WEEK 1

EXPERIMENT ONE

IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF THERMOMETERS

Aim: To identify different types of thermometers.

Materials: Different types of thermometers labeled A, B, C, etc.

Procedure: You are provided with different types of thermometer as samples.

1. Identify each of the samples.

2. State the thermometric substance of each of the samples.

3. State the physical property of each.

4. Give at least one limitation of each of the samples.

Exercise

1. Differentiate between heat and temperature.

2. Highlight different units of temperature

3. Convert 50 deg Celsius to; (i) Kelvin (ii) Degree Fahrenheit.

1
 WEEK 2

EXPERIMENT TWO

THE MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A UNIFORM ROD USING BIFILAR SUSPENSION

Aim: To determine the moment of inertia of a uniform rod using bifilar suspension.

Materials: Uniform brass rod, two threaded corks, two heavy stands with clamps, metre rule and
stop watch.

Diagram:

Procedure: Pass the rod through two loops made on the ends of the two lengths of cotton
passing through the corks. Firmly clamp the corks in two heavy stands. Arrange the threads at
some distance, d apart and adjust the lengths of the threads to some suitable length, x. Tie off the
loose ends of the threads on the clamp, and give the rod small angular displacement about a
vertical axis. Find the period, T by timing 20 vibrations. Repeat the process with the thread at
varying distance apart. Plot the graph of T against 1/d from which the average value of Td can
be obtained. Measure x and the mass, M of the rod by weighing.

Theory: The motion is simple harmonic.

4 Ix 1/2
So, T =2 π ( 2
) ……………………………….(2.1)
Mg d

I = (Mgd2T2)/(16 π 2x) …………………………..(2.2)

d(m) Time of 20 Vibrations (s) T (s)

2
From the graph, Td = AB/OB…………………………………..(2.3)

Therefore, I = (Mg/16 π 2x)(Td)2 = (Mg/16 π 2x)(AB/OB)2 = ………………

Exercise

(i) State two factors on which the moment of inertia of a body depends
(ii) What are the precautions taken while carrying out the experiment?

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 WEEK 3

EXPERIMENT THREE

CONSTRUCTION AND CALIBRATION OF MERCURY IN GLASS THERMOMETER

Aim: To construct and calibrate mercury in glass thermometer

Materials: Capillary tube, some quantity of mercury, oxyacetylene flame and protective hand
glove.

Diagram:

Method:

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A. CONSTRUCTION: You are provided with a glass tube having narrow bore. Heat one
end of the capillary tube until it softens and seals up. Fill the tube with some mercury by
embedding its open end in a dish of mercury. Heat the tube to expel the trapped air. Then
allow the tube to cool down so as to suck the some mercury. Using protective hand glove,
cover the open end with a finger and remove it from the dish of mercury. Now heat the
open end until it softens and seals.
B. CALIBRATION: Pass the constructed thermometer and hang it in a steam inside a
double-walled copper vessel called hypsometer. Place the thermometer in such a way that
its mercury thread is just visible above the cork. Attach a manometer to the hypsometer to
ensure that the pressure within it is 760 mmHg. When the thermometer remains in the
steam for some times and the mercury thread has remained steady, mark its level by light
scratch on the glass and remove it from the hypsometer. By so doing, the upper fixed
point would have been obtained.
Now place the thermometer with its bulb in funnel containing mixture of pure ice and
water. When the mercury thread has remained steady for some minutes, its level is
marked on the glass. It is then removed from the mixture. It can now be graduated and is
ready for use.
Exercise
1. State two reasons why mercury is preferred as thermometric liquid over alcohol.
2. Highlight two factors that affect the sensitivity of liquid-in-glass thermometer.

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 WEEK 4

EXPERIMENT FOUR

DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF GYRATION OF A WHEEL AND AXLE ROLLING

DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE

Aim: To determine the radius of gyration of a wheel and axle rolling down an inclined plane

Materials: Long, narrow, open wooden box, wheel and axle, wooden wedge, screw gauges,
stop watch and metre-rule.

Diagram

Method

The wedge is placed under one end of the box and the sine of angle of inclination measured from
the length PR and PQ. The wheel is held at rest with the axle on the marked position, A, and the
time taken for it to reach the point marked B, a measured distance s down the plane is obtained,
Repeat the experiment with different angles of inclination 𝛉 of the box. Obtain the diameter of
the axle. From the radius of the axle and slope of the graph, the radius of gyration k of the wheel
and axle can be obtained.

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THEORY

Let radius of the axle be r, the mass of the wheel be M and the moment of inertia be I, Then on
rolling from A to B, a distance s down the slope inclined at an angle 𝛉 to the horizontal. The
potential energy lost given by mgs sin𝛉. If the linear velocity of the wheel from A to B is v
and its angular velocity is ω, the kinetic energy gained = (1/2)mv 2 + (1/2)Iω2.

Therefore, Mgs sin𝛉 = v2/2 (M + I/r2)

Since v2 = 2as, and I = Mk2, we have

Mgs sin𝛉 = (2as/2)(1 + k2/r2)

a = g /(1 + k2/r2)

Acceleration, a is given by 2s/t2.

By plotting a against sin𝛉, a straight line graph is obtained whose slope is given by

S = g sin𝛉/(1 + k2/r2) from which k can be obtained.

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 WEEK 5

DETERMINATION OF THE SURFACE TENSION OF A LIQUID BY THE DROP

WEIGHT METHOD

Aim: To determine the surface tension of a liquid by the drop weight method

Diagram

APPARATUS

Funnel or burette to which is attached by means by rubber taking a short glass tube of diameter
4to5mm,The dropping end of this tube is coated with paraffin wax. Screw clip, beaker, traveling
microscope.

PROCEDURE

The liquid whose surface tension is required in the funnel, and the rate at which drops form at the
end of the tube is regulated by the screw clip. The drops should be allowed to form slowly, and
should break away at the rate of about one per minute (for more accurate work the rate should be
even slower –about one drop in every four minutes).A counted number of drops are collected in
a beaker of known mass, and the average mass of a drop found. The mean radius of the orifice is
determined by the traveling microscope.

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RESUITS Mass of beaker =……….
Mass of beaker plus collected liquid =……….
Number of drops =……….
⸫Average mass of drop =……….
Mean radius of orifice
=………. G = 9.81N/kg

⸫ℽ =………N/m at……⸰ C

THEORY

Assuming that the drop has the cylindrical form indicated when it is about to break away from
the tube, then if r is the radius f the orifice,the excess pressure inside the drop at this section is
(ℽ/r)πr2 = ℽπr

If m is the mass of the drop, the total downward forces are πr + mg

These forces are balanced by the upward forces of surface tension mind the circle of contact.
This force is 2ℽπr

Hence 2ℽπr = ℽπr + mg

⸫ r = mg/πr

This expression is deduced on the assumption that the drops break away under ideal statical
conditions. The problem, however, is complicated by dynamical considerations. Taking these
into account, Rayleigh has shown that a closer approximation is given by the formula.

r = mg/3g

NOTES 1.From the complicated nature of the dynamical problem, it has not been found possible
to obtain an exact general formula for this method, and although certain excellent empirical
formulae have been produced for specific instances derivations of the surface tension by this
method is not considered very reliable. However, the method has its use for quick approximate
determination and may also be used for rapidly comparing the surface tension of two liquids. M1
and M2 are the average masses of the drops of the two liquids issuing from the same office.

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 WEEK 6

EXPERIMENT 6

CONSTRUCTION AND CALIBRATION OF A THERMOCOUPLE

AIM: To construct a thermocouple for temperature measurement

APPARATUS

Given lengths of constantan and copper wires, cutter, blade, millivoltmeter, welding device,
mercury-in-glass thermometer and heater

DIAGRAM

METHOD

Cut about 40 cm long each from the wires provided. Join/weld the ends of the wires together as
shown in the diagram above. Connect a milli-voltmeter at the reference junction. Insert the hot
junction into a beaker of water on a heater such that the hot junction just touches the water. Insert
a mercury in glass thermometer to monitor the temperature(T) of the water. At different regular
temperature interval, record the e.m.f (E) of the thermocouple as indicated by the meter.

Plot the graph of the temperature(T) against the e.m.f. Then from your graph, find the
temperature of the water in the beaker when the e.m.f. is 1.3 mV.

Exercise

List the constituent meatals of the following thermocouples; (i) Type-J thermocouple (ii) Type-
K thermocouple and (iii) type – T thermocouple.

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 WEEK 7

EXPERIMENT 7

IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF INTEGRATED LOGIC CIRCUITS

AIM: To identify and classify of various Integrated Logic Circuits

APPARATUS/MATERIALS: Logic Gates (ICs) and Data Book

Identification Name Logic function Symbol

Numbers
7408
7409
7432
7400
7401
7403
7410
7412
7420
7430
7402
7432
7425
7427
7404
7405
7406
7407

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 WEEK 8

EXPERIMENT 8

OR GATE

Aim: To verify that proper operation of an integrated circuit (IC) OR gate

The purpose of this experiment is to introduce the intergrated logic circuit. The IC OR gate has
two or more input signals but creates only one output signal. If any input is high, the output
signal is high

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Power supply: +5V, Digital multimeter, IC 7432, logic board if available; otherwise, three SPDT
switches.

PROCEDURE:

Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 3.1 above. Set the switches as required. Measure the output
voltage for each input combination of Table 3. Record the result as 0s and 1s.

Table: Two – Input OR Gate

Inputs OUTPUT, Y
A B
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Exercise

Implement OR gate using; (i) switches and (ii) diodes

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 WEEK 9

EXPERIMENT 9

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF SOLID BY MIXTURE

METHOD

Aim: To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid by mixture method

Apparatus

Beaker, solid, thread, tripod stand, gauze, Bunsen burner, beam balance, stop watch\ clock,
copper calorimeter in insulating jacket, stirrer

Diagram

METHOD

Weigh the solid on a beam balance and record its mass M. Fill the beaker with some water, place
the suspended solid inside it and heat the water to boil and leave the solid to heat for about five
minutes. Meanwhile, weigh the calorimeter together with the stirrer and record the mass Mc.
Half fill it with water and reweigh it to obtain the mass M1. Return the calorimeter to the outer
jacket and record the initial temperature 𝛉1 of the water. Measure the temperature of the boiling
water and record as 𝛉2, and quickly transfer the solid to the water in the calorimeter. Stir the
water continuously but gently and read the highest temperature as 𝛉3.

RESULT

Mass of solid Ms= …………….g

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Mass of calorimeter & stirrer Mc=……………g

Mass of calorimeter + water M1=…………….g

Initial temperature of water 𝛉1=………………⸰C

Finial temperature of water (i. e temp. of solid) is 𝛉2=………………⸰C

Finial temperature of mixture 𝛉3=……………..⸰C

Specific heat capacity (S. H. C.) of solid Cs=………………JKg-1K-1

S. H. C. of calorimeter Cc=………………jKg-1K-1

S. H. C. of water Cw= 4200JKg-1K-1

Neglecting any heat losses to the surroundings

Heat lost by solid = Heat gained by water + Heat gained by calorimeter & stirrer.

MsCs(𝛉2-𝛉3)= (M1-Mc) Cw(𝛉3-𝛉1) + Mc(𝛉3-𝛉1)

From the above formula, the specific heat capacity of the solid can be calculated.

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 WEEK 10

DETERMINATION OF SURFACE TENSION OF WATER BY RISE IN

A CAPILLARY TUBE

AIM: To determine the surface tension of a liquid by rise in capillary tube.

APPARATUS: Set of glass capillary tubes, traveling microscope, beaker, nitric acid, caustic
soda solution, distilled water, stand with clamp.

DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:

The capillary tubes and beaker are first thoroughly cleaned of dirt and grease by washing
successively in caustic soda and nitric acid and finally rinsing thoroughly in distilled water. After
cleaning, the inside of the beaker ,and those parts of the capillary tubes to be immersed in the
water, must not be touched by hand, to avoid further contamination by grease. The beaker is now
filled to over-flowing with distilled water (to facilitate reading of the rise by the traveling
microscope)and , one of the capillary tubes is thrust well down in the water to wet freely the
inside of the tube. It is then raised slightly and clamped in a vertical position when the rise (h) is
measured by the traveling microscope, by first focusing on the water level in the beaker and then
on the lower portion of the meniscus. The tube is now removed from the water and clamped in a
horizontal position. Two readings of the diameter in the directions mutually at right angles are
taken by the microscope, from which the mean radius of the tube is found. The experiment is

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repeated, using capillary tubes of different diameters, and an average value of ℽ is obtained, the
temperature of the water is noted.

THEORY:

The weight of the column of liquid (of density p) below the meniscus is supported by the
upward forces of surface acting round the circumference of the circle of contact;

i .e 2π r ℽ =π r2 h pg

ℽ =1/2 g p h r

With very fine capillary tubes , the meniscus surface may be considered to be hemispherical, and the
weight of liquid above the lowest point of the meniscus is:

(πr3 _2/3πr3) p g =1/3πr3 p g

Hence a more accurate equation for ℽ is

2πrℽ =πr2 h p g +1/3 πr3 p g

ℽ = 1/2 g p r(h + r/3)```````````````````````````

RESUIT: (in SI units)

r, h in m

p in kgm-3

R(m) h (m) ℽ (N/m)

g = 9.81 ms-2

gives ℽ in Nm-1

NOTE:

1. The above formulae only apply to liquid which wet the glass, such as water, aqueous
solutions, alcohol, e t c . For other liquids such as turpentine, paraffin e t c. which have an

16
 angle of contact (𝛉)with the glass, only the resolved part 2π I cos 𝛉 of the surface tension
forces act upward and expression is modified to
ℽ =gphr/2cos𝛉
2. If the capillary tube is not uniform it should be broken at the meniscus level and the mean
radius of the section determined as before.
3. The radius of a uniform capillary may also be determined by drawing in a length (I1) of
clean dry mercury. The length I1 is measured as indicated by means of a traveling
microscope. Some mercury (about half the amount, say) is allowed to run out on a
weighed watch-glass and the mass of the mercury (m) is found. The length (I2) of the
remaining mercury is measured. Then the mass m is clearly equal to the weight of a true
cylinder of mercury of length (I1-I2) free from end errors.
i.e. m = π r2 (I1-I2) ⸼ 13.6, from which r can be found (in cm if I 13.6, from which r can be
found (in cm if I1-I2 in cm density of mercury taken as 13.6 gcm-3)

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 WEEK 11

EXPERIMENT 11

DETERMINATION OF THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

USING SPIRAL SPRING

AIM: To determine acceleration due gravity using spiral spring

APPARATUS:

Spiral spring to which a light pointer is attached by plasticine at its lower end, rigid stand and clamp,
meter rule, scale-pan and weights, stop watch.

PROCEDURE:

1. To verify Hooke, s law and to find the extension per g of added load.
The spring, with scale-pan attached, is firmly clamped and the metre scale placed vertically so
that the pointer moves lightly over it. Loads are added to the scale-pan readings and the
corresponding extension of the spring are noted. The scale-pan readings are also taken when
unloading the spring , and the mean extension thus obtained. A graph of extension against load is
plotted from which the extension (n) per unit load.
2. To determine the acceleration due to gravity and the effective mass (m) of the spring.
A load is added to the pan which is set in vertical vibration by giving it a small additional
displacement. The periodic time (T) IS obtained by timing 20 vibrations. This is repeated with
different loads and a graph of T2 against load is plotted, from which g and m are found.

NOTE: The mass of the scale-pan should be included in the load in this experiment.

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RESULTS:

(1)

Mass of Load M/kg Extension/m Mass extension/m

Load lncreasing Load decreasing

(2)

M/kg Times for 20 vibrations T/s T2/s2

From expt. 1,

n = BC/AC=……mkg-1

THEORY

Ext/m

C
O mass of load/kg

A spiral spring subject to extension by an applied load conforms to hooke, s law, which states that the
stress is proportional to the stain i. e the load is proportional to the extension produces. If a graph is
drawn, after the initial londing. Where some force is required to separate the turns of the spring which are
pressed against each other, a straight line is obtained of extension against load from this portion, the
extension (n) in cm per gramme of lead can be obtained from the gradient.

n= BC/AC

If, now, a mass M is attached to the spring be extended a further distance x, a restoring force of x/n g is
called into play. The spring on being released executes vertical oscillations, the equation of motion of the
mass being.

Mx=-x/n g or x + g/Mn x=0

The motion is thus simple harmonic and the periodic time T is

T =2π √(Mn/g)

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 T2 B

D C

O M

The above analysis assumes the K spring to be weightless, The load M must be increased by an amount
m equal to the effective mass of the spring.

Then T =2πr √((M + m)n/g)

If a graph of T2 against M is drawn, a straight line is obtained from which g can be found. The gradient of
this line T2/M = 4πn/g = BC/AC i. e = 4π2nAc/BC

The intercept OD on the axis of M gives the effective mass(m) of the spring.

Then T = √(((M + m)n)/g)

If a graph of T2 against M is drawn, a straight line is obtained from which g can be found. The gradient of
this line is given by T2/M = 4π2n/g = BC/AC.

Therefore g = 4π2nAC/BC. The intercept OD on the M axis gives the effective mass, m of the spring.

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 WEEK 12

EXPERIMENT 12

BASIC LOGIC GATE – THE NAND – GATE

AIM: To learn how to use NAND gates to implement an OR, AND and NOT operations.

THEORY:

AII logical expressions can be implemented using AND, OR and NOT gates.

However it is possible to implement any given logical expression by using only NAND gates.
This is because NAND gates can be used to implement OR, AND and NOT operations when
properly connected.

APPARATUS:

1. Logic Tutor CK 353

2. Two -7400 NAND modules
3. One -7404 NOT modules
4. 6 connecting wires
PROCEDURES:
1. Insert the NAND and NOT modules side by and then connect up the following circuits
shown in the figure below

S1 7204 S2 L2
L1

Fig. 6.1 Fig .6

Complete the following Truth Tables

S1 L1 S2 L2
0 0
1 1

Does this verify the fact that you can make an inverter from a NAND gate?

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 2. Disconnect all connections in procedure 1 and connect up the circuit as shown below.

7400(1)

S1 d L
d
S2

Fig. 6.3

Complete the following Truth Table

S1 S2
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Set up the Truth Table for Z=AB

Do these tables verify that NAND gate can be used to generate and AND operation?

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 WEEK 13

EXPERIMENT 13

DETERMINATION OF THE YOUING’S MODULUS FOR A BEAM (METRE RULE)

USING THE PRINCIPLE OF CANTILEVER.

Aim: To determine the Young’s modulus for a beam using Cantilever principle.

Materials: Two metrerules, cellotape, G-clamp, mass M (100 g)

Diagram:

Procedure

Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram above. Clamp the metre rule to the edge of a
bench with a measured length, L projecting. Place a vertical metre rule at the free end and note
the reading do. Attach the mass, M from the free end on the vertical scale. Deduce the expression
∆d of the loaded metre rule. While keeping the mass M attached to the free end fixed, alter the
length of the clamped metre rule in regular intervals and obtain four more values of ∆d.
Calculate the values of L3 for each set of the values.

Record your readings and the calculated values in one composite table. Measure the width, w,
and thickness, t of the clamped metre rule

THEORY

It can be shown that the full relationship between the sag, ∆d

∆d = 4MgL3/Ewt3 where E is the Young Modulus for the metre rule and L, w, t are the length,
width and thickness respectively

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RESULT

Tabulate your result as shown in the table below and note that ∆d = d - do

d (m) ∆d (m) L (m) L3 (m3)

Plot the graph of ∆d against L3 and determine the slope of the graph.

State two precautions taken to obtain accurate readings

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 WEEK 14

EXPERIMENT 14

USING NAND GATE TO PRODUCE OR

AIM: To produce OR gate using NAND gates

APPARATUS:

1. Intikit Logic Tutor CK 353

2. Two -7400 NAND modules
3. One – 7404 NOT modules
4. 6 connecting wires

PROCEDURE: Connect the circuit as shown below.

S1 7400(1)

7400(3) L

S2 7400(2)

Table 14

S1 S2 L
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Does the Table verify that a NAND gate can be used to generate an OR operation?

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 WEEK 15
AND USING NOR
AIM: To show that an AND gate can be constructed using three NOR gates interchanged
APPARATUS: 3 Switches, Module 7402
DIAGRAM:
S1

P1

S2
P2

PROCEDURE:
Connect the circuit as shown above using the required module. Fill up the Truth Table from the
response from your circuit
Determined the output function as a Boolean expression.

S1 S2 P1 P2 L
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 1

Write the Boolean function for the output.

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