilderness or for research experiments, however, distance from tow “zero lines” Longitude measures
your smart phone or a car GPS can provide directions your distance East or West of the prime meridian, and
and your location quickly and easily. Most have touch latitude measure your distance North or South of the
screens and come with a rechargeable battery. equator. This is the most accurate system of
 Smart phones: Most smart phones come measurement for your GPS.
preloaded with a “Maps” or “Directions” app  An examples (guess where it is), is 37°
that uses GPS. If you do not have one, search 26’46.9”N, 122°09’ 57.0”W.
and download an app, like Google Maps, from  Sometimes direction is noted by positive or
your app store to use for GPS. negative numbers. North and East are
 GPS devices: These are small, rectangular considered positive. The previous example
devices that specialize in driving directions and could be written as: 37° 26’ 46.0”,-122° 09” 57.0”
finding restaurants, airports, and other points  If there is no notation, know that the latitude
of interest. Examples include Tom Tom, always comes first.
Garmin and Magellan etc. 2 Mark you current location as a waypoint:
2. Open the “Map”: Waypoint are saved in the GPS to be viewed
This is the basic screen for GPS. It shows a later, allowing you to take notes, draw maps, and keep
location, usually with your current location at the information on the landscape easily. On your GPS click
centre, and all of the roads and major landmarks “Save location”, “And to Favourites,” or “Mark
nearby. Waypoint”.
3. Click on “My Location”:  Complex scientific GPS systems often let you
Some GPS use touch screens, others have keypads, and mark specific waypoints-artifacts, streams rock
some have scroll wheels and buttons. Click on the formations, etc.
button labelled with a compass, navigational arrow, or  The more points you save into your GPS, the
crosshairs to show your current location. more accurate your map of the area when you
 Your location is sometimes stored under the get home.
heading “Where am I?” “Favorited Locations”
or “Current”. 3 Set waypoints in advance if there are no addresses:
 iPhone users can see their current location Plug in the longitude/latitude coordinates of water
using the built-in Compass App. Make sure you sources, campgrounds, or ranger stations under “Get
“Allow Location Services” for the compass Directions” or “Find Location” then save them by
under “Settings” “Compass”. clicking “And to Favourites”. You can now access it
4. Choose your destination address: anytime.
Using the search bar found at the top of your GPS, type  “Add to Favourites” might be labeled by a star
in the address you want to reach. Many touch screen or flag as well.
GPS’s let you choose a location by holding your finger  Click “Saved Locations” or “Favourite
on the location in the map. Locations” to see your waypoints anytime. You
 Some GPS’s will prompt you with a button can click on them to get directions from
labelled “Get Directions”. Choose this if there is anywhere in the world.
no search bar to input an address. 4 Plug your GPS into your computer to download the
 If you know the exact latitude and longitude of data:
your trip, use these; they will give you the most Most complex GPS systems come with software that
accurate location possible. lets you save your data onto your computer. The
5. Follow the GPS instructions to get to your location: program will import your waypoints and use them to
The GPS will give you directions at every turn you need make a map of the area you were in, complete with
to take. Don’t worry if you miss a turn most GPS will elevation data and any notes you made on your GPS.
auto-correct and give you a new route to get back on  If you are mapping a specific area, make as many
track. waypoints as you can for an accurate map. The more
 If you are struggling to keep up, check your data the program has, the better the final product.
GPS’s setting and make the “Trun Warning
Frequency” setting longer - giving you more 10.2 Satellite and Conventional Geodetic system:
time to hear the next direction. 10.2.1 What is satellite system,
Satellite Systems (GNSS) such as Global
Using GPS for research and exploration Positioning System (GPS), cellular network
1 Learn to read latitude and longitude coordinates: infrastructure or on the integration ... GPS receivers
Convert space vehicles (SV) signals into position,
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velocity, and time estimates. Currently some geodetic Geodetic Coordinate Conversion. Geodetic to ECEF
type receivers are available on the market tracking GPS XYZ Coordinate Conversion; Latitude and longitude
and Glonass satellites ... are usually.

System (GPS) operation and application are the Is GPS accurate?

computational developments that have led to accurate Certain atmospheric factors and other sources
user positioning. This information discusses some of can affect the accuracy of GPS receivers. Garmin GPS
these developments from a historical perspective. The receivers are typically accurate to within 10 meters.
developmental odyssey begins with the events leading Accuracy is even better on the water. Some Garmin
to initial GPS operation. Early developments in satellite GPS receiver accuracy is improved with WAAS (Wide
Area Augmentation System).
Global Positioning System (GPS):
A satellite based What does the accuracy of a GPS mean?
 Geodesy: shape and rotation of the Earth, User Range Error (URE) vs. User Accuacy. To
terrestrial reference frame. calculate its position, a GPS device measures its
 GPS positioning: A simple principle. distance (range) form multiple GPS satellites. URE is a
 Principle of GPS positioning: - Satellite 1 measure of ranging accuracy. User accuracy refers to
sends a signal at time Ground receiver receives how close the device’s calculated position is from the
it signal at time t and range r truth, expressed as radius. Dec 5, 2017
 The effectiveness of global positioning system
electronic navigation ... What can affect the accuracy of a GPS?
Accuracy depends on a wide variety of factors
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide coming together at a particular location and time. They
radio navigation system that consists of a constellation include distortion of GPS signals as they travel through
of twenty-four satellites located in six orbits, an. ... The the ionosphere and errors in the position (ephemeris
position in the X, Y, and Z dimensions along with time data) transmitted by GPS satellites.
are converted in the receiver to calculate geodetic
latitude, longitude and height above the ellipsoid. Why do GPS receivers need to receive signals from
four satellites?
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally The GPS receiver also knows the exact position
Navistar GPS, is a space-based radionavigationsystem in the sky of the satellites, at the moment they sent their
owned by the United State government and operated signals. So given the travel time of the GPS signals from
by the United States Air Force. It is a global navigation three satellites and their exact position in the sky, the
satellite system that provides geolocation and time GPS receiver can determine your position in three
information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near dimensions - east, north and altitude.
the...
 Satellites in orbit: 31 What causes errors in GPS?
 Orbital height: 20, 180 km (12,540 mi) Multipath effects. GPS signals can also be
 Total satellites: 33 affected by multipath issues, where the radio signals
 Accuracy: 5 meters reflect off surrounding terrain; buildings, canyon walls,
hard ground, etc.
World Geodetic System - These delayed signals cause measurement
The World Geodetic System (WGS) is a errors that are different for each type of GPS signal due
standard for use in cartography, geodesy, and to its dependency on the wavelength.
navigation including GPS. It comprises a standard
coordinate system for the Earth, a standard spheroidal Can GPS be used without internet?
reference surface for raw altitude data, and a The Maps app requires an internet connection
gravitational equipotential surface (the geoid) that to download the Map information and imagery as you
defines the nominal sea level. move along. The GPS itself does not require an internet
connection. The free Google Maps app can now
download areas of interest in advance of needing them.
10.2.2 Global Positioning System Overview -
Can GPS be used to transmit data?
Global Positioning System (GPS) GPS receivers do not transmit any information
Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute they are built for receiving information. The
positions in three dimensions and the time offset in the encompassing device then uses said information
receiver clock. Geodetic Coordinates. ECEF XYZ to depending on what the device was built for. ‘Talking’

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to ’the satellites’ is not a necessary part of GPS  The geodetic latitude, symbolized by the Greek
functionality. letter phi, φ, would be the angle between the two
green lines.
What kind of signal does a GPS use?  Figure 2 illustrates geodetic height, which is
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a represented by a lower case letter “h”. Consider a
navigation message at 50 bits per second on the line drawn from a point on the earth’s surface. The
microwave carrier frequency of approx. 1600 MHz. FM distance along that line from the earth’s surface
radio, for comparison, is broadcast at between 87.5 and perpendicular to the ellipsoid surface.
108.0 MHz and Wi-Fi networks operate at around 5000  The distance along that line from the earth’s surface
MHz and 2400 MHz More precisely, all satellites to the ellipsoid is the geodetic height, also referred
broadcast at 1575.42 ... to as the “height above the ellipsoid” (HaE).
 It is important to note that geodetic height is not the
What is the accuracy of GPS devices? same as height above Mean Sea Level, and is not the
The United State government currently claims same as optometric height (or height above the
4 meter RMS (7.8 meter 95% Confidence Interval) geoid).
horizontal accuracy for civilian (SPS) GPS. Vertical  Geoids will be discussed in the next article.
accuracy is worse. Mind you, that’s the minimum.
Some devices/locations reliably (95% of the time or
better) can get 3-meter accuracy.

Geodetic Coordinates
Roger Foster
Coordinate System Analysis Team (CSAT)
 In order to discuss geodetic coordinates, we must
first discuss the three axes. (See Figure 1) The Z-axis
is the rotational axis of the ellipsoid.
 The X-axis lies in the equatorial plane and intersects
the prime meridian. The Y axis also lies in the
equatorial plane and is 90 degrees from the X-axis.
(Please note that all of the axes extend completely
through the ellipsoid, but only half of each axis is
shown for illustrative purposes.)
 In the example in figure 1, we are determining the 10.3 GPS coordinate system and component Total
geodetic coordinates (longitude, latitude, and Station of GPS & System segment Total Station:
geodetic height) of a point on the earth surface near
10.3.1 Explain GPS coordinate system:
the border of Indian and Pakistan.
GPS Coordinate system
 The light green colored line is perpendicular to the
 GPS measurements are referenced to the 1984
ellipsoid at the example point and therefore, does
not intersect the center of the ellipsoid. World Geodetic System reference ellipsoid, known
 The darker green line is this projected onto the as WGS84. However, for most survey tasks, results
equatorial plane. in terms of WGS84 have little value.
 It is better to display and store results in terms of a
local coordinate system. Before you start a survey,
choose a coordinate system.
 Depending on the requirements of the survey, you
can choose to give the results in the national
coordinate system, a local coordinate grid system,
or as local geodetic coordinates.
Geographic coordinate system Fig 1

 To measure the geodetic longitude, symbolized by

the Greek letter lambda, λ, we would measure the
angle from the X-axis (or the Prime Meridian) to the
dark green line on the equatorial plane.
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 The “longitude” (abbreviation: Long., I, or lambda)

of a point on the Earth’s surface is the angle east or
west from a reference meridian to another meridian
that passes through that point.
 All meridians are halves of great ellipses (often
improperly called great circles), which converge at
the north and south poles.
 The meridian of the British Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, a little east of London, England, is the
International Prime Meridian although some
organizations - such as the French Institute
Geographies National - continue to use other
meridians for internal purposes. The Prime
Meridian determines the proper Eastern and
A geographic coordinate system is a Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide
coordinate system that enables every location on the these hemispheres further west in order to keep the
earth to be specified by a set of numbers or letters, or Old World on a single side.
symbols.  The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°
The coordinates are often chosen such that one W and 180° E. This is not being conflated with the
of the numbers represents vertical position, and two or International Data line, which diverges from it in
three of the numbers represent horizontal position. A several places for political reasons including
common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude between far eastern Russia and the far western
and elevation. Aleutian Islands Figure.

10.3.2 Describe Geographic Latitude and Longitude

 Geographic latitude and longitude
 The “latitude (abbreviation: lat.,ϕ, or phi) of a point
on the Earth’s surface is the angle between the
equatorial plane and the straight line that passes
through that point and thought (or close to) the
centre of the Earth.
 Lines joining points of the same latitude trace
circles on the surface of the Earth called parallels, as  The combination of these two components specifies
they are parallel to the equator and to each other. the position of any location on the surface of the
 The north pole is 90° N; the south pole is 90° S. The Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth.
0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the  The grid thus formed by latitude and longitude is
fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate known as the “graticule”.
systems.  The zero/ zero point os this system is located in the
 The equator divides the globe into Northern and Gulf of Guinea about 625 km (390 mi) south of
Southern Hemispheres. Tema, Ghana Figure.

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Here, “10T” identifies the map zone,

“0550368” is the east/ west or “easting” number, while
“5274319” is the north/ south or “northing” number.
Your GPS receiver can automatically display
whichever of these coordinate systems you select. It can
also convert coordinates form one system to another.
This is helpful if you’re given coordinates for a location
in one system (e.g.,UTM) but want to actually navigate
in another (e.g.,DDM).

10.3.3 Components of the GPS system

There are 3 min components to the GPS system.
Reading coordinates These components are known as Segments, as follows
 To simplify map navigation, a system of Figure.
coordinates is used. Coordinates divide the map
into a grid and identity a particular location by
listing its relative position north/ south and east /
west.
 To choose a coordinate system, simply go to the
Preferences screed.
 The most common coordinate systems used in GPS
navigation are:

 DMS (Degrees/Minutes/Seconds): This is the

standard way of listing latitude and longitude.
Example: N47° 37’ 12” W122° 19’ 45”.
In this example, N47°37’ 12” indicates that the north/
south position is 47 degrees, 37 minutes and 12 seconds  Space Segment - the satellites, also known as
north of the equator; while W122° 19’ 45” places the space vehicles of SVs
east/west position at 122 degrees, 19 minutes and 45  Control Segment - ground stations run by the
seconds west of the Prime Meridian (at Greenwich, DOD
England)  User Segment - all users and their GPS receivers
 DDM (Degree/Decimal/Minutes): A decimal of
DMS, DDM is used by geocaches and other GPS Vocabulary / Definitations
enthusiasts. These coordinates look like this:  GPS : Golbal Positioning System
Example: N47° 37.216’ W122° 19.75’.  Satellite: An object launched specifically to
The north/south and east/west position remains orbit
unchanged. The difference is that the seconds part of  Receiver: A device that accepts (receives)
the location is converted to a decimal by dividing the incoming signals and converts them to a usable
seconds by 60. form.
 Orbit: The path an object in space follows as it
 UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator): This circles the Earth.
military deriver grid system is not tied to latitude  Trilateration: Postion determined by intersecting
and longitude. distances.
 It divides the map into a square grid with the grid  Triangulation : The location of an unknown
lines all 1,000 meters apart. Most topo maps have point by the formation of a triangle.
UTM grid lines printed on them.
 The system is metric-based and requires no 1 Space segment
conversion of minutes and seconds. The space segment consists of the GPS satellites.
Example 10T 0550368 5274319.
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Much of the GPS literature rears to the satellites as  This constellation provides the user with
“space vehicles” or simply, SV’s. The arrangement of between five and eight satellites visible from
GPS satellites in space is called their constellation. The most any point on earth at any time.
minimum constellation to meet the objectives of the  The satellite orbits are approximately 2,200
DOD is 24 operational satellites. kilometers (12,000 miles) above the earth
surface. The satellites travel at about 12,000
km/hour (7,000 miles per hour).
 Each satellite is solar powered with battery
backup, and contains radio receivers and
transmitters, one or more atomic clocks, small
thrusters used for course corrections, special
antennas, and, of course, computer equipment.
 The antennas on the satellites are designed to
allow GPS signals to be received anywhere
from the earth’s surface to about 5,00 km (3,000
miles) into space.
 This “service volume” not only meets all
civilian needs, but also provides the military
with satellite tracking and missile guidance
capabilities.
 The first GS satellite was deployed in February
1978. By 1994, a total of 24 operational satellites
were in place.
 Replacements and upgraded satellites have
been launched on a regular basis. As of early
2001, a total of 43 satellites had been launched,
 The orbit altitude was selected so that each
and the operational constellation consists of 28
satellite repeats the same track over any point
satellites.
on earth approximately once every 24 hours.
 The number of satellites reported in various
One orbit takes a little less than 12 hours.
books, articles and internet resources varies
 There are six orbital planes, with nominally
considerably, reflecting the data that the work
four satellites per orbital plane. The lanes are
was prepared.
equally spaced 60 degrees apart inclined at
about 55 degrees to the equator.
GPS satellites
 The configuration was optimized to provide the
Four classes (generatons): blocks I, II, IIA, IIR and IIF
best coverage between about 75 degrees’ north
1. Block I
latitude and 75 degrees’ south latitude.

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 11 satellites launched between 1978 and 1985 on behavior of the satellite clocks and formulates the
Atlas Rockets. navigation data.
 Life expectancy = 4.5 years, actual mean life =  The message data are transmitted to the ground
7.1 years. antennas and up linked via S-band to the satellites
 Signal entirely accessible to civilian users. in view.
 Last block I satellite died on February 28, 1994  Because of the global distribution of the up load
2. Block II antennas at least three contacts per day can be
 Possibility to degrade the signal for civilian realized between the control segment and each
users particular satellite.
 1 satellite ~ 25million dollars  The US Military operates the control segment.
 Life expectancy = 10 years There are five control stations around the world,
 5 m3, 2 tons, solar panels, boosters four unmanned stations near the equator and one
New launches on a regular basis Master Control Station in Colorado, as shown on
Monitored and controlled from the ground the following figure.

2 Control segment
3 User segment
 The control segment consists of a master control
 The user segment consists of all the users of the
station in Colorado Springs, Colorado with five
GPS signals. This includes both civilian and
monitor stations and three control up link stations
military users.
located throughout the world.
 It is important to note that GPS receivers do not
 Monitor stations track all GPS satellites in view and
send any signals back to the GPS satellites.
collect ranging information from the satellite
 Therefore, it is not possible to track the position of
broadcasts.
a receiver using GPS satellites.
 The monitor stations send information they collect
 The satellites merely transmit their signals blindly
from each of the satellite back to the master control
throughout the service volume.
station which computes extremely precise satellite
 In this way, the number of potential users at any
orbits.
one time is unlimited, and there is not interference
 The information is then formatted into updated
between users.
navigation message for each satellite.
 As opposed to the space and control segments,
 The updated information is transmitted to each
which are maintained by the US government, the
satellite the control up link stations which also
user segment is served by many commercial
transmit and receive satellite control and
companies who manufacture and sell GPS
monitoring signals.
receiver hardware, software and services.
 The monitor stations receive all satellite signals
 Anyone in the world can make and market GPS
from which they determine the pseudo range to all
receiver equipment. There are no licenses, user
visible satellites and transmit the ranged data along
fees, or any other restrictions.
with local meteorological data via data link to the
 Allowing the private sector to design and
master control station.
manufacture receiver equipment has resulted in a
 From these data the master control station
continual reduction in size.
precomputes satellite ephemerides and the

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Components of GPS receiver

The components of a GPS receiver are:
1. Antennas with preamplifier
2. RF section with signal identification and signal
processing
3. Microprocessor for receiver control data
sampling, data processing.
4. Precision oscillator
5. Power supply
6. User interface, command & display panel

Memory data storage

 The antenna detects the electromagnetic waves
arriving from the satellites converts the wave Table 1 gives a brief account of the function and of
energy into electric current amplifies the signal various segments along with input and output
strength and hand over to the signals over the information.
receiver’s electronics. Segment Input Function Output
 GPS signal structure requires that all GPS Generate and P-Code
antennas must be circularly polarized. Transmit code C/A Code
Navigation and carrier L1,L2
 The antennas have to be very sensitive because of Space
message phases and carrier
the rather weak satellite signal and the gain navigation Navigation
pattern must allow signal reception from all message message
elevations and azimuths of the visible P-Code
Produce GPS
hemisphere. Observation Navigation
Control Time Predict
Time manage message
ephemeris
10.4 GPS segment Total Station: space vehicles
Code
10.4.1 Define GPS segment Navigation
observation
Various Segments: solution Position
Carrier
For better understanding of GPS, we normally consider User Surveying velocity
phase
three major segments viz. space segment, control solution time
observation
Message
segment and User segment. Navigation
Space segment:
Space segment will consist 21 GPS satellite with an
addition of 3 active spares. These satellites are placed in
almost six circular orbits with an inclination of 55
degrees. Orbital height of these satellites is about 20,200
km corresponding to about 26,600 km.

Space segment deals with GPS satellites

systems, control segment describes ground based time
and orbit control prediction and in User segment
various types of existing GPS receiver and its
application is dealt.

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This part consists of user receivers which are

hand-held or, can be place in a vehicle. All GPS
receivers have an almanac programmed into their
computer, which tells them where each satellite is at
any given moment Figure.

Let’s Fly - The Initial Segment

 GPS loaded and activated - Note you can review
the approach in the GPS (Garmin press FPL key)
If approach is not activated before 2 nm of
MAWP, approach mode will not become active
timely.
 Radios tuned to Approach/ Tower 10.5 Principle of Operation of GPS and surveying
 Confirm CDI is set for GPS (not VLOC) ! with GPS:
 Reduce power to approach setting 10.5.1 State the Principle of Operation of GPS
 Cross over IAF at 2,000 feet - segment should  Technical description (principle of operation of
 Turn magenta GPS) The principle behind GPS is the measurement
 Turn to track towards IF either (80 / 260 degrees)
of distance (or “range”) between the receiver and
 Be sure to turn the OBS ring with each
the satellites.
directional change to match the Couse as a
reminder, although it won’t impact the CDI  The satellites also tell us exactly where they are in
indication their orbits above the Earth.
 Before IF begin turn inbound on 170° based on  It works something like this - If we know our exact
 Turn anticipation distance from a satellite in space, we know we are
 Intermediate segment should become active somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere
magenta with radius equal to the distance to the satellite
3 Segments of GPS Fig 4 radius.
The Control Segment: This part consists of 5  By measuring its distance from a second satellite,
worldwide unmanned base-stations that monitor the the receiver knows it is also somewhere on the
satellites to track their exact position in space, and to surface of a second sphere with radius equal to its
make sure that they are operating correctly. The distance from the second satellite.
stations constantly monitor the orbits of the satellites  Therefore, the receiver must be somewhere along a
and use very precise radar to check altitude, position circle which is formed from the intersection of the
and speed. two spheres. Measurement from a third satellite
The Space Segment: This part consists of introduces a third sphere.
satellites, manufactured by Rockwell International,  Now there are only two points which are consistent
which are launched into space by rockets, from Cape with being at the intersection of all three spheres.
Canaveral, Florida. They are about the size of a car, and  One of these is usually impossible, and the GPS
weight about 19,000lbs. Each satellite is in orbit above receivers have mathematical methods of
the earth at an altitude of 11,000 nautical miles (12,660 eliminating the impossible location Measurement
miles). from a fourth satellite now resolves the ambiguity
Takes 12 hours to orbit one time The User Segment:
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as to which of the two points is the location of the  The system was primarily used by the US Navy to
receiver. provide accurate location information to its Polaris
 The fourth satellite point also helps eliminate ballistic missile submarines, and it was also used as
certain errors in the measured distance due to a navigation system by the Navy’s surface ships, as
uncertainties in the GPS receiver’s timing as well. well as for hydrographic survey and geodetic
surverying.
 Transit provide continuous navigation satellite
serice from 1964, initially for Polaris submarines
and later for civilian use as well.
History
 Development of the transit system began in 1958,
and a prototype satellite, Transit 1A, was launched
in September 1959. That satellite failed to reach
orbit. A second satellite, Transit B, was successfully
launched on April 13, 1960, by a Thor-Ablestar
rocket. The first successful tests of the system were
made in 1960, and the system entered Naval service
in 1964.
 The transit system was made obsolete by the Global
Positioning System(GPS), and ceased navigation
service in 1996. Improvements in electronics
allowed the GPS system to effectively take several
fixes at once, greatly reducing the complexity of
Here’s how GPS works in five logical steps deducting a position.
 The basis of GPS is “triangulation” from satellites.  The GPS system uses many more satellites than
 To “triangulate”, a GPS receiver measures were used with transit, allowing the system to be
distance using the travel time of radio signals. used continuously, while transit provided a fix only
 To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate every hour or more.
timing, which it receives with some tricks.
 Along with distance, you need to know exactly Surveying with GPS
where the satellites are in spacce. High orbits and  Initially developed for military use, GPS is now
careful monitoring are the secret. part of everyday life; used in mobile phones, in-car
 Finally you must correct for any delays the signal navigation and search and rescue equipment to
experiences as it travels through the atmosphere. mention just a few.
 But there is a wide variety of equipment and
techniques that can be used for surveying.
 GPS was rapidly adapted for surveying, as it can
give a position (Latitude, Longitude and Height)
directly, without the need to measure angles and
distances between intermediate points.
 Survey control could now be established almost
anywhere and it was only necessary to have a clear
view of the sky so the signal from the GPS satellites
could be received clearly.
 The first GPS instrument to be used for control
surveying was the Micrometer V-1000. This
10.5.2 Role of transit in GPS development: instrument has the capability of determining a
 The transit system, also known as NAVSAT or point’s precise co-ordinates without relying on any
NNSS (for Navy Satellite System), was the first of the special codes broadcast by the GPS satellites
satellite navigation system to be used operationally.
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and is therefore often referred to as a codless

receiver.
 For the past year, the TI 4100 GPS instrument has
also been used for precise control surveys.
Advantages of GPS surveys
 Three dimensional
 Site intervisibility not needed
 Weather independent
 Day or night operation
 Common reference system
 The Master Control Station receives the monitoring
 Rapid data processing with quality control

 High precision station tracking and ground antenna telemetry

 Less labour intensive/ cost effective information and computes the current and
 Very few skilled personnel needed predicted satellite clock offsets and satellite
positions.
10.5 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF GPS AND  It then converts this data to the navigation data
SURVEYING WITH GPS: formats described later.
10.5.1 State the Principle of Operation of GPS  These rather complex satellite orbit/time filter
Ground support equipment and signals estimating algorithms must also model the satellite
 The signals the GPS receivers get from the satellites solar radiation pressure, atmospheric drag on the
are converted into position, velocity and time satellite, Sun/Moon gravitational effects, including
estimates. solid Earth and ocean tides, and Earth’s
 Conceptually the process is one of measuring the geopotential model.
time a signal from a given satellite takes to reach the  Improved GPS satellite-to-satellite cross-link
receiver. ranging data may also be used in the future.
 Since the travel speed of the signal, which is the  The navigation data are uploaded from several 10-
same as that of light is known, the distance of the m S-band ground antenna upload stations.
receiver from the satellite can be computed. Tracking
 GPS tracking means to trace something or someone
with the Global Positioning System. The below
diagram illustrates the basic AVL System.

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 It shows the GPS signal arriving from satellite to

vehicle. The vehicle location is communicated to
the PC (Control Centre) via wireless network.
 But for thousands of years Homosapiens has had
the opportunity to observe the movement and
general habits of members of his own species as
well as of wildlife, particularly by following their
tracks.
 It was a hard and particular unsafe affair. Hence the
development of satellite tracking by the Argos 2. Spot Gen3
consortium was a quantum leap in the human  Spot Gen3 takes a different approach to GPS
tracking business. tracking by using a personal GPA tracking device
 Since 1994 the Global Positioning System has been that’s much more than just a tracking chip.
available for civilian use at no cost. Nowadays GPS  This larger tracker comes without a screen (to be
makes it available to everyone to track nearly even more durable, it seems) but does have several
everything. buttons for different commands.
 Objects as well as persons can be tracked if they are  It can track exactly where you are, record where
fitted out with a GPS receiver estimating the you; have been, allow out to check in at specific
respective location. The GPS location data is stored places, and even send specific pre-planned
on board of the GPS receiver. messages or SOS signals.
 Modern GPS tracking systems are able to send such
GPS position data from the object directly to a
receiving station.
 A receiving station can be stationary receiver of a
tracking service company (in case of car tracking
flex.) or provider of a mobile phone company, or
just a PC.
 Nowadays the GPS location data can be also
received by small mobile gadgets like laptops,
handsets etc. The AVL tracking system consists of a
GPS receiver inside the vehicle and a
communications link between the vehicle and the 3. DeLorme InReach SE
control Center as well as pc-based tracking
software for dispatch.
 The communication system is usually a cellular
network similar to the one used by your cell phone.
Best personal GPS tracking devices
 GPS trackers are getting thinner, cheaper and more
useful for security and outdoor activity than ever
before.
 Infect, several excellent models may have crept into
the market without you realizing it. Here is a list of
the top personal tracking devices.
1. Trax (Fig.4)
Trax stand out by being highly consumer-oriented in its
approach to GPS tracking devices. The company offers
 DeLorme InReach SE is an excellent modern GPS
one Trax package that includes two different clips
tracker if you want something more social than the
(albeit only one tracker), one for clothing and one for a
Spot Gen3.
collar indicating the company’s two different
approaches for kids and dogs.
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 This device has a tiny screen and basic direction vehicle with DGPS capability requires more
buttons you can use to tap out a text message no equipment and is expensive.
matter where you are or what mountain you just  The better approach is to have one DGPS station at
scaled. It also has SOS capabilities, extensive. the home office, and use this single correction factor
4. Pocket Finder for all the data coming back from the vehicles. This
technique is called Inverse DGPS.
 Inverse DGPS is applicable whenever there are
multiple mobile receivers and the receivers
themselves don’t need differential GPS accuracy.
 This approach can be used for accurately tracking
vehicles, weather balloons, semi-autonomous
robots, or even real-time surveying of predefined
points.
 Several companies offer inverse DGPS for public
bus systems and even school buses, so that central
dispatch always knows the status of the
transportation system.
Applications of GPS
GPS in marine system:

 Pocket Finder is something of a supermarket in the

personal tracking devices world, with options for
people, pets and vehicles, each with its own
characteristics.
 The personal GPS locator is designed for kids,
teens, seniors, and anyone else who wants them.
 The know-like shape is a little odd compared to
other offerings, but all the functionality is still
present, complete with an app that overlays maps
with the locations of multiple people.
 Geofencing also gives you important updates on
location. If you aren’t quite sure what features you
want in a tracker, PocketFinder’s models make a
 Marine GOS receivers feature waterproof casings,
good starting place for your research.
marine chart plotter maps, and even fishing tables
5. Real-Time Correction of Multiple Receivers
and celestial schedules. Most can also store
Inverse DGPS
highway map information, so you can use your
 Suppose you are interested in accurately tacking
marine GPS to get you to the marina and then out
where a number of vehicles are and how fast they
to the fish.
are moving using GPS in real-time, and you want
GPS for private and commercial use:
to monitor all of them from a central location (for
 The GPS system is free for everyone to use, all that
example, for a fleet of delivery or service trucks).
is needed is a GPS receiver, which costs about $90
Each vehicle would need a GOS receiver.
and up (March 2005).
 That would tell the vehicle where it is, but not you.
 This has led to widespread private and commercial
Therefore, each vehicle must transmit its own
use. An example of private use is the popular
positional information, usually by radio, back to the
activity Geocaching where a GPS unit is used to
home office.
search for objects hidden in nature by traveling to
 For accurate location and speed determination, you
the GPS coordinates.
decide to use Differential GPS. To equip each
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 Commercial use can be land measurement,  Precision, or site-specific farming involves

navigation and road construction. applying fertilizer, pesticides and other inputs only
GPS on air planes: where they are needed.
 Most airline companies allow private use of  GPS-guided equipment is often used for variable
ordinary GPS units on their flights, except during rate application of fertilizer (based on soil tests) or
landing and take-off, line all other electronic pesticides (based on pest survey).
devices.  GPS can also be used to develop the initial reference
 The unit does not transmit radio signals like mobile maps upon which variable rate applications are
phones, it can only receive. Note, however, that based.
some airline companies might disallow it for  A GPS system on a combine with a yield monitor
security reasons, such as unwillingness to let can be used to develop an on-the-go yield map or
ordinary passengers track the flight route. can be used to map weed locations from the
GPS for visually impaired: combine when harvesting.
 The projects of the navigation stem using GPS for  Mounted in an airplane, GPS can be used to guide
the visually impaired have been conducted quite a aerial spraying operations.
few times. GPS was introduced in the late 80’s and  GPS can be used to locate weed, insect or diseases
since then there have been several research projects infestations and monitor their spread. It can also be
such as MoBIC, Drishti, and Brunel Navigation used to navigate back to previously mapped
System for the Blind, NOPPA, Braille Note GPS and infestations to apply controls.
Trekker.  A field map can be created using GPS to record the
MoBIC: coordinates of field borders, fence lines, canals,
 MoBIC means Mobility of Blind and Elderly People pipelines, and point locations such as wells,
Interacting with Computers, which was carried out buildings, and landscape features. The resulting
from 1994 to 1996 supported by the Commission of field map might be the first layer a producer would
the European Union. develop for an on farm GIS (Geigraphic
 It was developing a route planning system, which Information System).
is designed to allow a blind person access to  Additional layers showing crop damage from hail
information from many sources such as bus and or drought, and riparian areas or wetlands could be
train timetables as well as electronic maps of the mapped using GPS.
locality.  Ranchers could use GPS to develop rangeland
 The planning system helps blind people to study utilization maps and to navigate back to previously
and plan their routes in advance, indoors. mapped areas of monitoring sites.
GPS applications in agriculture GPS navigation: Land, Sea and Air
 GPS is being used for emergency response (fire,
ambulance, police), search and rescue, fleet
management (trucking, deliver vehicles, and public
transportation) and for automobile guidance
systems.
 Recreational uses of GPS include navigation while
hunting, or skinning.
 GPS is even used on golf courses to track golf carts,
and to let players know how far it is to the centre of
the greens.
 On our nation’s waterways, GPS is being used for
recreational sailing and fishing and for commercial
 More and more producers today are using shipping fleet management.
precision farming techniques that can help increase  Assisted steering, risk assessment and hazard
profits and protect the environment. warning systems for marine navigation are being
developed using GPS.
 In the air, GPS is being used for en-route navigation
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(helicoper, airplane, hot-air balloon), aircraft landing, 10.6 Remote sensing:

and air-collision avoidance systems. 10.6.1Explain Remote sensing
GPS Applications: Mapping and Surveying Remote sensing
 GPS applications in natural resource management  The term remote sensing is defined as the study of
include inventory and mapping of soils, vegetation something without making actual contact of study.
types, threatened and endangered species, lake and  It can be precisely defined as the science and art of
stream boundaries and wildlife habitat. acquiring information about a material object by
 GPS has been used to aid in damage assessment making measurements at a distance from without
after natural disasters such as fires, floods and coming into a physical contact with the help of the
earthquakes. electromagnetic energy it radiates.
 GPS has also been used to map archaeological sites  Whatever working definition we use to describe
and for infrastructure (streets, highways and remote sensing, the concept is that it involves
utilities) mapping, management, and planning for making observations remotely or with physical
future growth. contact with the object.
 Engineers use GPS for surveying when building  The remote nature these technologies allow us to
roads, bridges and other structures. make observations, take measurements produced
Public Health and safety - Earthquake Prediction images of phenomena that are beyond the limits of
 The occurrence of slight movements and tilting of our own senses and capabilities.
the earth’s surface often precedes moderate to large  Remote sensing tools can be used to study things
earthquakes. on all scales ranging from the smaller within the
 Historically, scientists have deployed measurement atom to the universe as a whole.
equipment only in limited areas, due mainly to cost,  While remote sensing tools are often associated
access, and manpower requirements. with researchers and scientists who conduct
 To overcome these disadvantages, the scientific inquiry.
Geographical Survey Institute of Japan has  The common man also practices natural remote
deployed a permanent network of 1,000 GPS sensing in his day to day life in one form of the
receivers across the country. other.
Engineering and construction - equipment control Component parts of a remote sensing system
and monitoring There are four basic components of a remote
 In addition to the improvement in the speed and sensing include a target an energy source, a
efficiency of precision surveying, a number of other transmission path and a sensor
GPS applications have been developed in
engineering and construction.
 For example, GPS equipped earth moving
equipment can now excavate and grade complex
foundations with minimal operator interference.
 GPS technology not only guides the path of the
equipment, but can also be used to automatically
control the height of blades or scrapers.
 This capability results in significant cost savings
 The target is the object or material that is being
and efficiencies, since periodic manual surveying is
studied.
not required.
 The components in the system measure and record
 The construction rental industry is also using GPS
information about the target without actually
to monitor, in real-time, the location of equipment
coming into physical contact.
and details such as hours worked, engine
 There must also be an energy source which
revolutions, oil pressure and other critical
illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy and
parameters.
will act as a medium for transmitting information
 This allows owners to ensure that their equipment
from the target to the sensor. The sensor remote
is being used within specifications, helps manage
maintenance scheduling and minimizes theft.
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device that will collect and record the physical objects through processes of recording,
electromagnetic radiation. measuring and interpreting photo images.
 Once the energy has been recorded, the resulting  It is a technique of producing 3-dimensional
set of data must be transmitted to a remote where coordinates from two dimensional photographs.
the data are processed into usable format which is
most often as an image. Satellite remote sensing
 The image interpreted in order to extract
information about the target.
 This interpretation can be done electronically with
the aid of computers and image processing
software.
 Weather satellite imaging of the earth is a familiar
example of a remote sensing system. Such system is
the earth’s surface, which gives off energy in the
form of infrared radiation energy.

Two types of remote sensing”

Aerial photography  In case of satellite remote sensing, sensors are
` mounted on the satellites which record the
reflectance value from various objects and form a
digital image.
 The satellites revolve around the earth at several
hundred kilometers from the earth’s surface.
Comparison of GPS with GIS & CAD
 As a start, GPS (completely known as Global
Positioning System) is one of the ways to precisely
pinpoint specific location in almost any place on the
planet. Simply, it is a network of satellites that
determines specific coordinates on earth.
 This network usually operates by the transmission
of certain radio signals from the said satellites into
the GPS receivers on the planet using the process
known as trilateration.
 Using the US government’s advanced tracking
satellite technologies, the GPS system can also
locate coordinates with the combination of multiple
GPS satellites, receivers and oftentimes a
processing circuit for data.
 This technology was first developed for the
purpose of the US military, but little did they know
 Aerial photographs are acquired with the help of that this invention could one day revolutionize how
specially designed cameras which are mounted on people look for what they are trying to find.
the aircraft.  The GPS has now been used in practical day to day
 Theses aircrafts fly over the ground and record the applications and makes life easier.
photographs of the area. Aerial photography  At present, this system is being used universally to
analyses have played major roles in discovery of navigate to map an area and even to survey a
many oil and mineral deposits around the world. specific geographical location.
 Photogrammetry is defined as the art, science,  On the other hand, GIS is frequently confused with
technology of obtaining reliable information about GPS because it is a more generic acronym

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(Geographic Information System) used to describe should be protected during response and recovery
a more complex mapping technology that is phases.
connected to a particular database.
 Because it’s generic, it is a broader term than the
GPS in its technical sense.
 Thus, GIS is a computer program or application
that is utilized to view and handle data about
geographic locations and spatial correlation among
others.
 It simply gives the user a framework to obtain
information.
Overall, the difference between a GPS and a GIS can
be
summed up:
1. The GPS (Global Positioning System) is a network
that locates certain places here on earth whereas the combined with data such as:
GIS (Geographic Information System) is a 1. USGS topographical maps
computer program that process data linked to 2. Digital elevation model
certain places or locations. 3. Critical infrastructure maps
2. The GIS is more generic framework compared to 4. Aerial photography
the specific GPS network. 5. Crop land use
Examples of GPS and GIS 6. Census maps
Global Positioning System (GPS) “Layered” maps can be generated by the GIS
software.
Example of map “Layers”

A GIS database creates “layers” with many pieces of

information visualized for the same area.
CAD and GIS
The difference between CAD and GIS systems is
becoming blurred with the internal attributes and
database linkages enhancing CAD;s capabilities.
1. GIS data normally covers a large geographic area,
where CAD data are normally much smaller areas.
2. GIS data is normally displayed at smaller scales
An agricultural producer may use a handheld GPS than CAD data.
receiver to determine the latitude and longitude 3. GIS data is often captured with less accuracy than
coordinates of a water source next to a field or CAD data.
vineyard. 4. GIS data normally include attribute information,
where CAD data historically haven’t. But this is
Global Information System (GIS) changing and Information Modelling is becoming
Following a chemical spill, maps obtained from a GIS an important part of “Data Mortality” as discussed
system can reveal environmentally-sensitive areas that by Greg Bentley during the Beln spired conference.
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 INSPEC: NON-Controlled Indexing

 But what happens when you combine GIS and Execution time, digital signal processing system,
CAD requirements within one solution. imagepattern recognition, DSP, neural network
 Basically you get highly spatially accurate data architecture, microcomputer, ADSP 2189, Analog
with attribute information, and from what I seen Devices, character recognition system, error probability
this is where the CAD software vendors are
heading with their Information Modelling  Data Acquisition Systems
products. 1. Data Acquisition (DAQ)
 GIS is a database program, and CAD is a graphics Process of getting digital equivalent of analog
program. With CAD, it’s the lines that are signals (the measure of real world physical
important, i.e. the drawing is the information. With quantities) into computer for further processing
GIS, the lines are just representative of the data 2. Data loggers
behind it. Records measurements of physical quantities
Data layer examples with time stamp
3. Basic Functions of DAQ Systems - Analog Input
4. Conversion of analog signal to digital data and
5. Transfer of converted data to computing platform
using standard interface

Converting Analog into Digital

Computationally
10.7 GPS signal code - GPS basics: • The analog voltage can now be compared with the
10.7.1 Introduction to digital signal digitally generated voltage in the comparator.
Introduction • Through a technique called binary search, the
Usual digital signal processing is based on the digitally generated voltage is adjusted in steps until it
algorithms, changing data through sequential is equal (within tolerances) to the analog voltage.
procedures, which need parameters to operate. The • When the two are equal, the digital value of the
parameters provide a benchmark to judge the data. The voltage is the outcome.
proper choose of parameters is very important
(perhaps more than the algorithm itself). The neural After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
networks will use very simple algorithms, but many • Distinguish between data and signals, and cite the
highly optimized parameters. advantages of digital data and signals over analog data
and signals.
 IEEE Keywords • Identify the three basic components of a signal.
Digital signals processing, Pattern recognition, • Discuss the bandwidth of a signal and how it relates
Neural networks, Signal processing algorithms, todata transfer speed.
Microcomputers, Images recoginition, Digital signal • Identify signal strength and attenuation, and how
processors, Error probability, Image databases, Pixel. they are related.
Data communications and Computer Network: A
 INSPEC: Controlled Indexing Business User’s Approach, Sixth Edition
Character recognition, image recognition, digital
signal processing chips, neural net architecture, error What is Digital Signal Processing?
statistics Digital: operating by the use of discrete signals to
represent data in the form of numbers
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Singal: a parameter (electrical quantity or effect) that signals is that the precise signal level of the digital
can be varied in such a way as to convey information signals is not vital.
• This means that digital signals are fairly immune to
Processing: a series operations performed according to the imperfections of real electronic system which ten
programmed instructions to spoil analog signals.
• Reduced cost
• Flexibility in response to design changes
• Noise immunity
• Easy to control and manipulate

Advantages of Digital over Analog Signal Processing Why to Apply Digital Transmission?
Why still do it? Advantages of Digital Communication Over Analog
• Digital system can be simply reprogrammed for other Modulation:
applications/ported to different hardware / duplicated • There are many advantages of using Digital
(Reconfiguring analog system means hadware Communication over analog Communication. Some of
redesign, testingm verification) them are listed as below: The digital communication
• DSP provides better control of accuracy requirements has mostly common structure of encoding a signal so
(Analog system depends on strict components devices used are mostly similar.
tolerance, response may drift with temperature) • The Digital Communication’s main advantage is that
• Digital signals can be easily stored without it provides us added security to our information signal.
deterioration • The digital Communication system has more
(Analog signals are not easily trasportable and often immunity to noise and external interference.
can’t be processed off-line) • Digital information can be saved and retrieved when
• More sophisticated singal processing algorithms can necessary while it is not possible in analog.
be implemented • Digital Communication is cheaper than Analog
(Difficult to perform precise mathematical operations Communication.
in analog form) • The configuring process of digital communication
system is simple as compared to analog
A DSP System communication system. Although, they are complex.
In practice, a DSP system does not use idealized A/D • In Digital Communication System, the error
or D/A models. correction and detection techniques can be
Anti-aliasing Filter: ensures that analog input signal implemented easily.
does not contain frequency components higher than
half of the sampling frequency (to obey the sampling Satellite dependency of receiver originating biases
theorem). This process is irreversible One of the earliest examples of the
2 Sample and Hold: Hold a sample analog value for a phenomenon that different receivers got different
short time while the A/D converts and interprets the range errors tracking the same satellite appeared in
value as a digital. 1993, when a signal anomaly of GPS Block II space
3 A/D: converts a sampled data signal value into a vehicle number (SVN) 19 gave large differential
digital positioning errors (Edgar et al.1999).
number, in part, through quantization of the Depending on the correlator spacing adopted
amplitude. in the receiver design, signal deformations on L1
4 D/A: converts a digital signal into a \staircase”-like originating from the SVN 19 hardware gave rise to
signal. different internal delays in the receivers, resulting in a
5 Reconstruction Filter: converts a \staircase”-like differential positioning error of several meters when
signal into an analog signal through low pass filtering the reference and the rover receiver used different
similar to the type used for anti-aliasing. correlator spacing in their discriminatiors.
Recent findings by Lestarquit et al. (2012)
Advantages of Digital Signals showed delay differences as large as 0.7 m between
• The main advantange of digital signals over analog using a 0.1 and 0.05 chip discriminator when analyzing
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disrortions on the C/A-code transmitted from GPS terms are canceled out. These include the geometric
Block IIA PRN-32, corresponding to SVN 23. range, the clock errors, and the tropospheric delay. The
It was also shown that different satellites, term Bsig2,r- Bssig2-Bsig1,r+Bssig2,r-Bsig2s-
Which exhibit different kinds of distortions on their Bsig1,r+Bsig1 s refers to the combined receiver and
signals, produced different delays for a given correlator satellite DCB. The DCB term
spacing. might be separated into receiver-specific and
It was described by Simsky and Sleewaegen one satellitespecific DCB term,
(2004) that this effect would be reinforced on some DCbssig1sig2,r=DCBsig1sig2,r-
receiver brands when the multipath-mitigation setting DCBssig1sig2DCBsig1sig2,rs=DCBsig1sig2,r-
was turned on. DCBsig1sig2s (6)
Since some multipath-mitigation algorithms where
use the form of the measured correlation peak to detect CBsig1sig2,r-Bsig1,rDCBsig1sig2,r=Bsig2,r-
multipath, these distrotions on the received signals Bsig1,r (7)
would incorrectly be interpreted as multipath by the and
receiver, which would produce an addition to the DCBssig1sig2=Bssig2-Bssig1DCBsig1sig2s=Bsig2s-
pseudorange error in the receiver. Bsig1s (8)
In (5), fsig1fsig1 and fsig2fsig2 might be equal. In that
However, even if the phenomenon mentioned case, even the ionosphere and multipath terms
above is present on all satellite systems using CDMA, cancel out and only the bias terms remain.
its effect is comparatively small in relation to the code Otherwise, both the ionospheric and multipath
interchannel delays induced in the receiver hardware influences have to be accounted for beside the DCBs.
during GLONASS tracking. This effect is similar to the
GLONASS phase IFB, and it will be discussed later on. As the ionosphere is a dispersive medium for all
In the following sections, we will focus on frequencies used by current GNSS carriers, GNSS
various code biases that are of importance in TEC signals modulated onto carrier waves of different
estimation and multi-GNSS positioning. frequency will be delayed by a different amount of time
at the moment of reception in the GNSS receiver. DCBs
Differential code biases are thereby of significant importance when we want to
The differential code bias (DCB) is a time delay relate the TEC along the signal path in the atmosphere
between two GNSS signals transmitted by a single with a geometryfree linear combination of code
satellite, and it consists of both delays induced in the observations from different carriers, as the DCB delay
receiver hardware at reception and in satellite adds to the ionospheric delay in the measurements.
hardware at tranmission. The DCB arise due to the use Separation of these two terms is therefore necessary in
of different carrier frequencies, and due to differences order to estimate TEC from GNSS measurements. This
between the structures of the signals. These delays is a technique which is used for instance in GNSS-based
thereby also exist between different types of signals ionospheric modeling (Jensen et al. 2007).
using the same carrier frequency, as the C/A-code and
P-code on GPS L1 (Gao et al. 2001). GPS system time correction parameters transmitted in
the broadcast navigation message are given with
The observation equation for the difference respect to the ionosphere-free linear combination of the
between two signals collected with a single P-code signals on L1 and L2 (IS-GPS-200H 2013). This
receiver has the following form, derived from (2): is achieved by the satellite clock corrections terms in the
R s s i g 1s i g 2, r = R s s i g 1, r = c ( B s i g 2 , r broadcast navigation message (Tetewsky 2009).
- B s s i g 2 - B s i g 1, r + B s s i g 1 ) + M s s i g 1 s i g 2 , Consequently, single frequency users of P-code on L1
r+Rsig1sig2,rs-Rsig1,rs=c(Bsig2s-Bs and L2 have to correct their measurments with the T
i g 1 , r + B s i g 1 s ) + parameter supplied in the broadcast navigation
1fsig1fsig2,rs+Msig1sig2,rs+Rsig1sig2 (5) message. This value corresponds to the differential
delay induced in the satellite at the time of transmission
This difference is sometimes referred to as the of the P-code signals. The GPS Interface Specification
geometryfree linear combination, as all geometric
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documents IS-GPS-200H (2013) states that TGD=11- It was shown by Hegarty et al. (2004) that the
f2L1f2L2(tL1P-tL2P)TGD=11-fL12fL22(tL1P-tL2P) (9) receiver hardware delays depend on how signal
tracking is employed in the receiver. Depending on the
Replacing t LIP - t L2P in (9) by - DCB P1P2 GPS,s, using design of the delay-locked loop (DLL), signals that
the same sign convention as earlier, the relation were using the same type of modulation showed
between the T GD parameter and the satellite DCB can different delays. Tracking of signals on the same carrier
be expressed as D C B G P S , s P I P 2 = ( f 2 L 1 f 2 L 2 frequency with different types of modulation also
- 1)TGD+CDCBP1P2GPS,s=(fL12fL22-1)TGD+c (10) showed delay differences of several nanoseconds.
Consequently, receivers of different models, which are
The constant C has been added to the expression above built with different architectures, will induce different
due to the fact that only the total DCB, hardware delays into the signal tracking process.
DCBssigsig2,rDCBsig1sig2,rs, is estimable from GNSS Moreover, signals from different GNSSs, which use
observations alone. The satellite and the receiver part of different types of modulation, will show different
the total DCB can in practice only be separated if an delays in the receiver hardware, even if they are
additional constraint is added. This constraint is modulated on the same carrier frequency. This applies
usually chosen to be either a mean value constraint, for instance in combined GPS and Galileo tracking
where the maean certain receiver is set to a certain where the same carrier frequencies are used for L1/E1
value known beforehand (Montenbruck and Hauschild and L5/E5, but different modulation schemes are
2014). This will give the effect of a constant offset applied. Here, a receiver-specific intersystem bias will
depending on the chosen constraint in the estimation appear between the pseudorange observables from
process. For a user relying on the C/A-code on L1 GPS and Galileo satellites, even though the signals are
instead of the P-code, only the most modern GPS modulated on carrier waves of the same frequency.
satellites, which includes the Block IIR-M, Block IIF and Toppers – 2015
subsequent satellite blocks, transmit a C/ A-code
correction parameter called Inter-Signal Correction
(ISC) in the newly implemented civil navigation
(CNAV) message (IS-GPS-200H 2013).
As was suggested in the previous section, the receiver Rank 2 384.50 Rank 3 384.00 367.75 364.50 SARATH
SIVA CHARLES KUMAR
originating code biases are sometimes also dependent RAGHUL C. SHANMUGAVEL

on the transmitting satellite. This is the case when the

transmitted signals are distorted at the satellite payload
(Edgar et al. 1999; Lestarquit et al. 2012). As the receiver
biases of both signals are constituents of the DCB, this
362.00
effect of satellite dependence will also show up on the RANJITH
359.5 359.25 355.00 JAMES
RAJENDRAN VENKATESH BABU MARTIN. A
receiver DCB under the conditions mentioned above.

Code biases
As Eq. (2) suggests, the code bias can be separated into
one term that refers to the bias that originates from the
receiver hanrdware, Bsig,r sys, and one term that refers 354
352.5 RIYAZ 351. 25
to the bias that originates from the satellite hardware, B MANIKANDAN
MOHAMMED PRASANTH 350.000
RAMESH
sig s. In this representation, only the satellite term of the
equation is assumed to be satellite dependent, while the
receiver term is assumed to be constant for all satellites
for a given GNSS signal and constellation. However,as
will be explained later, this assumption of the receiver
originating term being totally independent of the
tracked satellite is not true in general, even for GNSS 346.50 345.50 344.75
PARVATHA
PRAVEEN
PERIYATHIRUMAL NISHANTHI 344.50
systems employing CDMA. ANBARASU

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KARAIKUDI. CONTACT 94864 31610, 8524970970, 99521 60010
www.pyramidiasacademy.blogspot.com, [email protected]
24