sensors

Review
Unleashing the Power of IoT: A Comprehensive Review of IoT
Applications and Future Prospects in Healthcare, Agriculture,
Smart Homes, Smart Cities, and Industry 4.0
Robin Chataut 1, *,† , Alex Phoummalayvane 2,† and Robert Akl 3,†

1 School of Computing and Engineering, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, CT 06518, USA

2 Computer Science Department, Fitchburg State University, Fitchburg, MA 01420, USA;
[email protected]
3 Department of Computer Science, University of North University, Denton, TX 76203, USA;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: The Internet of Things (IoT) technology and devices represent an exciting field in computer
science that is rapidly emerging worldwide. The demand for automation and efficiency has also been
a contributing factor to the advancements in this technology. The proliferation of IoT devices coincides
with advancements in wireless networking technologies, driven by the enhanced connectivity of the
internet. Today, nearly any everyday object can be connected to the network, reflecting the growing
demand for automation and efficiency. This paper reviews the emergence of IoT devices, analyzed
their common applications, and explored the future prospects in this promising field of computer
science. The examined applications encompass healthcare, agriculture, and smart cities. Although IoT
technology exhibits similar deployment trends, this paper will explore different fields to discern the
subtle nuances that exist among them. To comprehend the future of IoT, it is essential to comprehend
the driving forces behind its advancements in various industries. By gaining a better understanding
of the emergence of IoT devices, readers will develop insights into the factors that have propelled
Citation: Chataut, R.; their growth and the conditions that led to technological advancements. Given the rapid pace at
Phoummalayvane, A.; Akl, R. which IoT technology is advancing, this paper provides researchers with a deeper understanding of
Unleashing the Power of IoT: A the factors that have brought us to this point and the ongoing efforts that are actively shaping the
Comprehensive Review of IoT
future of IoT. By offering a comprehensive analysis of the current landscape and potential future
Applications and Future Prospects in
developments, this paper serves as a valuable resource to researchers seeking to contribute to and
Healthcare, Agriculture, Smart
navigate the ever-evolving IoT ecosystem.
Homes, Smart Cities, and Industry
4.0. Sensors 2023, 23, 7194.
Keywords: IoT; smart cities; internet-of-medical-things; sensors; security; Industry 4.0
https://doi.org/10.3390/s23167194

Academic Editor: Maurizio Mongelli

Received: 30 May 2023

Revised: 2 July 2023 1. Introduction
Accepted: 4 July 2023 The Internet of Things technology revolves around the core concept of integrating sen-
Published: 16 August 2023 sors into everyday objects and using connectivity to facilitate the exchange of information
that is used in a variety of applications [1]. There are more everyday objects available than
people, so the amount of connectivity that IoT devices hold is enormous [2]. In order to
better understand the future of IoT technology, it is important to understand the unique
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
circumstances that brought IoT to this point. A key distinction to make between the in-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
ternet and the IoT is that the internet is a mesh of networks, whereas the IoT network is
This article is an open access article
an interconnected network of devices [3,4]. An early example of the first IoT device was
distributed under the terms and
John Romkey’s creation, which enabled a toaster to be turned on or off over the internet
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
in 1990 [5]. It is clear that Internet of Things devices have come a long way from their
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
humble beginnings, and there are many factors that influenced this rise. These devices
4.0/).
play an important role in people’s daily lives and involve the handling of massive amounts

Sensors 2023, 23, 7194. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23167194 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 2 of 19

of data [6]. IoT devices can be seen as a network of interconnected devices that involves
sending and actuating devices that provide the ability to share information across different
platforms [7–21].
The rapid rise in technology and computer system capabilities has had a major impact
on the proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) technology. The impact of IoT systems will
impact many different fields and will change the way society operates and moves toward
the future, as shown in Figure 1. This paper discusses the use of IoT in four domains. As
IoT devices become increasingly integrated into society, there are still numerous security
challenges that pose a threat to their spread. Numerous technologies are being developed
in order to help protect the safe use of IoT devices, and it is clear that advances in security
will be critical moving forward into the future [22–27].

Figure 1. IoT technology and diverse application domains.

Numerous research works have been conducted to address various aspects of the
Internet of Things (IoT), encompassing energy harvesting, device-to-device communication,
energy efficiency, resource allocation, edge computing, security, privacy, and applications
across different domains. Scholars have explored stochastic geometry analysis to optimize
energy harvesting, proposed energy-efficient systems, investigated untapped potential in
spectrum utilization, developed reinforcement learning-based frameworks, and explored
the integration of edge computing and artificial intelligence [28–42]. Additionally, studies
have focused on addressing security concerns in these areas, including privacy-preserving
data sharing, explainable AI, and motion tracking. Collectively, these research efforts
contribute to a comprehensive understanding of IoT technologies and their applications in
diverse fields [43–51].
Many different strategies are being utilized by computing professionals in order to
advance the field of research in IoT technology [52–56]. In particular, machine learning and
artificial intelligence have played key roles in advancing this emerging field of computer
science and will continue to do so in new and exciting ways [57]. It is critical for computer
scientists to understand common machine learning and AI algorithms that are being
used, as well as consider what research is currently being conducted to advance IoT
technologies [58–73].
The methodology followed for conducting the review involves a systematic literature
search, a study selection based on predefined criteria, data studies, a critical evaluation
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 3 of 19

of the selected studies, and a comprehensive discussion of the findings. This review aims
to provide an overview of IoT applications and future directions in the selected domains,
ensuring the inclusion of relevant research and a rigorous evaluation process.

2. Applications of IoT Devices

Since Internet of Things technology can be understood as devices/objects that are
connected to a network, the applications of IoT devices are endless [74–80]. Leaders of
different companies/organizations are recognizing the potential of IoT technology to make
an impact and are investing more in these key pieces of technology in order to reap the
benefits [81]. Nearly any object can be outfitted with the appropriate technology that will be
involved in the data transmission from IoT devices and their connected networks. Writing
about the different applications would be a long and arduous process and it would be more
beneficial to first understand the most common applications of IoT devices before exploring
what the future holds. Figures 2 and 3 shows growth in IoT globally. The connectivity in
different medical IoT devices is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 2. The number of IoT devices is greater than the number of people [82].

Figure 3. Number of IoT devices globally [83].

Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 4 of 19

Figure 4. Connectivity in different medical IoT devices.

2.1. Healthcare Applications

The Internet of Medical Things (IoTM) is an emerging subfield that is changing the
way healthcare is being delivered through the use of IoT technology (Joyia). The use of
IoT technology in healthcare has come a long way and continues to be a promising area
for growth. Essential innovations, such as the AliveCor heart monitor, which relies on IoT
sensors, show how useful technology can be when applied to healthcare in efforts to save
lives [84]. Advances in technology have consistently played a major role in the healthcare
industry, and IoT devices have found numerous applications in healthcare settings. One
way that IoT devices are useful in healthcare is through the use of remote health monitoring
in order to monitor patients at home rather than in hospitals [85]. The information that is
collected from IoT devices is helpful in medical settings because it can be analyzed and used
in ways such as early disease prediction [86]. IoT sensors even played a critical role during
the COVID-19 pandemic in helping healthcare workers better monitor critical parameters
that could save lives if changes were detected right away [87]. By examining these different
IoT device applications in the healthcare industry, researchers can find additional ways to
advance this field of research.
The use of sensors is critical in the delivery of healthcare services [88]. Sensors in
medical devices act as a bridge between the physical and information worlds by collecting
a variety of data. Sensors are crucial in helping healthcare professionals monitor different
vitals that are important to measure in order to understand a person’s health situation
and act accordingly. Medical sensors can be used in a variety of ways in order to measure
crucial information. Medical sensors are connected to IoT, and measure things such as
temperature, respiration, heart rate, weight, skin conductance, galvanic response, blood
flow/SpO2, glucose testing, muscle contraction, and motion analysis [89]. The medical
sensors are connected to wireless sensor networks, which relay useful information to
different stakeholders involved in healthcare, such as patients, medical staff, insurers, and
more [90]. The use of medical sensors is vast and can be used in crucial medical equipment,
such as ECG monitors, glucose level sensing, and oxygen monitoring [91]. The goal of
using any technology involved in healthcare is to promote better health outcomes, and IoT
devices play a critical role in promoting this. Recent advances in IoT-related technology
will continue to play a large role in creating stronger healthcare systems, and the future of
healthcare will become increasingly reliant on technology [92].
Medical sensors are important in collecting useful information about a patient’s health;
however, this information is often very sensitive in nature, and this makes privacy a ma-
jor concern moving forward. Security has always played a vital role in IoT technology;
however, it matters even more in a situation such as healthcare, where IoT devices will be
collecting sensitive information about patients that is private in nature [93]. If a patient’s
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 5 of 19

medical information was compromised, this could lead to consequences for hospital orga-
nizations that did not employ the proper security measures to prevent it. The privacy and
confidentiality of a patient’s medical information are core concerns when addressing the
security vulnerabilities of healthcare IoT devices [94].
There are many issues that present challenges to the successful use of IoT devices in
healthcare and it is important to address these issues thoroughly when handling mission-
critical operations, such as that of healthcare. Some important limitations that influence the
use of IoT technology in medical devices include the need for high power consumption,
the availability of limited resources, and handling security issues from the large number of
devices being used [95].
The use of IoT technology in healthcare is promising and exciting. There are many
useful applications where IoT devices can be used as sensors, and this helps healthcare
providers in a variety of ways. Moving forward, IoT technology will continue to expand,
and this will ultimately benefit healthcare organizations.

2.2. Agriculture Applications

As the population of the world grows at an exponential rate, the need for efficient
food delivery systems is becoming a core issue that is a driver behind the advancements in
smart agriculture [96]. In addition to the growing demand, factors such as climate change
and water scarcity have also played roles in the increasing demand for more efficient
agriculture systems [97]. Much of the technology around IoT implementation aims to
reduce agricultural resource waste [98] as shown on Figure 5. The use of IoT technology in
agricultural settings is critical to maintaining efficient operations and represents another
common use case of IoT technology. Food supply chains that deliver quality and quantity
are important to feed the world, and having efficient systems built around these supply
chains will benefit people all over the world [99]. The need for more efficient food-delivery
systems has helped to promote IoT use in agriculture because stakeholders saw the benefits
that technology could provide [100].

Figure 5. Different types of agriculture applications for IoT.

Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 6 of 19

One way that IoT technology can be used in agriculture is automation. Automation
involves having devices/objects respond automatically to different conditions without the
need for human interaction. Wireless sensor networks are key proponents in helping IoT
devices achieve their automation goals [101]. This can be useful in massive operations,
such as agriculture, because of its sheer scale and need for efficient processes to maximize
crop yields. For example, many sensors can be used in the soil of farmland in order to
measure soil moisture content, in order to build systems that make better use of water for
irrigation purposes [102]. These IoT devices can be used to measure soil conditions, such
as water content, give appropriate signals when it is low, and turn on sprinkler systems
automatically. Real-time monitoring and responses are very common and useful when
understanding how IoT devices contribute to agriculture [103].
Data analytics is another area where IoT plays an important role in agriculture. Col-
lecting and analyzing data are very useful because they can give important insight into
how effective or ineffective an operation is. These data can be used to provide stakeholders
with important insight that will ultimately impact their decision-making [104]. IoT devices
collect massive amounts of data, and these data are useful when analyzed over time to
help aid in decisions about estimation and forecasting [105]. The gathered data can be
analyzed using machine learning methods that impact prediction, storage management,
decision-making, farm management, and precision farming [96]. These data can become
useful when attempting to implement more sustainable farming methods through the use
of data-driven decision-making [104].
Although there is a large demand for efficient agriculture, there are other factors in
play that have affected the proliferation of IoT devices in this sector. One key component
that affects how widespread IoT devices are in agricultural applications is how costly it
is to implement them in farming operations around the world [106]. Massive farming
operations would require a large number of wireless sensors to collect data about a farming
operation, and this can drastically increase the costs associated with implementing IoT in
agriculture [107]. There are also many technical challenges that exist with implementing
IoT technology in farms. Farms are often in large areas that are isolated and usually have
poorer signals that impact their networking capabilities [108]. In addition to this, many
farmers in rural parts of the world have limited knowledge of how to use IoT devices [109].

2.3. Smart Home Applications

Smart home applications represent promising use cases in which people benefit from
IoT technology and there are numerous advantages/disadvantages to consider. Smart home
devices date back to the 1970s when the X10 protocol was first conceived; this technology
allowed for smart home devices to communicate properly [110]. IoT devices in smart
homes can be used in a variety of ways, such as measuring home conditions, managing
home appliances, and controlling home access [111]. Home automation remains a core
feature around which IoT technology is applied [112]. For example, there are numerous
home appliances that can be turned on and equipped with IoT technology in order to
become more efficient and convenient [113]. There are many benefits that extend beyond
convenience. The use of IoT sensors in smart homes can be used to assist the elderly in
turning hard-to-reach devices on/off and even detect falls through the use of floor or
camera sensors [114]. The market is being driven by the rising popularity of smart devices,
such as speakers offered by Amazon and Google. According to a recently released report
by Strategy Analytics, the global smart home market has had a positive outcome in recent
years [115]. The report further estimates a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 10%
from 2018 to 2023, leading to a market value of USD 155 billion, as shown in Figure 6.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 7 of 19

Figure 6. Households with smart systems: global total [115].

There are many techniques utilized in order to bring smart home technology to life.
One important method relies on radio frequency identification (RFID) systems in order to
act as enabler technologies for IoT [116]. RFID is an important technology that helps in
identifying objects, recording data, and even controlling individual targets through the use
of radio waves [117]. RFID devices can be used in a variety of ways. For example, higher
education institutions can utilize RFID technology in student identification cards [118].
RFID technology is also used to detect the indoor roaming activity of elderly individuals
and the data collected are used to provide more insight into the health of elderly individuals
who live alone [119].
In an ideal future, IoT devices would be able to seamlessly communicate together [7].
There are many challenges that exist in the use of smart home IoT technology. Interoperabil-
ity is one issue because the cost of using smart home technology is important to consider,
and the integration of devices is a concern moving forward [120]. Different technologies
utilized by IoT devices in order to create this connectivity include Wi-Fi, ZigBee, Z-Wave,
Bluetooth LE, and Thread [121].
Security and privacy are also important to consider because smart grid technology
can be a target for cyber attacks [120]. There are so many IoT objects that can be used in
homes, and the dynamic and heterogeneous nature of smart home environments presents
a challenge when it comes to addressing authentication and privacy issues [52]. Cyber
attackers could target items such as smart home routers, gateways, or any other IoT-
enabled devices to access data [122]. Many strategies are currently being analyzed in order
to address smart home security needs. Blockchain is becoming increasingly utilized because
of its benefits of having a decentralized database based on cryptographic techniques [55]).
Although blockchain approaches have benefited from decentralized security/privacy, there
are drawbacks when it comes to the energy and computational overhead that make it not
ideal for IoT devices that are resource-constrained [123].

2.4. Smart Cities

Internet of Things devices have many useful applications when it comes to smart cities.
A smart city can be understood as a city that is equipped with technology, such as wireless
sensor networks and actuators that collect data; it is used to make important decisions in
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 8 of 19

city operations [124]. These systems are inherently complex due to the large number of
devices, link layer technologies, and the different services involved in the operation of smart
city technology [125]. The smart city concept consists of sensing networks, heterogeneous
infrastructure, and information processing systems working together in order to improve
a variety of areas within cities [126]. The use of IoT technology to enable smart cities is
useful due to the quality of life it provides for the citizens within those cities [127]. The
goal of smart cities is to use all of the information that is collected from IoT devices in
order to improve the performances of urban services to citizens and also consider resource
consumption at the same time [128].
Traffic monitoring is a very important application within the realm of smart cities. It is
very common for metropolitan areas to be highly populated, and this causes congestion
problems within these cities. Smart cities make use of information communication technolo-
gies in order to use the information to make decisions on how to dynamically handle traffic
flow [129]. A smart traffic system (STS) involves real-time data collection and requires
IoT devices to quickly obtain real-time public traffic data and have it processed [130]. The
sensors used in smart traffic management systems can be embedded into roads in order
to detect vehicles every 500 or 1000 meters [131]. Cameras are able to apply digital image
processing techniques and, consequently, apply algorithms to aid in the prediction of traffic
density; this information is then used accordingly [132]. Aside from helping traffic flow,
smart traffic management systems also help with improving air quality and providing
safety for the elderly [133].
Research indicates that the amount of solid waste will reach around 3.4 billion tons
by the year 2050, and that will put a tremendous strain on municipal waste management
systems [134]. Smart waste management is another growing application of IoT technology
in smart cities. Nowadays, waste management systems are overtaxed and burdened due
to the large demands of highly-populated urban areas [135]. The goal of smart waste
management is to use IoT devices in order to optimize waste collection and reduce the
negative impact on the environment [136]. Major factors driving the need for smart waste
management include the demand for energy-efficient processes and the goal of creating
healthier environments within cities [137]. A number of different objects can be repurposed
into IoT devices, such as trash and recycling containers [138], and different technologies
can be used to indicate when it is time to service a full container. In addition to detecting
when waste bins are full, some sensors are capable of detecting unpleasant smells using gas
sensors [139]. These smart containers essentially work by having sensors in the containers
that read, collect, and communicate information about the amount of trash/recycle volume
within them in order to better understand when it is time to empty the container [140].
In environmental sector applications, IoT technology has emerged as a valuable tool in
enhancing air quality prediction through edge-based computation. Leveraging edge-based
computation, IoT devices equipped with sensors collect real-time air quality data at the
source, enabling precise prediction models tailored to specific locations. This empowers
environmental monitoring systems to deliver accurate and timely information for effective
decision-making and pollution control measures.
In the realm of anomaly detection and classification, IoT devices continuously monitor
and analyze data from diverse sources, swiftly identify deviations from normal patterns,
and recognize potential threats or irregularities. Through advanced machine learning algo-
rithms and localized data processing, IoT systems can rapidly detect anomalies, ensuring
the robust security and integrity of IoT networks and the data they generate.
Moreover, multisensory data fusion in multi-application wireless sensor data streams
enables the integration of information from various sensors and applications, enabling
a comprehensive understanding of intricate IoT environments. By combining data from
disparate sources, such as temperature, humidity, and air quality sensors, IoT systems
acquire a holistic view of the surroundings, generating valuable insights into informed
decision-making across a wide range of applications, spanning from smart cities to indus-
trial automation.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 9 of 19

2.5. Industry 4.0

The manufacturing sector is undergoing a revolutionary transformation with the
advent of Industry 4.0, ushering in an era of intelligent and interconnected systems. A
prominent trend in this domain is the rapid adoption of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)
devices and sensors [141–145] as shown in Figure 7. These embedded devices empower
machines, equipment, and products to gather and transmit real-time data. The data gener-
ated by IIoT devices are invaluable for predictive maintenance, enabling manufacturers to
proactively identify and address potential equipment failures, thereby reducing downtime
and enhancing operational efficiency.

Figure 7. Industry 4.0.

Another significant trend within Industry 4.0 is the heightened focus on cybersecurity.
As factories and supply chains become increasingly interconnected and reliant on digital
technologies, the need for robust cybersecurity measures has become paramount. Manu-
facturers are making substantial investments in advanced security solutions to safeguard
sensitive industrial data from cyber threats, ensuring the integrity and availability of their
systems. This includes implementing encryption techniques, authentication protocols, and
intrusion detection systems to fortify critical information.
Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are also playing crucial roles in
driving Industry 4.0 forward. With the copious amounts of data generated by IIoT devices,
AI and ML algorithms have the capacity to analyze and derive meaningful insights from
vast datasets. Manufacturers are leveraging these technologies to optimize production
processes, enhance quality control, and improve decision-making. By detecting patterns
and anomalies in real-time data, AI-powered systems can optimize manufacturing opera-
tions, identify defects, and propose process improvements, ultimately resulting in increased
productivity and reduced costs.
Furthermore, the adoption of cloud computing technologies has empowered manufac-
turers to securely store and access vast quantities of data in a flexible and scalable manner.
Cloud-based platforms provide the agility required for data analysis, collaboration, and re-
mote monitoring. Manufacturers can conveniently access real-time production information
from anywhere, enabling remote troubleshooting, predictive maintenance, and streamlined
supply chain management.
Collaborative robots, also known as cobots, represent another noteworthy trend in
Industry 4.0. These robots work alongside human operators, assisting them in various tasks
and augmenting productivity. Cobots, which are designed to be safe, adaptable, and easily
programmable, can adapt to changing production requirements. They are adept at handling
repetitive and physically demanding tasks, freeing up human workers to concentrate on
more intricate and creative aspects of the manufacturing process.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 10 of 19

The integration of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) technologies is also
gaining momentum within Industry 4.0. These immersive technologies offer interactive
and intuitive interfaces for training, simulation, and maintenance purposes. VR and AR
enable workers to visualize and manipulate virtual representations of machinery, products,
and processes, thereby enhancing training effectiveness and reducing errors.
Industry 4.0 is driving a transformative shift in the manufacturing landscape. The
widespread adoption of IIoT devices, AI and ML algorithms, cloud computing, cyberse-
curity measures, cobots, and immersive technologies is reshaping traditional industrial
processes into highly connected, intelligent, and efficient operations. Manufacturers who
embrace these trends are poised to reap numerous benefits, including improved produc-
tivity, cost reductions, enhanced product quality, and increased agility in an intensely
competitive global marketplace.

3. Challenges and Active Research Topics

3.1. Security of IoT Devices
The use of Internet of Things devices is progressively becoming more prevalent in
the daily lives of people around the world; however, cyberattacks remain a large threat to
the safe use of IoT [146]. Different examples of these devices are mobile phones, alarms,
medical sensors, smartwatches, security systems, and more. The use of these devices
continues to expand, and the need for strong security is vital to their success. Although
these devices bring convenience, they come with many security issues and vulnerabilities.
Since IoT devices often collect sensitive data, these data transmissions can be intercepted by
third parties who intend to conduct harm or use these data for nefarious purposes. In one
case, there were even attacks that could target IoT devices, such as the Mirai malware [147],
which would hack/convert devices into its botnet and carry out DDoS attacks [148] as
shown in Figure 8. Malware, such as the Mirai and others, take advantage of the vast
amounts of poorly protected IoT devices, which commonly suffer from poor configurations
and open designs, making them targets [149]. Detecting malware and IoT botnets remains
an active research area, and many techniques are being applied. The use of a lightweight
approach in the classification of IoT malware through the use of image recognition is just
one example [150]. Other ways include the use of machine learning algorithms that use
supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning in order to handle tasks such as
authentication, access control, and malware detection [151].

Figure 8. DDoS attacks worldwide.

Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 11 of 19

There is an enormous amount of data being transmitted on a daily basis, which

impacts critical operations across many applications. It could be possible for attackers
to disrupt entire networks that rely on IoT technology, and the consequences would be
devastating [152]. Hackers and criminals could seriously impact the expansion of IoT
devices in the future, and it is crucial that security be thoroughly researched to mitigate
these negative impacts.

3.2. Authentication and Password Security

One security issue is the lack of security in regard to authentication and passwords.
Many IoT devices rely on password security in order to stay protected from cyber criminals
who are attempting to gain access to them. These passwords can often be weak, and
criminals can have easy access to IoT devices. There is a lack of standardization revolving
around how complex passwords should be. Research shows that having more complex
password combinations in IoT devices can prevent more cyber attacks [153]. Even with
stronger passwords, there would need to be additional security measures to prevent
cyber attackers.
One example of an additional layer of security involves the use of multi-authentication
in IoT devices. In order to authorize the correct users to access IoT devices, it is a prerequisite
to first have authentication [154]. Authentication is the process by which the identity of
users is verified before allowing them to gain access to a system. Passwords represent
just one level of authentication, and it is important to understand the other types of
authentication mechanisms that IoT devices can take advantage of. Different methods,
such as the utilization of elliptic curve cryptography, can be useful when performing
authentications in IoT security systems [155].
One-time passwords can sometimes be useful for authentication purposes related to
IoT devices. These passwords work by having a private key generator (PKG) generate a
one-time password, and this password is used as a private key that is needed in order to
gain access. The last phase of using one-time passwords involves validation. In this phase,
the application and IoT device exchange data via a one-time password, verifying that the
password was sourced from a valid location [56].

3.3. Interoperability Challenges

Using IoT devices smoothly and without compatibility issues remains a challenge
both now and in the future. Interoperability is important because it allows IoT devices
to communicate with each other more efficiently. It is a challenge to have IoT devices
work together seamlessly because many operate on different infrastructures, devices,
APIs, and even data formats [156]. The need for the safe interoperability of IoT devices
has even led to the creation of international organizations that develop standards that
IoT devices can adopt with the intention of becoming more compatible [157]. The use
of protocols and standards, such as Bluetooth and ZigBee, is critical to the rise of IoT
technology because it essentially establishes the rules for use and communication, helping
to address interoperability concerns [158]. International organizations, such as IEEE, the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), OneM2M, and others, have developed important
standards and protocols and play integral roles in influencing the IoT [159]. One important
contribution to addressing these challenges is the BiG IoT project, which is an initiative that
seeks to create a common API that different IoT devices could communicate through [160].

3.4. Cloud Computing Research

Since IoT devices generate massive amounts of data, cloud computing solutions are
continually being used and researched in order to better handle these data demands.
Cloud IoT is a novel IT paradigm that represents the merging of the cloud with IoT,
and research in this area will be crucial in moving this technology forward [161]. Cloud
computing is essentially an extension of distributed computing, parallel computing, and
grid computing [126]. There are many IoT constraints that cloud computing addresses,
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 12 of 19

such as processing, storage, and communication [162]. For example, a major concern about
IoT data involves the security risks that come from storing data locally on IoT devices [163],
and cloud computing aims to address this concern by allowing data storage in cloud
computing servers [164]. Since data collected from IoT devices are often unstructured,
cloud computing research looks to improve the real-time data processing capabilities and
allow for more dynamic resource management [165].

3.5. Potential Future Directions and Developments

The potential future directions and developments of IoT in healthcare, agriculture,
smart homes, smart cities, and Industry 4.0 are poised to bring about transformative
changes and advancements. In healthcare, the integration of IoT with telemedicine, wear-
able health technology, and advanced data analytics holds promise for revolutionizing
patient care. Real-time monitoring, personalized treatment plans, and early disease detec-
tion can be facilitated through IoT-enabled devices, leading to improved health outcomes.
In agriculture, IoT-driven precision farming techniques, such as smart irrigation and crop
disease detection, have the potential to optimize resource utilization, conserve water, and
enhance crop yield. By leveraging real-time data from IoT sensors, farmers can make
informed decisions and implement timely interventions. In the realm of smart homes,
the focus will be on seamless integration, energy efficiency, and personalized automation.
IoT-enabled smart home solutions will allow for centralized control and management of
various devices, optimizing energy consumption and providing tailored experiences for
inhabitants. In smart cities, IoT applications will enhance transportation systems, envi-
ronmental monitoring, and citizen engagement. Intelligent traffic management, real-time
tracking of air quality, and participatory governance will contribute to improved mobility,
sustainability, and quality of life. Finally, Industry 4.0 will witness the integration of IoT in
industrial automation, predictive maintenance, and supply chain optimization. IoT-driven
technologies will enable the real-time monitoring of machines, predictive maintenance
strategies, and streamlined logistics, leading to enhanced productivity and reduced down-
time. Continued research and development in these areas will shape the future of IoT,
paving the way for innovative solutions and transformative advancements across sectors.

4. Conclusions
IoT technology has rapidly emerged as a revolutionary field in computer science,
facilitating the connection of everyday objects to the internet and enabling a vast network
of interconnected devices. The widespread adoption of IoT devices has been fueled by
advancements in wireless networking technologies and the increasing demand for automa-
tion and efficiency across multiple industries. This technology is being utilized across
various sectors, and its utilization is expected to continue expanding. IoT is progressively
integrating into society and has become particularly significant in areas such as healthcare,
agriculture, smart homes, smart cities, and more. The progress in technological and net-
working capabilities underscores the pivotal role of emerging technologies in driving the
proliferation of IoT worldwide. However, despite its potential, there are several challenges,
including security and privacy concerns, which researchers must address through inno-
vative approaches. As networking and technological advancements continue to support
the rise of IoT, its applications will further grow and become increasingly integrated into
our societal fabric. This paper has examined the emergence of IoT devices, explored their
common applications in healthcare, agriculture, and smart cities, and delved into the future
prospects of this promising field.
The future of IoT technology holds tremendous promise. Advancements in machine
learning and artificial intelligence will play vital roles in driving innovation in this field,
unlocking new possibilities for IoT applications. However, it is essential to tackle security
challenges, enhance affordability, and raise awareness and knowledge among users and
stakeholders to ensure the sustained growth and success of IoT technology.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 13 of 19

To summarize, IoT technology has brought about a revolution in various industries,

offering vast opportunities for automation, efficiency, and improved decision-making. By
comprehending the driving forces behind the emergence of IoT devices and exploring their
applications in different fields, researchers and practitioners can shape the future of IoT
and harness its potential for the betterment of society.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.C., A.P. and R.A.; methodology, R.C., A.P. and R.A.;
writing—original draft preparation, R.C., A.P. and R.A.; writing—review and editing, R.C., A.P. and
R.A. The authors declare that they have equally contributed to the paper. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We thank the authors of the literature cited in this paper for contributing the
useful ideas to this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

IoT Internet of Things

IoMT Internet of Medical Things
DDOS distributed denial of service
RFID radio frequency identification
STS smart traffic systems
PKG private key generator
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force

References
1. Saleem, S.I.; Zeebaree, S.; Zeebaree, D.Q.; Abdulazeez, A.M. Building smart cities applications based on IoT technologies: A
review. Technol. Rep. Kansai Univ. 2020, 62, 1083–1092.
2. Said, O.; Masud, M. Towards internet of things: Survey and future vision. Int. J. Comput. Netw. 2013, 5, 1–17.
3. Paul, C.; Ganesh, A.; Sunitha, C. An overview of IoT based smart homes. In Proceedings of the 2018 2nd International Conference
on Inventive Systems and Control (ICISC), Coimbatore, India, 19–20 January 2018; pp. 43–46.
4. Tan, L.; Wang, N. Future Internet: The Internet of Things. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Advanced
Computer Theory and Engineering, ICACTE 2010, Chengdu, China, 20–22 August 2010; pp. V5-376–V5-380.
5. Suresh, P.; Daniel, J.V.; Parthasarathy, V.; Aswathy, R.H. A state of the art review on the Internet of Things (IoT) history, technology
and fields of deployment. In Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Science Engineering and Management Research
(ICSEMR), Chennai, India, 27–29 November 2014; pp. 1–8.
6. Al-Khafajiy, M.; Webster, L.; Baker, T.; Waraich, A. Towards fog driven IoT healthcare: Challenges and framework of fog
computing in healthcare. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Future Networks and Distributed Systems,
Amman, Jordan, 26–27 June 2018; pp. 1–7.
7. Alaa, M.; Zaidan, A.A.; Zaidan, B.B.; Talal, M.; Kiah, M.L.M. A review of smart home applications based on Internet of Things.
J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 2017, 97, 48–65. [CrossRef]
8. Sharma, S.; Kaushik, B. A survey on Internet of vehicles: Applications, security issues and solutions. Veh. Commun. 2019,
20, 100182.
9. Silva, C.; Silva, F.; Sarubbi, J.; Oliveira, T.; Meira, W.; Nogueira, J. Designing mobile content delivery networks for the Internet of
vehicles. Veh. Commun. 2017, 8, 45–55. [CrossRef]
10. Lei, T.; Wang, S.; Li, J.; Yang, F. A cooperative route choice approach via virtual vehicle in iov. Veh. Commun. 2017, 9, 281–282.
[CrossRef]
11. Bajaj, R.; Rao, M.; Agrawal, H. Internet of things (IoT) in the smart automotive sector: A review. IOSR J. Comput. Eng. 2018, 9,
36–44.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 14 of 19

12. Ganesh, E.N. Implementation of IoT architecture for SMART HOME using GSM technology. Int. J. Comput. Tech. 2017, 4, 42–48.
13. Shafique, K.; Khawaja, B.A.; Sabir, F.; Qazi, S.; Mustaqim, M. Internet of things (IoT) for next-generation smart systems: A review
of current challenges, future trends and prospects for emerging 5G-IoT scenarios. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 23022–23040. [CrossRef]
14. Ahmadi, H.; Arji, G.; Shahmoradi, L.; Safdari, R.; Nilashi, M.; Alizadeh, M. The application of internet of things in healthcare: A
systematic literature review and classification. Univers. Access Inf. Soc. 2019, 18, 837–869. [CrossRef]
15. Ahad, A.; Tahir, M.; Yau, K.A. 5g-based smart healthcare network: Architecture, taxonomy, challenges and future research
directions. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 100747–100762. [CrossRef]
16. Ramachandran, A.; Pahwa, P.K.R.A. Machine learning-based techniques for fall detection in geriatric healthcare systems.
In Proceedings of the 2018 9th International Conference on Information Technology in Medicine and Education (ITME), Hangzhou,
China, 19–21 October 2018; pp. 232–237.
17. Shaikh, Y.; Parvati, V.K.; Biradar, S.R. Survey of smart healthcare systems using internet of things (IoT): (invited paper).
In Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Communication, Computing and Internet of Things (IC3IoT), Chennai,
India, 15–17 February 2018; pp. 508–513.
18. Rajini, N.H. A comprehensive survey on internet of things based healthcare services and its applications. In Proceedings of the
2019 3rd International Conference on Computing Methodologies and Communication (ICCMC), Erode, India, 27–29 March 2019;
pp. 483–488.
19. Song, X.; Chin, K.-W. Maximizing Packets Collection in Wireless Powered IoT Networks with Charge-or-Data Time Slots. IEEE
Trans. Cogn. Commun. Netw. 2023, 9, 1067–1079. [CrossRef]
20. Liu, X.; Xu, B.; Wang, X.; Zheng, K.; Chi, K.; Tian, X. Impacts of Sensing Energy and Data Availability on Throughput of Energy
Harvesting Cognitive Radio Networks. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2023, 72, 747–759. [CrossRef]
21. Vishwakarma, S.K.; Upadhyaya, P.; Kumari, B.; Mishra, A.K. Smart Energy Efficient Home Automation System Using IoT. In
Proceedings of the 2019 4th International Conference on Internet of Things: Smart Innovation and Usages (IoT-SIU), Ghaziabad,
India, 18–19 April 2019; pp. 1–4.
22. Tan, J.; Sha, X.; Lu, T.; Dai, B. A Short Survey on Future Research of AI and IoT Technologies. In Proceedings of the 2022
International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing (IWCMC), Dubrovnik, Croatia, 30 May–3 June 2022; pp. 190–195.
23. Ragothaman, K.; Wang, Y.; Rimal, B.; Lawrence, M. Access Control for IoT: A Survey of Existing Research, Dynamic Policies, and
Future Directions. Sensors 2023, 23, 1805. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Chataut, R.; Akl, R. Massive MIMO Systems for 5G and beyond Networks—Overview, Recent Trends, Challenges, and Future
Research Direction. Sensors 2020, 20, 2753. [CrossRef]
25. Affia, A.-A.O.; Finch, H.; Jung, W.; Samori, I.A.; Potter, L.; Palmer, X.-L. IoT Health Devices: Exploring Security Risks in the
Connected Landscape. IoT 2023, 4, 150–182. [CrossRef]
26. Tang, S. Performance Modeling and Optimization for a Fog-Based IoT Platform. IoT 2023, 4, 183–201. [CrossRef]
27. Nayernia, H.; Papagiannidis, H.B.S. A systematic review of the implementation of industry 4.0 from the organisational perspective.
Int. J. Prod. Res. 2022, 60, 4365–4396. [CrossRef]
28. Chu, M.; Liu, A.; Chen, J.; Lau, V.K.N.; Cui, S. A Stochastic Geometry Analysis for Energy-Harvesting-Based Device-to-Device
Communication. IEEE Internet Things J. 2022, 9, 1591–1607. [CrossRef]
29. Almasoud, A.M.; Alsharoa, A.; Qiao, D.; Kamal, A.E. An Energy-Efficient Internet of Things Relaying System for Delay-
Constrained Applications. IEEE Access 2022, 10, 82259–82271. [CrossRef]
30. Fernandes, V.; Cravo, N.; Monteiro, H.L.M.; Jayakody, D.N.K.; Poor, H.V.; Ribeiro, M.V. Energy Harvesting in the UNB-PLC
Spectrum: Hidden Opportunities for IoT Devices. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023, 10, 1236–1247. [CrossRef]
31. Zheng, K.; Jia, X.; Chi, K.; Liu, X. DDPG-Based Joint Time and Energy Management in Ambient Backscatter-Assisted Hybrid
Underlay CRNs. IEEE Trans. Commun. 2023, 71, 441–456. [CrossRef]
32. Wang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Shen, R.; Xu, Y.; Zheng, F.-C. DRL-Based Energy-Efficient Resource Allocation Frameworks for Uplink
NOMA Systems. IEEE Internet Things J. 2020, 7, 7279–7294. [CrossRef]
33. Nguyen, N.-T.; Nguyen, D.N.; Hoang, D.T.; Van Huynh, N.; Dutkiewicz, E.; Nguyen, N.-H.; Nguyen, Q.-T. Time Scheduling and
Energy Trading for Heterogeneous Wireless-Powered and Backscattering-Based IoT Networks. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun. 2021,
20, 6835–6851. [CrossRef]
34. Nguyen, N.-T.; Nguyen, D.N.; Hoang, D.T.; Van Huynh, N.; Nguyen, H.-N.; Nguyen, Q.T.; Dutkiewicz, E. Energy Trading and
Time Scheduling for Energy-Efficient Heterogeneous Low-Power IoT Networks. In Proceedings of the GLOBECOM 2020—2020
IEEE Global Communications Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, 7–11 December 2020; pp. 1–6.
35. Guo, W.; Jing, L. Towards Low-Cost Passive Motion Tracking with One Pair of Commodity Wi-Fi Devices. IEEE J. Indoor Seamless
Position Navig. 2023, 1, 39–52. [CrossRef]
36. Zhang, S.; Liu, A.; Han, C.; Liang, X.; Xu, X.; Wang, G. Multi-agent Reinforcement Learning-Based Orbital Edge Offloading in
SAGIN Supporting Internet of Remote Things. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023. [CrossRef]
37. Shi, W.; Cao, J.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Y.; Xu, L. Edge Computing: Vision and Challenges. IEEE Internet Things J. 2016, 3, 637–646.
[CrossRef]
38. McEnroe, P.; Wang, S.; Liyanage, M. A Survey on the Convergence of Edge Computing and AI for UAVs: Opportunities and
Challenges. IEEE Internet Things J. 2022, 9, 15435–15459. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 15 of 19

39. Liu, J.; Fan, Y.; Sun, R.; Liu, L.; Wu, C.; Mumtaz, S. Blockchain-Aided Privacy-Preserving Medical Data Sharing Scheme for
E-Healthcare System. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023. [CrossRef]
40. Kok, İ.; Okay, F.Y.; Muyanlı, O.; Ozdemir, S. Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) for Internet of Things: A Survey. IEEE Inter-
net Things J. 2023, 10, 14764–14779. [CrossRef]
41. Rice, M.; Kirkwood, R.; Landon, L.; Walker, P.; Harrison, W. On Polarization Diversity in 5G and Beyond Internet-of-Things
Networks. In Proceedings of the 2023 Intermountain Engineering, Technology and Computing (IETC), Provo, UT, USA, 12–13
May 2023; pp. 126–131.
42. Chen, S.; Xu, H.; Liu, D.; Hu, B.; Wang, H. A Vision of IoT: Applications, Challenges, and Opportunities with China Perspective.
IEEE Internet Things J. 2014, 1, 349–359. [CrossRef]
43. Yaklaf, S.K.A.; Elmezughi, A.S.; Naas, S.M.H.; Ekreem, N.B. Privacy, Security, Trust and Applications in Internet of Things. In
Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Systems and Emergent Technologies (ICASET), Hammamet,
Tunisia, 29 April–1 May 2023; pp. 1–6.
44. HChi, R.; Radwan, A. Quality of Things’ Experience for 6G Artificial Intelligent Internet of Things with IEEE P2668. IEEE
Commun. Mag. 2023, 61, 58–64.
45. Jung, S.; Jeong, S.; Kang, J.; Kang, J. Marine IoT Systems with Space-Air-Sea Integrated Networks: Hybrid LEO and UAV Edge
Computing. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023. [CrossRef]
46. Qiu, S.; Wei, Z.; Huang, Y.; Abbaszadeh, M.; Charmet, J.; Li, B.; Guo, W. Review of Physical Layer Security in Molecular Internet
of Nano-Things. IEEE Trans. Nanobioscience 2023, Online ahead of print. [CrossRef]
47. Yin, Y.; Di, Q.; Wan, J.; Liang, T. Time-Aware Smart City Services based on QoS Prediction: A Contrastive Learning Approach.
IEEE Internet Things J. 2023. [CrossRef]
48. Ashraf, Q.M.; Tahir, M.; Habaebi, M.H.; Isoaho, J. Toward Autonomic Internet of Things: Recent Advances, Evaluation Criteria,
and Future Research Directions. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023, 10, 14725–14748. [CrossRef]
49. Li, X.; Hu, X.; Jiang, T. Dual Reinforcement Learning based Attack Path Prediction for 5G Industrial Cyber-Physical Systems.
IEEE Internet Things J. 2023. [CrossRef]
50. Andhare, M.S.; Kumbhar, V.S.; Tekade, A.A. Detecting Cybersecurity Attacks in Industrial Internet of Things: A Systematic
Literature Review. In Proceedings of the 2023 5th Biennial International Conference on Nascent Technologies in Engineering
(ICNTE), Navi Mumbai, India, 20–21 January 2023; pp. 1–7.
51. Goyal, H.R.; Sharma, S. Flood Management System Using Cloud Computing and Internet-of-Things. In Proceedings of the 2023
5th Biennial International Conference on Nascent Technologies in Engineering (ICNTE), Navi Mumbai, India, 20–21 January 2023;
pp. 1–6.
52. Ali, T.; Irfan, M.; Alwadie, A.S.; Glowacz, A. IoT-based smart waste bin monitoring and municipal solid waste management
system for smart cities. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 2020, 45, 10185–10198. [CrossRef]
53. Ali, W.; Dustgeer, G.; Awais, M.; Shah, M.A. IoT based smart home: Security challenges, security requirements, and solutions. In
Proceedings of the 2017 23rd International Conference on Automation and Computing (ICAC), Huddersfield, UK, 7–8 September
2017; pp. 1–6.
54. Alotaibi, M. Improved Blowfish Algorithm-Based Secure Routing Technique in IoT-Based WSN. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 159187–159197.
[CrossRef]
55. Arif, S.; Khan, M.A.; Rehman, S.U.; Kabir, M.A.; Imran, M. Investigating smart home security: Is blockchain the answer? IEEE
Access 2020, 8, 117802–117816. [CrossRef]
56. Atwady, Y.; Hammoudeh, M. A survey on authentication techniques for the internet of things. In Proceedings of the International
Conference on Future Networks and Distributed Systems, Cambridge, UK, 19–20 July 2017.
57. Morgan, J.; Lu, M. What Is Internet of Things? IoT For All. Available online: https://www.iotforall.com/what-is-internet-of-
things (accessed on 1 July 2023).
58. Din, U.D.; Bano, A.; Awan, K.A.; Almogren, A.; Altameem, A.; Guizani, M. LightTrust: Lightweight trust management for edge
devices in industrial Internet of Things. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023, 10, 2776–2783. [CrossRef]
59. Rui, L.; Yang, S.; Gao, Z.; Li, W.; Qiu, X.; Meng, L. Smart network maintenance in edge cloud computing environment: An
allocation mechanism based on comprehensive reputation and regional prediction model. J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 2022, 198, 103298.
[CrossRef]
60. Kumar, V.; Mahmoud, M.S.; Alkhayyat, A.; Srinivas, J.; Kumari, M.A.A. RAPCHI: Robust authentication protocol for IoMT-based
cloud-healthcar infrastructure. J. Supercomput. 2022, 78, 6167–16196. [CrossRef]
61. Van Geest, M.; Tekinerdogan, B.; Catal, C. Smart Warehouses: Rationale, Challenges and Solution Directions. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 219.
[CrossRef]
62. Guan, Z.; Wang, Y.; He, M. Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based Spectrum Allocation Algorithm in Internet of Vehicles Discrimi-
nating Services. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 1764. [CrossRef]
63. Singh, P.; Kaur, A.; Batth, R.S.; Aujla, G.S.; Masud, M. Service Versus Protection: A Bayesian learning approach for trust
provisioning in edge of things environment. IEEE Internet Things J. 2022, 9, 22061–22070. [CrossRef]
64. Dinesh, G.; Pawar, Y.S.; Dinshi, P.; S, S.; Husain, S.S.; Reddy, C.V.K. Machine Learning based Secure Data Transmission and
Improvement in MANET through Internet of Things (IoT). In Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Intelligent
Data Communication Technologies and Internet of Things (IDCIoT), Bengaluru, India, 5–7 January 2023; pp. 1006–1012.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 16 of 19

65. Wu, Y.-J.; Brito, R.; Choi, W.-H.; Lam, C.-S.; Wong, M.-C.; Sin, S.-W.; Martins, R.P. IoT Cloud-Edge Reconfigurable Mixed-Signal
Smart Meter Platform for Arc Fault Detection. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023, 10, 1682–1695. [CrossRef]
66. Islam, M.M.; Nooruddin, S.; Karray, F.; Muhammad, G. Internet of Things: Device Capabilities, Architectures, Protocols, and
Smart Applications in Healthcare Domain. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023, 10, 3611–3641. [CrossRef]
67. Nataraj, P.K.B.; Duraisamy, P. An Investigation on Attacks in Application Layer Protocols and Ransomeware Threats in Internet
of Things. In Proceedings of the 2023 9th International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems
(ICACCS), Coimbatore, India, 17–18 March 2023; pp. 668–672.
68. Joel, M.R.; Manikandan, G.; Bhuvaneswari, G. An Analysis of Security Challenges in Internet of Things (IoT) based Smart Homes.
In Proceedings of the 2023 Second International Conference on Electronics and Renewable Systems (ICEARS), Tuticorin, India,
2–4 March 2023; pp. 490–497.
69. Celik, A.; Romdhane, I.; Kaddoum, G.; Eltawil, A.M. A Top-Down Survey on Optical Wireless Communications for the Internet
of Things. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials 2023, 25, 1–45. [CrossRef]
70. Ullah, R.; Asghar, I.; Griffiths, M.G.; Stacey, C.; Stiles, W.; Whitelaw, C. Internet of Things based Sensor System for Vertical
Farming and Controlled Environment Agriculture. In Proceedings of the 2023 6th Conference on Cloud and Internet of Things
(CIoT), Lisbon, Portugal, 20–22 March 2023; pp. 136–140.
71. Chataut, R.; Akl, R.; Dey, U.K.; Robaei, M. SSOR Preconditioned Gauss-Seidel Detection and Its Hardware Architecture for 5G
and beyond Massive MIMO Networks. Electronics 2021, 10, 578. [CrossRef]
72. Soni, T.; Gupta, D.; Uppal, M. Bibliometric Analysis on Security of Different Layers in Internet of Things (IoT) Environment. In
Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Emerging Smart Computing and Informatics (ESCI), Pune, India, 1–3 March
2023; pp. 1–6.
73. Karpagam, M. Smart Energy Meter and Monitoring System using Internet of Things (IoT). In Proceedings of the 2023 International
Conference on Intelligent Data Communication Technologies and Internet of Things (IDCIoT), Bengaluru, India, 5–7 January
2023; pp. 75–80.
74. Chen, W.E.; Wang, Y.H.; Huang, P.C.; Huang, Y.Y.; Tsai, M.Y. A smart IoT system for waste management. In Proceedings of the
2018 1st International Cognitive Cities Conference (IC3), Okinawa, Japan, 7–9 August 2018; pp. 202–203.
75. Durga, S.; Nag, R.; Daniel, E. Survey on machine learning and deep learning algorithms used in internet of things (IoT) healthcare.
In Proceedings of the 2019 3rd International Conference on Computing Methodologies and Communication (ICCMC), Erode,
India, 27–29 March 2019; pp. 1018–1022.
76. Hsu, H.-T.; Jong, G.-J.; Chen, J.-H.; Jhe, C.-G. Improve Iot Security System of Smart-Home by Using Support Vector Machine. In
Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 4th International Conference on Computer and Communication Systems (ICCCS), Singapore, 23–25
February 2019.
77. Hussain, F.; Hussain, R.; Hassan, S.A.; Hossain, E. Machine learning in IoT security: Current solutions and future challenges.
IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials 2020, 22, 1686–1721. [CrossRef]
78. Joyia, G.J.; Liaqat, R.M.; Farooq, A.; Rehman, S. Internet of medical things (IoMT): Applications, benefits and future challenges in
healthcare domain. J. Commun. 2017, 12, 240–247. [CrossRef]
79. Ojha, T.; Misra, S.; Raghuwanshi, N.S. Wireless sensor networks for agriculture: The state-of-the-art in practice and future
challenges. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2015, 118, 66–84. [CrossRef]
80. Zhang, S.; Zhang, S.; Chen, X.; Huo, X. Cloud computing research and development trend. In Proceedings of the 2010 Second
International Conference on Future Networks, Washington, DC, USA, 22–24 January 2010; pp. 93–97.
81. Pardini, K.; Rodrigues, J.J.; Diallo, O.; Das, A.K.; de Albuquerque, V.H.C.; ; Kozlov, S.A. A smart waste management solution
geared towards citizens. Sensors 2020, 20, 2380. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Evans, D. The Internet of Things: How the Next Evolution of the Internet Is Changing Everything; Cisco Internet Business Solutions
Group (IBSG): San Jose, CA, USA, 2011.
83. Transforma Insights, Number of Internet of Things (IoT) Connected Devices Worldwide from 2019 to 2021, with Forecasts
from 2022 to 2030 (in Billions). Statista. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1183457/iot-connected-devices-
worldwide/ (accessed on 14 June 2023).
84. Halcox, J.P.; Wareham, K.; Cardew, A.; Gilmore, M.; Barry, J.P.; Phillips, C.; Gravenor, M.B. Assessment of remote heart rhythm
sampling using the AliveCor heart monitor to screen for atrial fibrillation: The REHEARSE-AF study. Circulation 2017, 136,
1784–1794. [CrossRef]
85. Baker, S.B.; Xiang, W.; Atkinson, I. Internet of things for smart healthcare: Technologies, challenges, and opportunities. IEEE
Access 2017, 5, 26521–26544. [CrossRef]
86. Khan, M.A. Challenges facing the application of IoT in medicine and healthcare. Int. J. Comput. Inf. Manuf. (IJCIM) 2021, 1, 39–55.
[CrossRef]
87. Javaid, M.; Khan, I.H. Internet of Things (IoT) enabled healthcare helps to take the challenges of COVID-19 Pandemic. J. Oral Biol.
Craniofacial Res. 2021, 11, 209–214. [CrossRef]
88. Shah, S.T.U.; Yar, H.; Khan, I.; Ikram, M.; Khan, H. Internet of things-based healthcare: Recent advances and challenges. Appl.
Intell. Technol. Healthc. 2019, 153–162. [CrossRef]
89. Yuehong, Y.I.N.; Zeng, Y.; Chen, X.; Fan, Y. The internet of things in healthcare: An overview. J. Ind. Inf. Integr. 2016, 1, 3–13.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 17 of 19

90. Maksimović, M.; Vujović, V.; Periśić, B. A custom Internet of Things healthcare system. In Proceedings of the 2015 10th Iberian
Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), Aveiro, Portugal, 7–20 June 2015; pp. 1–6.
91. Tekeste Habte, T.; Saleh, H.; Mohammad, B.; Ismail, M. IoT for healthcare. In Ultra Low Power ECG Processing System for IoT
Devices; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2019; pp. 7–12.
92. Farahani, B.; Firouzi, F.; Chakrabarty, K. Healthcare iot. In Intelligent Internet of Things: From Device to Fog and Cloud; Springer:
Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 515–545. [CrossRef]
93. Laplante, P.A.; Laplante, N. The internet of things in healthcare: Potential applications and challenges. IT Prof. 2016, 18, 2–4.
[CrossRef]
94. Somasundaram, R.; Thirugnanam, M. Review of security challenges in healthcare internet of things. Wirel. Netw. 2021, 27,
5503–5509. [CrossRef]
95. Selvaraj, S.; Sundaravaradhan, S. Challenges and opportunities in IoT healthcare systems: A systematic review. Appl. Sci. 2020,
2, 139. [CrossRef]
96. Elijah, O.; Rahman, T.A.; Orikumhi, I.; Leow, C.Y.; Hindia, M.N. An overview of Internet of Things (IoT) and data analytics in
agriculture: Benefits and challenges. IEEE Internet Things J. 2018, 5, 3758–3773. [CrossRef]
97. Mueller, N.; Gerber, J.; Johnston, M. Closing yield gaps through nutrient and water management. Nature 2012, 490, 254–257.
[CrossRef]
98. Tao, W.; Zhao, L.; Wang, G.; Liang, R. Review of the internet of things communication technologies in smart agriculture and
challenges. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2021, 189, 106352. [CrossRef]
99. Verdouw, C.; Wolfert, S.; Tekinerdogan, B. Internet of Things in agriculture. CABI Rev. 2016, 2016, 1–12. [CrossRef]
100. Tzounis, A.; Katsoulas, N.; Bartzanas, T.; Kittas, C. Internet of Things in agriculture, recent advances and future challenges.
Biosyst. Eng. 2017, 164, 31–48. [CrossRef]
101. Gondchawar, N.; Kawitkar, R.S. IoT based smart agriculture. Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Commun. Eng. 2016, 5, 838–842.
102. Placidi, P.; Gasperini, L.; Grassi, A.; Cecconi, M.; Scorzoni, A. Characterization of low-cost capacitive soil moisture sensors for IoT
networks. Sensors 2020, 20, 3585. [CrossRef]
103. Kour, V.P.; Arora, S. Recent developments of the internet of things in agriculture: A survey. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 129924–129957.
[CrossRef]
104. Dlodlo, N.; Kalezhi, J. The internet of things in agriculture for sustainable rural development. In Proceedings of the 2015
International Conference on Emerging Trends in Networks and Computer Communications (ETNCC), Windhoek, Namibia,
17–20 May 2015; pp. 13–18.
105. Sinha, B.B.; Dhanalakshmi, R. Recent advancements and challenges of Internet of Things in smart agriculture: A survey. Future
Gener. Comput. Syst. 2022, 126, 169–184. [CrossRef]
106. Rajeswari, S.; Suthendran, K.; Rajakumar, K. A smart agricultural model by integrating IoT, mobile and cloud-based big data
analytics. In Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Control (I2C2), Coimbatore, India,
23–24 June 2017; pp. 1–5.
107. Morais, R.; Mendes, J.; Silva, R.; Silva, N.; Sousa, J.J.; Peres, E. A versatile, low-power and low-cost IoT device for field data
gathering in precision agriculture practices. Agriculture 2021, 11, 619. [CrossRef]
108. Zhang, X.; Cao, Z.; Dong, W. Overview of edge computing in the agricultural internet of things: Key technologies, applications,
challenges. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 141748–141761. [CrossRef]
109. Kassim, M.R.M. Iot applications in smart agriculture: Issues and challenges. In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Conference on Open
Systems (ICOS), Penang, Malaysia, 17–19 November 2020; pp. 19–24.
110. Burroughs, J. AN236—X-10 Home Automation using the PIC16F877A. Available online: https://www.yumpu.com/en/
document/view/27982893/an236-x-10-home-automation-using-the-pic16f877a-microchip (accessed on 17 July 2023).
111. Domb, M. Smart home systems based on internet of things. In Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications;
IntechOpen: London, UK, 2019.
112. Moser, K.; Harder, J.; Koo, S.G. Internet of things in home automation and energy efficient smart home technologies. In
Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), San Diego, CA, USA, 5–8
October 2014; pp. 1260–1265.
113. Wang, M.; Zhang, G.; Zhang, C.; Zhang, J.; Li, C. An IoT-based appliance control system for smart homes. In Proceedings of the
2013 Fourth International Conference on Intelligent Control and Information Processing (ICICIP), Beijing, China, 9–11 June 2013;
pp. 744–747.
114. Jo, T.H.; Ma, J.H.; Cha, S.H.N. Elderly perception on the internet of things-based integrated smart-home system. Sensors 2021,
21, 1284. [CrossRef]
115. Strategy Analytics. Strategy Analytics: Global Smart Home Market Roaring Back in 2021. Business Wire, 6 July 2021. Available
online: https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20210706005692/en/Strategy-Analytics-Global-Smart-Home-Market-
Roaring-Back-in-2021 (accessed on 14 June 2023).
116. Darianian, M.; Michael, M.P. Smart home mobile RFID-based Internet-of-Things systems and services. In Proceedings of the 2008
International Conference on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering, Phuket, Thailand, 20–22 December 2008; pp. 116–120.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 18 of 19

117. Jia, X.; Feng, Q.; Fan, T.; Lei, Q. RFID technology and its applications in Internet of Things (IoT). In Proceedings of the 2012 2nd
International Conference on Consumer Electronics, Communications and Networks (CECNet), Yichang, China, 21–23 April 2012;
pp. 1282–1285.
118. Tan, P.; Wu, H.; Li, P.; Xu, H. Teaching management system with applications of RFID and IoT technology. Educ. Sci. 2018, 8, 26.
[CrossRef]
119. Nisar, K.; Ibrahim, A.A.A.; Park, Y.J.; Hzou, Y.K.; Memon, S.K.; Naz, N.; Welch, I. Indoor roaming activity detection and analysis
of elderly people using RFID technology. In Proceedings of the 2019 1st International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and
Data Sciences (AiDAS), Ipoh, Malaysia, 19 September 2019; pp. 174–179.
120. Stojkoska, B.L.R.; Trivodaliev, K.V. A review of Internet of Things for smart home: Challenges and solutions. J. Clean. Prod. 2017,
140, 1454–1464. [CrossRef]
121. Samuel, S.S.I. A review of connectivity challenges in IoT-smart home. In Proceedings of the 2016 3rd MEC International
Conference on Big Data and Smart City (ICBDSC), Muscat, Oman, 15–16 March 2016; pp. 1–4.
122. Ray, A.K.; Bagwari, A. IoT based Smart home: Security Aspects and security architecture. In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 9th
International Conference on Communication Systems and Network Technologies (CSNT), Gwalior, India, 10–12 April 2020;
pp. 218–222.
123. Dorri, A.; Kanhere, S.S.; Jurdak, R.; Gauravaram, P. Blockchain for IoT security and privacy: The case study of a smart home. In
Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops, Big Island, HI,
USA, 13–17 March 2017; pp. 618–623.
124. Kim, T.H.; Ramos, C.; Mohammed, S. Smart city and IoT. Future Gener. Comput. Syst. 2017, 76, 159–162. [CrossRef]
125. Zanella, A.; Bui, N.; Castellani, A.; Vangelista, L.; Zorzi, M. Internet of things for smart cities. IEEE Internet Things J. 2014, 1, 22–32.
[CrossRef]
126. Zhang, K.; Ni, J.; Yang, K.; Liang, X.; Ren, J.; Shen, X.S. Security and privacy in smart city applications: Challenges and solutions.
IEEE Commun. Mag. 2017, 55, 122–129. [CrossRef]
127. Tragos, E.Z.; Angelakis, V.; Fragkiadakis, A.; Gundlegard, D.; Nechifor, C.S.; Oikonomou, G.; Gavras, A. Enabling reliable and
secure IoT-based smart city applications. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and
Communication Workshops (PERCOM WORKSHOPS), Budapest, Hungary, 24–28 March 2014; pp. 111–116.
128. Khajenasiri, I.; Estebsari, A.; Verhelst, M.; Gielen, G. A review on Internet of Things solutions for intelligent energy control in
buildings for smart city applications. Energy Procedia 2017, 111, 770–779. [CrossRef]
129. Misbahuddin, S.; Zubairi, J.A.; Saggaf, A.; Basuni, J.; Sulaiman, A.; Al-Sofi, A. IoT based dynamic road traffic manage-
ment for smart cities. In Proceedings of the 2015 12th International Conference on High-Capacity Optical Networks and
Enabling/Emerging Technologies (HONET), Islamabad, Pakistan, 21–23 December 2015; pp. 1–5.
130. Sharif, A.; Li, J.; Khalil, M.; Kumar, R.; Sharif, M.I.; Sharif, A. Internet of things—Smart traffic management system for smart
cities using big data analytics. In Proceedings of the 2017 14th International Computer Conference on Wavelet Active Media
Technology and Information Processing (ICCWAMTIP), Chengdu, China, 15–17 December 2017; pp. 281–284.
131. Rizwan, P.; Suresh, K.; Babu, M.R. Real-time smart traffic management system for smart cities by using Internet of Things and
big data. In Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Emerging Technological Trends (ICETT), Kollam, India, 21–22
October 2016; pp. 1–7.
132. Javaid, S.; Sufian, A.; Pervaiz, S.; Tanveer, M. Smart traffic management system using Internet of Things. In Proceedings of the
2018 20th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), Chuncheon, Republic of Korea, 11–14
February 2018; pp. 393–398.
133. Rabby, M.K.M.; Islam, M.M.; Imon, S.M. A review of IoT application in a smart traffic management system. In Proceedings of the
2019 5th International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering (ICAEE), Dhaka, Bangladesh, 26–28 September 2019;
pp. 280–285.
134. Kaza, S.; Yao, L.C.; Bhada-Tata, P.; Van Woerden, F. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050; Urban
Development; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2018. Available online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/1098
6/30317 (accessed on 24 April 2020).
135. Haribabu, P.; Kassa, S.R.; Nagaraju, J.; Karthik, R.; Shirisha, N.; Anila, M. Implementation of an smart waste management system
using IoT. In Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Sustainable Systems (ICISS), Palladam, India, 7–8
December 2017; pp. 1155–1156.
136. Oralhan, Z.; Oralhan, B.; Yiğit, Y. Smart city application: Internet of things (IoT) technologies based smart waste collection using
data mining approach and ant colony optimization. Int. Arab. J. Inf. Technol. 2017, 14, 423–427.
137. Mdukaza, S.; Isong, B.; Dladlu, N.; Abu-Mahfouz, A.M. Analysis of IoT-enabled solutions in smart waste management. In
Proceedings of the IECON 2018-44th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Washington, DC, USA, 21–23
October 2018; pp. 4639–4644.
138. Hasan, B.M.; Yeazdani, A.M.M.; Istiaque, L.M.; Chowdhury, R.M.K. Smart Waste Management System Using IoT. Ph.D. Thesis,
BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2017.
139. Chen, E.T. The internet of things: Opportunities, issues, and challenges. In The Internet of Things in the Modern Business Environment;
IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2017; pp. 167–187.
Sensors 2023, 23, 7194 19 of 19

140. Gutierrez, J.M.; Jensen, M.; Henius, M.; Riaz, T. Smart waste collection system based on location intelligence. Procedia Comput. Sci.
2015, 61, 120–127. [CrossRef]
141. Dais, S. Industry 4.0—Offense, vision, approach. In Industry 4.0 in Production, Automation and Logistics. Application, Technologies
and Migration; Springer: Wiesbaden, Switzerland, 2014; pp. 625–634.
142. Kolberg, D.; Zuhlke, D. Lean automation enabled by Industry 4.0 technologies. IFAC PapersOnLine 2015, 48, 1870–1875. [CrossRef]
143. Bartodziej, C.J. The Concept Industry 4.0—An Empirical Analysis of Technologies and Applications in Production Logistics; Springer
Fachmedien Wiesbaden: Wiesbaden, Switzerland, 2017.
144. Shrouf, F.; Ordieres, J.; Miragliotta, G. Smart factories in Industry 4.0: A review of the concept and of energy management
approached in production based on the Internet of Things paradigm. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference
on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, Selangor, Malaysia, 9–12 December 2014; pp. 697–701.
145. Yin, Y.; Stecke, K.E.; Li, D. The evolution of production systems from Industry 2.0 through Industry 4.0. Int. J. Prod. Res. 2018, 56,
848–861. [CrossRef]
146. Sarker, I.H.; Khan, A.I.; Abushark, Y.B.; Alsolami, F. Internet of things (iot) security intelligence: A comprehensive overview,
machine learning solutions and research directions. In Mobile Networks and Applications; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany,
2022; pp. 1–17.
147. Seralathan, Y.; Oh, T.T.; Jadhav, S.; Myers, J.; Jeong, J.P.; Kim, Y.H.; Kim, J.N. IoT security vulnerability: A case study of a Web
camera. In Proceedings of the 2018 20th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), Chuncheon,
Republic of Korea, 11–14 February 2018; pp. 172–177.
148. De Donno, M.; Dragoni, N.; Giaretta, A.; Spognardi, A. DDoS-capable IoT malwares: Comparative analysis and Mirai investigation.
Secur. Commun. Netw. 2018, 2018, 7178164. [CrossRef]
149. Kambourakis, G.; Kolias, C.; Stavrou, A. The mirai botnet and the iot zombie armies. In Proceedings of the MILCOM 2017—2017
IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM), Baltimore, MD, USA, 23–25 October 2017; pp. 267–272.
150. Su, J.; Vasconcellos, D.V.; Prasad, S.; Sgurra, D.; Feng, Y.; Sakurai, K. Lightweight classification of IoT malware based on image
recognition. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 42Nd Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference (COMPSAC), Tokyo,
Japan, 23–27 July 2018; Volume 2, pp. 664–669.
151. Xiao, L.; Wan, X.; Lu, X.; Zhang, Y.; Wu, D. IoT security techniques based on machine learning: How do IoT devices use AI to
enhance security? IEEE Signal Process. Mag. 2018, 35, 41–49. [CrossRef]
152. Nawir, M.; Amir, A.; Yaakob, N.; Lynn, O.B. Internet of Things (IoT): Taxonomy of security attacks. In Proceedings of the 2016 3rd
International Conference on Electronic Design (ICED), Phuket, Thailand, 11–12 August 2016; pp. 321–326.
153. Bertino, E.; Islam, N. Botnets and internet of things security. Computer 2017, 50, 76–79. [CrossRef]
154. You, I.; Trnka, M.; Cerny, T.; Stickney, N. Survey of Authentication and Authorization for the Internet of Things. Secur. Commun.
Netw. 2018, 2018, 4351603. [CrossRef]
155. Santoso, F.K.; Vun, N.C. Securing IoT for smart home system. In Proceedings of the 2015 International Symposium on Consumer
Electronics (ISCE), Madrid, Spain, 24–26 June 2015; pp. 1–2.
156. Noura, M.; Atiquzzaman, M.; Gaedke, M. Interoperability in internet of things: Taxonomies and open challenges. Mob. Netw.
Appl. 2019, 24, 796–809. [CrossRef]
157. Lee, E.; Seo, Y.D.; Oh, S.R.; Kim, Y.G. A Survey on Standards for Interoperability and Security in the Internet of Things. IEEE
Commun. Surv. Tutorials 2021, 23, 1020–1047. [CrossRef]
158. Salman, T.; Jain, R. Networking protocols and standards for internet of things. In Internet of Things and Data Analytics Handbook;
Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2017; pp. 215–238.
159. Pal, A.; Rath, H.K.; Shailendra, S.; Bhattacharyya, A. IoT standardization: The road ahead. In Internet of Things-Technology,
Applications and Standardization; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2018; pp. 53–74.
160. Bröring, A.; Ziller, A.; Charpenay, V.; Thuluva, A.S.; Anicic, D.; Schmid, S.; Seidel, C. The big iot api-semantically enabling iot
interoperability. IEEE Pervasive Comput. 2018, 17, 41–51. [CrossRef]
161. Botta, A.; De Donato, W.; Persico, V.; Pescapé, A. Integration of cloud computing and internet of things: A survey. Future Gener.
Comput. Syst. 2016, 56, 684–700. [CrossRef]
162. Stergiou, C.; Psannis, K.E.; Gupta, B.B.; Ishibashi, Y. Security, privacy efficiency of sustainable cloud computing for big data IoT.
Sustain. Comput. Inform. Syst. 2018, 19, 174–184. [CrossRef]
163. Sadeeq, M.M.; Abdulkareem, N.M.; Zeebaree, S.R.; Ahmed, D.M.; Sami, A.S.; Zebari, R.R. IoT and Cloud computing issues,
challenges and opportunities: A review. Qubahan Acad. J. 2021, 1, 1–7. [CrossRef]
164. Lu, Y.; Da Xu, L. Internet of Things (IoT) cybersecurity research: A review of current research topics. IEEE Internet Things J. 2018,
6, 2103–2115. [CrossRef]
165. Biswas, A.R.; Giaffreda, R. IoT and cloud convergence: Opportunities and challenges. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE World
Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT), Seoul, Republic of Korea, 6–8 March 2014; pp. 375–376.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.