2.

(a) Differentiate between active and passive In summary, intrinsic semiconductors are pure, while
components with examples. extrinsic ones have controlled impurities that affect
their electronic properties.
Ans_-Active Components:
3. (a) Describe the common emitter configuration of a
These components require an external power source to BJT with its input and output characteristic.
function.
Ans_**Common Emitter Configuration of a BJT: Input
They can amplify, control, and generate signals. and Output Characteristics**
Examples include:
Transistors: Used for current amplification (e.g., BC547, The **common emitter configuration** is a
2N2222). fundamental setup for bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs). Here's a concise overview:
Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps): Used for signal
processing.
Integrated Circuits (ICs): Complex circuits with various 1. **Configuration Description**:
functions.
- In this setup, the **emitter terminal** of the
Passive Components: transistor is common between the input and output
circuits.
These components do not need an external power
source. - The base terminal serves as the input, and the
collector terminal provides the output.
They do not amplify signals.
Examples include:
2. **Input Characteristics**:
Resistors: Control current flow.
- The **input characteristics** show the relationship
Capacitors: Store and release energy. between the **base current** ($I_B$) and the **emitter-
base voltage** ($V_{EB}$) at a constant collector-
Inductors: Store energy in a magnetic field. emitter voltage ($V_{CE}$).
Transformers: Transfer energy between circuits1. - When $V_{BE} = 0$, $I_B = 0$ because both the
emitter-base and collector-base junctions are short-
In summary, active components actively manipulate circuited.
signals, while passive components primarily store, filter,
or control signal flow - As $V_{CE}$ increases, the base region narrows due
to the Early effect, reducing recombination current
(b) Describe intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor ($I_B$).
with the help of energy band and Fermi level.
Ans_Intrinsic Semiconductor:
3. **Output Characteristics**:
An intrinsic semiconductor is pure and contains no
impurities. - The **output characteristics** depict the variation
of **collector current** ($I_C$) with the **collector-
Its energy band structure consists of the valence band emitter voltage** ($V_{CE}$) at a constant base current
(VB) and the conduction band (CB). ($I_B$).
The Fermi level (E_F) lies in the middle of the energy - These characteristics reveal the transistor's
gap. behavior in different regions:
At absolute zero temperature, electrons occupy the VB, - **Active Region**: Linear amplification occurs.
and the CB is empty.
- **Cutoff Region**: No collector current flows.
When thermal energy is introduced, some electrons
move to the CB, creating electron-hole pairs. - **Saturation Region**: Maximum collector current
flows.
Examples: Pure silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge).
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
In summary, the common emitter configuration
Extrinsic semiconductors have controlled impurities provides high current and power gain, making it
(dopants) intentionally added. essential for amplification circuits¹
Two types: b) Explain V-I characteristic of a PN junction diode.
N-type: Dopants (e.g., phosphorus) introduce extra Ans_**V-I Characteristics of a PN Junction Diode**
electrons, shifting E_F closer to the CB.
P-type: Dopants (e.g., boron) create electron vacancies
(holes), shifting E_F closer to the VB. The **V-I (Volt-Ampere) characteristics** of a **PN
junction diode** describe the relationship between the
Doping alters the conductivity and carrier voltage applied across the diode and the resulting
concentration. current through it. Here's a concise overview:
The energy band diagram reflects these changes.
1. **Zero Bias (No External Voltage)**:
- When no external voltage is applied (zero bias), the 4. **Resistance-Temperature Relationship**:
potential barrier at the junction prevents current flow.
- **RTD**: Linear (resistance increases with
- At zero voltage ($V=0$), the circuit current is zero. temperature).
- This point is represented as **O** on the V-I curve. - **Thermistor**: Non-linear (resistance decreases as
temperature increases).

2. **Forward Bias**:
5. **Cost**:
- In forward bias, the p-type side connects to the
positive terminal, and the n-type side connects to the - **RTD**: More expensive.
negative terminal.
- **Thermistor**: Cost-effective.
- The potential barrier reduces, allowing current flow.
- At a forward voltage (around 0.7 V for silicon and
0.3 V for germanium), the barrier is almost eliminated, In summary, choose RTDs for precision and stability,
and current starts flowing. while thermistors are preferred for lower temperatures
and cost-effectiveness¹²³.
- The curve rises sharply in the forward direction.
(b) Discuss digital multimeter and digital energy meter
with the help of diagram.
3. **Reverse Bias**: Ans_**Digital Multimeter (DMM)** and **Digital Energy
Meter (DEM)** serve distinct purposes in electrical
- In reverse bias, the p-type connects to the negative measurements. Let's explore each with a brief
terminal, and the n-type connects to the positive overview and a simplified diagram:
terminal.
- The potential barrier increases significantly, limiting
current flow. 1. **Digital Multimeter (DMM)**:
- A small reverse saturation current ($I_S$) still flows - **Purpose**: DMMs are versatile instruments used
due to minority carriers. for measuring various electrical parameters, including
voltage, current, resistance, and continuity.
- The V-I curve remains nearly flat in the reverse
direction. - **Components**:
- **Display**: Shows measurement results (usually
an LCD screen).
- **Rotary Selector Switch**: Allows users to choose
4. (a) What is RTD? How is it differ from thermistor the desired measurement function (e.g., voltage,
current, resistance).
Ans_**RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) vs.
Thermistor: A Comparison** - **Input Jacks**: Connect test leads for
measurements.
- **Buttons**: For additional functions (e.g., hold,
1. **Definition**: range selection).
- **RTD**: An RTD is a temperature sensor made of - **Diagram**:
pure metal (usually platinum) with a linear relationship
between resistance and temperature. ```
- **Thermistor**: A thermistor consists of metal oxide +-----------------------+
mixtures (e.g., manganese, nickel, or copper) and has
an exponential resistance-temperature relationship. | |
| Display |
2. **Temperature Range**: | |
- **RTD**: Suitable for high-temperature applications; +-----------------------+
can measure up to 600°C.
| |
- **Thermistor**: Limited to temperatures below
130°C. | Rotary Selector |
| |
3. **Accuracy and Stability**: +-----------------------+
- **RTD**: Offers greater stability and accuracy. | |
- **Thermistor**: Sensitive to temperature changes | Input Jacks |
but less stable.
 | | 5.) What are universal gates? Realize the function, f =
AB + C using one of universal gate only.
+-----------------------+
Ans=**Universal gates** are fundamental in digital
| | circuits because they can perform any Boolean
function independently. They simplify circuit design by
| Buttons | allowing a single gate type to execute various logical
expressions. The two primary universal gates are
| | **NAND** and **NOR** gates¹².
+-----------------------+
``` 1. **NAND Gate as Universal**:
- A NAND gate combines an AND gate followed by a
NOT gate.
2. **Digital Energy Meter (DEM)**:
- Its truth table:
- **Purpose**: DEMs measure electrical energy
consumption (kWh) in residential, commercial, or | A | B | NAND |
industrial settings.
|---|---|------|
- **Components**:
|0|0|1 |
- **Current Sensor**: Measures current flowing
through the load. |0|1|1 |
- **Voltage Sensor**: Measures supply voltage. |1|0|1 |
- **Microcontroller/Processor**: Calculates energy |1|1|0 |
based on current and voltage.
- To realize **f = AB + C**, we use a NAND gate:
- **Display**: Shows energy consumption.
- Connect inputs A and B to the NAND gate.
- **Diagram**:
- Connect the output of the NAND gate to another
``` input (C).
+-----------------------+ - The final output is the result of this configuration.
| |
| Current Sensor | 2. **NOR Gate as Universal**:
| | - A NOR gate combines an OR gate followed by a NOT
gate.
+-----------------------+
- Its truth table:
| |
| A | B | NOR |
| Voltage Sensor |
|---|---|-----|
| |
|0|0|1 |
+-----------------------+
|0|1|0 |
| |
|1|0|0 |
| Microcontroller/ |
|1|1|0 |
| Processor |
- NOR gates can also realize **f = AB + C** similarly.
+-----------------------+
| |
In summary, both NAND and NOR gates serve as
| Display | universal building blocks for digital circuits, enabling
efficient and flexible design¹³.
| |
+-----------------------+
```

In summary, DMMs are general-purpose tools for

electrical measurements, while DEMs specifically track
energy usage. Both play crucial roles in maintaining
electrical systems and ensuring efficiency .
(b)Solve using K-map |---|----|----|----|----|
(1) f=£m(1, 3, 5, 7, 15) | 00| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 01| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
ii) f=2m(0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13) | 11| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 10| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
```
**Karnaugh Map (K-Map) Simplification**
The simplified expression: \(f = 1\)
Let's solve the given Boolean functions using Karnaugh
Maps:
Karnaugh Maps provide an efficient method for
Boolean function simplification, aiding in digital circuit
design¹².
1. **Function 1**: \(f = \sum(1, 3, 5, 7, 15)\)
- Construct a 4-variable Karnaugh Map (4x4 grid).
6. (a) What are need of modulation? Discuss in brief
- Fill in the cells corresponding to the given minterms about AM and FM.
(1, 3, 5, 7, 15) with 1.
Ans=**Modulation: The Art of Carrying Information**
- Group adjacent 1's to form simplified terms.
- The minimized expression is obtained by combining
these terms. Modulation is a fundamental technique in
communication systems. It involves modifying a carrier
signal to embed information (such as voice, data, or
video) for efficient transmission. Here's why
The Karnaugh Map for Function 1: modulation is essential:
```
| | 00 | 01 | 11 | 10 | 1. **Need for Modulation**:
|---|----|----|----|----| - **Bandwidth Utilization**: Modulation allows us to
use available bandwidth efficiently. Without modulation,
| 00| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | we'd need impractically wide frequency ranges for
communication.
| 01| 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
- **Noise Immunity**: Modulated signals are less
| 11| 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | susceptible to noise and interference. By shifting the
signal to higher frequencies, we reduce the impact of
| 10| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | noise.
``` - **Propagation**: Different modulation schemes suit
various propagation environments (e.g., ground-based
vs. satellite communication).
The simplified expression: \(f = \overline{A}B + AC + - **Multiplexing**: Modulation enables multiple
\overline{B}C\) signals to share the same channel (frequency division
multiplexing, time division multiplexing).

2. **Function 2**: \(f = \sum m(0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12,

13)\) 2. **AM (Amplitude Modulation)**:
- Construct a 4-variable Karnaugh Map (4x4 grid). - **Principle**: Varies the amplitude of the carrier
signal according to the input signal.
- Fill in the cells corresponding to the given maxterms
(0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13) with 0. - **Advantages**:
- Group adjacent 0's to form simplified terms. - Simple implementation.
- The minimized expression is obtained by combining - Used in AM radio broadcasting.
these terms.
- **Disadvantages**:
- Prone to noise and interference.
The Karnaugh Map for Function 2:
- Inefficient use of bandwidth.
```
- **Formula**: The modulated signal \(s(t)\) is given
| | 00 | 01 | 11 | 10 | by:
 $$ s(t) = (1 + m(t)) \cdot A_c \cdot \cos(2\pi f_c t) 4. **Communication Channel**:
$$
- The **channel** represents the medium through
where \(m(t)\) is the message signal, \(A_c\) is the which the signal travels (e.g., air, optical fiber, coaxial
carrier amplitude, and \(f_c\) is the carrier frequency. cable).
- The channel introduces noise and distortion,
affecting signal quality.
3. **FM (Frequency Modulation)**:
- **Principle**: Varies the frequency of the carrier
signal based on the input signal. 5. **Receiver**:
- **Advantages**: - The **receiver** captures the transmitted signal
from the channel.
- Better noise immunity.
- It demodulates the signal, extracting the original
- Efficient bandwidth utilization. information.
- Used in FM radio, radar, and mobile
communication.
6. **Destination**:
- **Disadvantages**:
- The **destination** receives the processed signal
- More complex circuitry. and interprets the information.
- Requires precise tuning. - It could be a display, speaker, or any device that
utilizes the transmitted data.
- **Formula**: The modulated signal \(s(t)\) is given
by:
$$ s(t) = A_c \cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_c t + k_f \int m(t) **Block Diagram**:
\, dt\right) $$
```
where \(k_f\) is the frequency deviation constant.
+-------------------+ +-------------------+
| Information | | Destination |
In summary, modulation enables reliable
communication by adapting signals to the channel | Source | | |
characteristics, ensuring efficient transmission, and
enhancing noise resilience . | (Message) | | |
(b)Explain the elements of communication system +-------------------+ +-------------------+
with help of proper diagram.
| |
Ans=Certainly! Let's delve into the essential elements
of a communication system and illustrate them with a v v
block diagram:
+-------------------+ +-------------------+
| Transducer | | Receiver |
1. **Information Source**:
| (Converts energy) | | (Demodulates) |
- The **message or information** originates from a
source. It can be in various forms such as audio, video, +-------------------+ +-------------------+
temperature readings, images, or pressure data.
| |
v v
2. **Transducer**:
+-------------------+ +-------------------+
- The **input transducer** converts the original form
of energy (e.g., sound waves, light, temperature) into an | Transmitter | | Communication |
electrical signal suitable for transmission.
| (Modulates signal)| | Channel |
- For instance, a microphone converts audio signals
into electrical ones, while a photodetector transforms +-------------------+ +-------------------+
light signals.
```

3. **Transmitter**:
In this diagram, the flow starts from the information
- The **transmitter** processes and modulates the source, passes through the transducer, transmitter,
electrical signal to prepare it for transmission. channel, and receiver, ultimately reaching the
destination. Each element plays a crucial role in
- It may include components like amplifiers and effective communication¹².
modulators.
7Certainly! Here are short notes on each topic:

**(a) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)**:

- A CRO is an instrument used to visualize and analyze
electrical waveforms.
- It displays signal intensity or voltage against time.
- Key components: electron gun, deflection plates, and
a fluorescent screen.
- Helps troubleshoot circuits and analyze various
waveforms¹².

**(b) Full Subtractor**:

- A combinational circuit that performs subtraction of
two bits.
- Inputs: minuend (A), subtrahend (B), and previous
borrow (Bin).
- Outputs: difference (D) and borrow-out (Bout).
- Constructed using two half-subtractors and an OR
gate.
- Used in binary subtraction operations⁵.

**(c) Speed and Position Sensor**:

- These sensors detect speed or position of moving
objects.
- Examples: encoders, Hall effect sensors, and optical
sensors.
- Used in robotics, automotive systems, and industrial
machinery.
- Provide feedback for control and monitoring³.

**(d) Half-Wave Rectifier**:

- Converts AC voltage to pulsating DC voltage.
- Utilizes a diode to allow only positive half-cycles of
the input AC.
- Output contains only positive voltage peaks.
- Simplest rectifier circuit, commonly used in power
supplies⁷.