CIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 1: General Physics

Summary Notes

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Length and time

● A ruler (rule) is used to measure the length of an object between 1mm and 1m.
● The volume of an object of irregular shape can be measured by placing it into a measuring
cylinder full of water. This causes the water level to rise, and this rise is equal to the volume
of the object.
● A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small distances that a rule
cannot measure.
● Analogue and digital clocks and devices are used to measure time intervals.
● An average value for a small distance and for a short time interval can be found by
measuring multiples (including the period of a pendulum).

Motion

● Speed is defined as the distance traveled per unit time. If the speed of something is
changing, it is accelerating. The acceleration of free fall near to the Earth is constant.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑
● 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
● Distance is measured in mm, cm, m or km and time measured in ms, s, minutes or hours.
Remember to convert units to make sure everything is equivalent! For example if distance
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
is in 𝑘𝑚 and time is in ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠, then calculate and 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × (60 × 60)to get everything
1000
in metres and seconds.
● Velocity is the speed in a given direction.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
● Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒂=
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒗−𝒖
𝒕

In a distance-time graph:

● The gradient is velocity

○ Negative gradient is returning back to the
starting point
● A horizontal line means it is stationary
● If the distance is zero, it is back at the starting point
● A curved line means that the velocity is changing
and it is accelerating.

In a speed-time graph:

● The gradient is acceleration

○ Negative gradient (i.e. negative
acceleration) is deceleration
● If the speed is zero, it is at rest
● A horizontal line means constant speed
● The area under the line is the distance travelled
● A curved line means that the acceleration is
changing.

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Mass and weight

Mass:
● Mass is a measure of how much matter is in an object.
● It is a property that resists change in motion.

Weight:
● Weight is a gravitational force (the effect of a gravitational field on a mass) measured in
Newtons: 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑔
● The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10Nkg -1.
● Weights (and hence masses) can be compared using a balance.

Same object on two different planets:

● The mass is the same
● The gravitational field strength g on the two planets will be different (i.e. not 10 for both) so
the weight is different.

Acceleration in free fall is due to gravity, and is the same as g, i.e. 10𝑚𝑠 −2

Density
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
● The density is defined as the mass per unit volume: 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜌= 𝑉
● The density ρ is in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m 3, the mass m is in kilograms, kg, and
the volume V is in metres cubed, m 3.

To find the density of a liquid:

● Find the mass of the measuring cylinder by placing it on a balance, then fill it with the liquid
and measure the new mass. The difference in masses is the mass of the liquid.
● The volume can be read from the cylinder and the density calculated using the equation.

To find the density of solid:

● Measure the mass of the solid by placing it on a balance.
● If the solid is regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a ruler or other measuring
tool and then use a mathematical formula to find the volume.
● If the solid is irregularly shaped, immerse it in water and measure the volume of the water
displaced. This is the volume of the solid.
● Find the density using the equation.
The density of water is 1g/cm 3; if the density of an object is greater than this it will sink in water - if
less, it will float.

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Forces

Effects of forces

● Newton’s first law states that an object has a constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force.
● Newton’s second law states that 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
● Newton’s third law states that every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.
For example, the force of the Earth’s gravity on an object is equal and opposite to the force
of the object’s gravity on the Earth.

For example, motion of a body falling in a uniform gravitational field:

● Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
● As it falls, it accelerates which increases its speed and hence air resistance
● This causes the resultant force downwards to decrease
● Therefore the acceleration decreases, so it is not speeding up as quickly
● Eventually they are equal and opposite and balance so there is no resultant force
● So there is no acceleration and the terminal velocity is reached

Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating. Air
resistance is a form of friction.

To find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line, they should be added
together if in the same direction and subtracted if in the opposite direction.

For an object moving in a circle, with constant speed:

● The speed is constant, but the direction is always changing
● This means the velocity is always changing
● Therefore it is accelerating and there must be a force perpendicular to its velocity
towards the centre of the circle.

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A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body. This is called deformation:

● Elastic deformation:
○ The object returns to its original shape when the load has been removed, an
example being a spring being stretched under normal usage.
● Plastic deformation:
○ The object does not return to its original shape when the load has been removed,
an example being a spring that has been stretched too far.

Hooke’s law states that for a spring, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 where F is the force applied to the spring in 𝑁, k
is the spring constant in 𝑁𝑚−1 , and x is the extension in 𝑚.

Linear (straight line) force-extension graph:

● Elastic deformation following Hooke’s law
○ The point it stops being linear is called
the limit of proportionality. From then
on, it does not obey Hooke’s law.
● Gradient is the spring constant, k

Non-linear (curved line) force-extension graph:

● Plastic deformation not following Hooke’s law
● After the plastic region, it will fracture

Turning effect

The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect: 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑑
For example, when riding a bike, pressing your foot down on the pedal causes a moment about the
pivot, turning the pedal arms.

● The pivot point is the point which the object can rotate about.
● If a force is applied in the same line as the pivot (see first example in diagram) the object
will not rotate, and will remain stationary.
● If the force applied is in a different line to the pivot, it will rotate in the direction of the force.
○ If it is perpendicular to the object, then the perpendicular distance is the length of
the object (see second example in diagram).
○ If it is not perpendicular to the object, then the perpendicular distance to the pivot
must be found (see third example in diagram).

Remains stationary Rotates clockwise Also rotates clockwise

Conditions for equilibrium

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An object is in equilibrium when the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise
moments (the principle of moments) and there is no resultant force.

The principle of moments can be applied to check whether something balances. An experiment
can be performed to show that there is no net moment on a body in equilibrium by pivoting
a uniform ruler at its centre and placing different masses at different distances from the
centre on either side until it balances, and showing that the clockwise and anticlockwise
moments are equal.

Centre of Mass

The centre of mass of a body is the point at which all of its mass can be considered to act. To
calculate the centre of mass of a card:
1. Hang up the card and suspend a plumb line from the same place.
2. Mark the position of the thread.
3. Repeat the above steps with the card suspended from different places.
4. Where these lines intersect is the centre of mass.

If the centre of mass is below the point of suspension of an object, it will be in stable equilibrium
(e.g. a hanging plant pot). If the centre of mass is above the point of suspension of an object, it will
be in unstable equilibrium (e.g. a pencil placed on its sharp end). If the line of action of the object’s
weight moves outside the base, there will be a resultant moment and it will topple.

Scalars and vectors

● A vector has a magnitude and a direction.

● A scalar has just a magnitude.

Examples:

Scalars Vectors

Distance Displacement

Speed Velocity

Time Acceleration

● Vectors can be represented by

arrows. To determine the resultant of
two vectors graphically, they must be
placed head to tail; the line between
the start and finish is the resultant.

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Momentum

● Momentum is the product of mass and velocity: 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 ×

𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
● Impulse is the product of force and time, equal to the change in momentum:
𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
In a collision, the total momentum before is equal to the total momentum afterwards, known
as the principle of the conservation of momentum.

In elastic collisions, the total kinetic energy before is equal to the total kinetic energy after.

Example:
● A 10kg stationary gun is loaded with a 10g bullet. It is fired, with the bullet travelling
at 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 . What is the recoil speed of the gun?

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔

𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝒗

𝒗 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏

So the recoil speed is 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏 (-0.1ms-1 is the velocity which is a vector, so we take the
magnitude of it as we are finding the speed).

Energy, work and power

Energy transfers

Energy can be transferred between different forms including kinetic, gravitational potential,
chemical, elastic potential, nuclear and internal energy as a result of an event or process.

𝟏
● Kinetic energy: 𝑬𝒌 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
● Gravitational potential energy: 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Energy can be transferred in various ways including:

● Forces e.g. when gravity accelerates an object downwards and gives it kinetic energy.
● Electrical currents e.g. when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light and heat.
● Heating e.g. when a fire is used to heat up an object.
● Waves e.g. vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound.

Work is done when a force moves something through a distance. The work done is equal to the
energy transferred.

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 ● Work done: 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑾 = 𝑭𝒅

Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done. For example, a
lamp with a greater power will be brighter because it transfers more energy from electrical energy
to light and heat energy in a given time.

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸
● Power: 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Energy is always conserved. The total energy before is equal to the total energy after.

For example, when a ball is dropped, gravitational potential energy becomes kinetic energy
as it accelerates downwards. Upon impact with the floor, this kinetic energy will become
thermal energy and sound energy.

In any event or process energy tends to become more spread out among the objects and
surroundings (dissipated).

● The efficiency is the ratio of the useful work done to the total energy supplied, often
expressed as a percentage.
𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
○ Efficiency: 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

● The efficiency of a system can be increased by:

○ Reducing waste output (lubrication, thermal insulation, etc.)
○ Recycling waste output (e.g. absorbing thermal waste and recycling it as input
energy)

Energy sources

It is important to note that apart from geothermal, nuclear and tidal, the sun is the original
source of all energy on earth, released by nuclear fusion.
● Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished as quickly as it is used. Examples
include:
○ Biofuel
○ Wind
○ Hydro-electricity
○ Geothermal
○ Tidal
○ Solar
○ Water waves
It is often more costly and less reliable than non-renewable energy (e.g. the wind is
intermittent and solar energy relies on good weather).

● Non-renewable energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due to the large
energy output per kilogram of fuel. Examples include:
○ Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
○ Nuclear fuel
It is usually cheaper than renewable energy but is becoming less popular because one day
it will run out and it is harmful for the environment (e.g. burning fossil fuels releases
greenhouse gases which cause global warming).

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Pressure
Pressure in fluids causes a net force at right angles to any surface and is measured in Pascals.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝=
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail:

● The force applied is the weight of your body
● The total area is either a single pin point or many points spread out over a larger area
○ So on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater.

Measuring pressure:
● A barometer consists of a tube filled with mercury with a vacuum at
the top. Atmospheric pressure pushes down at the sides causing
the mercury to rise. The height of the mercury is measured to find
atmospheric pressure, where 760 mm or 29.92 in of mercury
corresponds to 1 atm.
● A manometer consists of a U-tube filled with mercury and with a
gas at either end. The difference in the height of the mercury on
either side can be measured to find the pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube.

The pressure beneath a liquid surface increases with depth and density.
● It is given by 𝒑 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉

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 CIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 2: Thermal Physics

Summary Notes

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Simple kinetic molecular model of matter

Molecular model

● Solids
○ Molecules close together in regular pattern
○ Strong intermolecular forces of attraction
○ Molecules vibrate but can’t move about
○ Cannot flow, have fixed shape and cannot be
compressed

● Liquids
○ Molecules close together in random arrangement
○ Weaker intermolecular forces of attraction than solids
○ Molecules move around each other
○ Flow, take the shape of their container and cannot be
compressed

● Gases
○ Molecules far apart in random arrangement
○ Negligible/very weak intermolecular forces
○ Molecules move quickly in all directions
○ Flow, completely fill their container and can be
compressed

Temperature, pressure and volume

Brownian motion:
● Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
● This is due to collisions with other gas molecules
● Massive particles may be moved by light, fast-moving molecules

The temperature of a gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. The higher the
temperature, the greater the average kinetic energy and so the faster the average speed of the
molecules.

Gases exert pressure on a container due to collisions between gas molecules and the wall. When
the molecules rebound off the walls, they change direction so their velocity and therefore
momentum changes. This means they exert a force because force is equal to the change in
momentum over time.

● At a constant volume, if the temperature increases, the pressure increases because the
molecules move faster so they collide harder and more frequently with the walls.
● At a constant temperature, if the volume increases, the pressure decreases because the
molecules collide less frequently with the walls.
○ For a gas at fixed mass and temperature, 𝒑𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, where p is the
pressure in Pascals and V is the volume in m 3.

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Evaporation

● Evaporation is the escape of molecules with higher energy from the surfaces of liquids.
● After they escape, the remaining molecules have a lower average kinetic energy which
means the temperature is lower (i.e. evaporation cools the liquid).
● To increase the rate of evaporation:
o Increase temperature: more higher energy molecules
o Increase surface area: more molecules at the surface
o Draught: molecules are removed before returning to the liquid

Evaporation cools a body in contact with an evaporating liquid (i.e. skin with sweat on it) because
the liquid absorbs energy from the body so that it can continue to evaporate.

Thermal properties and temperature

Thermal expansion

When something is heated, it expands because the molecules take up more space:
● When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more but stay in place, so the relative
order of magnitude of the expansion is small.
● When a liquid is heated, it expands for the same reason as a solid, but the
intermolecular forces are less so it expands more.
● When a gas is heated, the molecules move faster and further apart, so the relative
order of magnitude of the expansion is the greatest.

Some applications and consequences of thermal expansion include:

● Railway tracks having small gaps so that they don’t buckle when they expand
● The liquid in a thermometer expands with temperature and rises up the glass

Thermal capacity

When the temperature of a body rises, its internal energy increases and its molecules vibrate
more.
● The specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature
of 1kg of a substance by 1℃.
○ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ×
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇where ΔE is the change in thermal energy in
J, c is the specific heat capacity in Jkg-1℃-1, m is the mass in kg and ΔT is the
change in temperature in ℃.
● The thermal capacity of a body is how much energy needs to be put in to raise its
temperature by a given amount.
○ The thermal capacity of a system is given by: 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒎𝒄

Melting and boiling

Melting and boiling occur when energy is put in to a body without a change in temperature.
● The melting point is the temperature at which a given solid will melt when heated.
● The boiling point is the temperature at which a given liquid will turn into a gas when heated.
● Condensation is when some molecules in a gas do not have enough energy to remain as
separate molecules, so they come close together and form bonds, becoming liquid.

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 ● Freezing is when the molecules in a liquid slow down enough that their attractions cause
them to arrange themselves into fixed positions, becoming solid.

Evaporation is different to boiling because it can happen at any temperature and only
occurs at the surface of the liquid.

● The specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change the state of 1kg of
a substance.
○ Specific latent heat of fusion is the energy to melt/freeze
○ Specific latent heat of vaporization is energy to boil/condense
● 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑙where E is the energy needed in J, m
is the mass in kg, and l is the specific latent heat in Jkg -1.

When a body changes state, energy goes towards making the molecules more free from each
other rather than increasing their kinetic energy.
Graph showing the temperature of ice with time when
energy is put in at a constant rate:
● From A to B the ice is rising in temperature
● From B to C it is melting into water
● From C to D the water is rising in temperature
● From D to E the water is boiling into steam
● From E to F the steam is rising in temperature

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Measuring Temperature

Thermocouple:
● Contains two different metals which meet
● The temperature difference between them causes a tiny voltage which makes a
current flow; the greater the temperature difference the greater the current.
● Used for high temperatures which vary rapidly

Liquid-in-glass thermometer:
● As temperature rises or falls, the liquid expands or contracts.
● Amount of expansion can be matched to temperature on a scale.

Sensitivity, range and linearity:

● Sensitivity is the change in length per change in temperature.
○ To increase the sensitivity of a thermometer, use a bigger bulb or a narrower
bore.
● Range is the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures.
○ To increase the range of a thermometer, use a wider bore or a longer stem.
● Linearity is when a given change in temperature causes the same change in length.

Fixed points are used to calibrate thermometers. For example, the fixed points of the celsius scale
are the melting point and the boiling point of water.

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Thermal processes

Conduction

● Thermal energy in solids and liquids can be transferred by conduction.

● Non-metals are usually poor conductors known as insulators. As a non-metal is
heated up, the molecules vibrate more and cause adjacent molecules to vibrate more
also, transferring heat energy from hot parts to cooler parts.
● Metals are usually good conductors. The electrons can leave the atoms and move
freely among positively charged ions. As the metal is heated, the ions and electrons
vibrate more. The free electrons collide with ions throughout the metal and transfer
heat energy from hot parts to cooler parts.

Convection

● Thermal energy in fluids (liquids and gases) can be transferred by convection.

● Convection occurs when molecules in a fluid with high thermal energy move to an area with
low thermal energy.
● When part of a fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. It therefore rises up to
less dense areas in the fluid. Denser, colder fluid falls down to take its place.
● Examples of convection include water boilers and hot air balloons.

Radiation

● Thermal energy is also transferred by infrared radiation which does not require a medium.
Infrared radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
● Black bodies with a dull texture are the best absorbers and emitters of radiation. White
bodies with a shiny texture are the best reflectors of radiation.
● The higher the temperature and the greater the surface area of a body the more
infrared radiation emitted.

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 CIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 3: Waves
Summary Notes

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General wave properties

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter; particles oscillate about a fixed point.

Amplitude – the distance from the equilibrium position to the maximum displacement
Wavelength – the distance between a point on one wave and the same point on the next wave
Frequency – the number of waves that pass a single point per second
Speed – the distance travelled by a wave each second

● Speed is related to frequency and wavelength

by: 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 × 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀
Types of waves:
● Transverse waves
○ Has peaks and troughs en.wikibooks.org
○ Vibrations are at right angles to the direction of
travel
○ An example is light
● Longitudinal waves
○ Consists of compressions (particles pushed together) and rarefactions
(particles moved apart)
○ Vibrations are in the same direction as the direction of travel
○ An example is sound

A wavefront is a surface containing points affected in the same way by a wave at a given time such
as crests or troughs.

Reflection:
● Waves reflect off smooth, plane surfaces rather than
getting absorbed
○ Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
● Rough surfaces scatter the light in all directions, so they
appear matte and unreflective
● Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged

Refraction:
● The speed of a wave changes when it enters a new medium
● If the wave enters a more optically dense medium, its speed
decreases and it bends towards the normal
● If the wave enters a less optically dense medium, its speed
increases and it bends away from the normal
● In all cases, the frequency stays the same but the wavelength
changes.
reddit.com
Diffraction:
● Waves spread out when they go around the sides of
an obstacle or through a gap
● The narrower the gap or the greater the
wavelength, the more the diffraction
● Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged

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Light
Reflection
● When light is reflected off a plane mirror, it forms an
image with these characteristics:
○ Upright
○ Same distance from the mirror as the object
○ Same size
○ Virtual
Refraction
● Refraction can be shown when light is passed through a
glass slab at an angle to its normal
● When light enters a more optically dense medium, the Denser medium
angle of incidence (the angle between the incident ray
and the normal) is greater than the angle of refraction
(the angle between the refracted ray and the normal).
The opposite is true when light enters a less optically
dense medium.
● The refractive index n of a medium is defined as the ratio between the speed of light
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
in a vacuum and the speed of light in the medium:𝑛 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
● Snell's law relates the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction to the refractive
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
index by: 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction.

Total internal reflection:

● At a certain angle of incidence called the critical angle, the light
will travel along the boundary between the two media.
● Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle and the light reflects back into the
medium.
● For total internal reflection to occur, the light must also be
travelling from a more optically dense medium into a less
optically dense medium (most common example is glass to air).
● The critical angle can be related to the refractive index by:
1
𝑛=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐
Optical fibres:
● An optical fibre is a long thin rod
of glass surrounded by cladding
which uses total internal
reflection to transfer information
by light, even when bent.
● Extensive use in medicine
(endoscopes, inside-body flexible
cameras) and communications
(high speed data transfer).

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Converging lens:
● A converging lens is a transparent block which brings light rays together at a point called
the principal focus by utilising refraction.
● The focal length is the distance between the centre of the lens and the principal focus.
● The image formed by a converging lens can be either real or virtual.
○ Real images are formed when the distance of the object from the centre of the
lens is greater than the focal length. They are images where light actually
converges to a position and can be projected onto a screen.
○ Virtual images are formed when the distance of the object from the centre of
the lens is smaller than the focal length. They are images where light only
appears to have converged and they cannot be projected onto a screen.
● You can draw ray diagrams for real images (shown on the left below) and virtual images
(shown on the right below).

● The image formed is enlarged/same size/diminished and upright/inverted.

○ The image on the left above is diminished and inverted.
○ The image on the right above is enlarged and upright.
● Converging lenses are used in magnifying glasses and binoculars (to enlarge the image).

Dispersion

When white light is passed through a glass prism, it splits

up into its constituent colours. This happens because the
different colours travel at different speeds in the glass, so
they refract by different amounts.
● The seven colours in order of decreasing
wavelength are red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo and violet (ROYGBIV).
● The greater the wavelength, the slower the speed
in glass and the greater the refractive index.

Light of a single frequency is described as monochromatic.

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Electromagnetic spectrum
Properties of electromagnetic waves:
● Transverse waves
● Do not need a medium
● All electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed of 3.0 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum
and approximately the same speed in air.

You need to learn the main groups of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of wavelength.

westernreservepublicmedia.org

As speed is constant for all electromagnetic waves, as wavelength decreases, frequency must
increase. The higher the frequency of an EM wave, the greater its energy.

Uses of electromagnetic waves:

● Radio waves are used for radio and television communications. They have a long
wavelength and are reflected by the ionosphere.
● Microwaves are used for satellite communication and in microwave oven. They pass
through the ionosphere and penetrate deep into food.
● Infrared radiation is used in remote controllers and infrared cameras.
● Visible light is used in fibre optics.
● Ultraviolet light is used in tanning beds.
● X-rays are used in medical imaging and in security as they can penetrate material easily.
● Gamma radiation is used in medical treatment due to its high energy.

Hazards:
● Too much exposure to ultraviolet light skin increases the risk of skin cancer.
○ Sun cream prevents over-exposure in summer.
● X-rays and gamma rays are ionising radiation that can cause mutations leading to cancer.
○ Exposure to these kinds of radiation should be minimised.
● Microwaves can cause internal heating of body tissues.
● Infrared radiation can cause skin burns.

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Sound Waves

Sound waves are longitudinal waves created by vibrating sources. A medium is needed to transmit
sound waves (such as air).

● The greater the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder it is.

● The greater the frequency of a sound wave, the higher its pitch.

To measure the speed of sound in air, you can make a noise at a known, large distance from a
solid wall and record the time for the echo (reflected sound) to be heard, then use speed =
distance/time, taking into account the fact that the sound had to go there and back.

The speed of sound in air is 343 ms-1, the speed of sound in water is 1493 ms-1, and the
speed of sound in steel is 5130 ms-1.

The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz. Ultrasound is
sound with a frequency greater than 20000 Hz:
● When ultrasound reaches a boundary between two media it is partially reflected back. The
remainder of the waves continue to pass through.
● A transceiver can emit ultrasound and record the reflected waves to find the distance of
things below the surface.
● Ultrasound is used for things such as SONAR and for medical imaging without using
ionising radiation.

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 CIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 4: Electricity and Magnetism

Summary Notes

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Simple phenomena of magnetism

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields. In a magnet, like poles repel
and opposite poles attract.

● Magnetic materials are materials that are attracted to magnets

and can be magnetised (e.g. iron, steel, cobalt, nickel)
● Non-magnetic materials are materials that are not attracted to
magnets and cannot be magnetised (e.g. glass, plastic)

Induced magnetism:
● Magnetic materials can be magnetised by induced magnetism:
○ They can be magnetised by stroking them with a
magnet, hammering them in a magnetic field, or putting
them inside a coil with a direct current through it.
○ They can be demagnetised by hammering them,
heating them or putting them inside a coil with an
alternating current through it.
● Magnetic materials that can be permanently magnetised are
described as magnetically hard (e.g. steel). Magnetic materials that are only temporarily
magnetised are described as magnetically soft (e.g. soft iron).

Permanent magnets vs electromagnets:

● Permanent magnets are a hard-magnetic material that has been permanently magnetised
whereas electromagnets consist of a coil of wire wrapped around a magnetically soft core
and can be turned on and off.
● Permanent magnets are more useful when they do not need to be turned off such as a
fridge magnet, whereas electromagnets have the ability to be turned on and off so they can
be used for situations such as moving scrap metal.

Magnetic fields:
● Field lines around a bar magnet point from north to south
● The direction of a magnetic field line shows the
direction of the force on a north pole at that point.
● Field strength decreases with distance from the magnet
● Plotting compasses are small compasses which show the
direction and shape of a magnetic field.

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Electrical quantities

Electric charge

Charge is measured in coulombs. There are positive and negative charges; unlike charges
attract and like charges repel.
● Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons.
● Conductors allow electrons to flow through them whereas insulators impede the flow of
electrons.
○ Conductors such as metals are used as wires in circuits.
○ When two insulators are rubbed together, electrons move from one to the other and
they become charged. For example, when a rod is rubbed with a cloth, electrons are
transferred from the rod onto the cloth and the rod becomes positively charged.
● Charge can be detected using a gold leaf electroscope.
○ If a positively charged rod is brought close to the
disc on top of the electroscope, electrons are
attracted to the top of the disc, away from the
bottom of the metal stem and the gold leaf. The
gold leaf will then be repelled from the metal stem
because they both become positively charged.
○ If someone then touches the disc, electrons
flow from the ground into the disc as they are
attracted to the rod, and the electroscope now
contains a net negative charge. This is called
charging by induction.

Charges create electric fields (regions in which an electric charge experiences a force); the
direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a positive charge at
that point.
● Electric field lines point away from positive charges and
towards negative charges.
○ The field lines around a charged conducting
sphere are as if the charge was concentrated at
the centre of the sphere.
○ The field lines between two charged plates go in
straight lines from the positive plate to the
negative plate and are equally spaced apart.

Current

Current I is measured in amps and is the rate of flow of charge at a point in the circuit.
● The current is given by I=Q/t.
● It is measured with an ammeter placed in series.
● In metals, current is due to a flow of electrons. Because electrons are negatively
charged, conventional current (which is the rate of flow of positive charge) is in the
opposite direction to the flow of electrons.

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Electromotive force

The electromotive force (e.m.f) of an electrical source of energy is measured in volts and is the
energy supplied by the source per unit charge in driving the charge round a complete
circuit.

Potential difference

Potential difference V is measured in volts (1 V = 1 JC-1) and is the work done per unit charge in
moving between two points in a circuit.
● It is measured with a voltmeter placed in parallel across the component.
● The higher the potential difference, the greater the current.

Resistance

The resistance of a component is given by the potential difference across it divided by the current
through it. The greater the resistance, the harder it is for current to flow through the component.
● As the length of a resistor increases, the resistance increases.
○ The resistance is directly proportional to the length.
● As the diameter of a resistor increases, the resistance decreases.
○ The resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.
In an ohmic conductor, the current is directly proportional to the voltage (i.e. it has constant
resistance). In a non-ohmic conductor (such as a filament lamp), the resistance changes as the
voltage and current change.

As the current increases through a filament lamp, so does the temperature. This means
electrons and ions vibrate more and collide more, increasing resistance.

Electrical working

● Energy is transferred from chemical energy in the battery to electrical energy used by circuit
components and then to the surroundings.
● The power of a component is given by P=IV.
● By using V=IR, this can be shown to be equivalent to P=I2R and P=V2/R.

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Electric circuits

Series:
● Components are connected end to end in one loop
● The same current flows through every component
● The potential difference is shared across each component (i.e. the sum of the p.d.s across
the components is equal to the total p.d. across the supply).
● The total resistance is the sum of the resistances of each component RT = R1 + R2 + …
● The combined e.m.f. of several sources in series is the sum of the individual e.m.f.s

Parallel
● Components are connected to the power supply in separate branches
● The current is shared between each branch (i.e. the sum of the currents in the separate
branches is equal to the current through the source)
● The potential difference is the same across every branch
● The total resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than the resistance of either resistor
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
by itself, and is given by 𝑹 = 𝑹 + 𝑹
𝑻 𝟏 𝟐
● Connecting lamps in parallel is advantageous because if one breaks, current can still pass
through the rest.

A potential divider circuit divides the source voltage

into smaller parts.
● The voltage across a certain component is
𝑅
given by𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × 𝑅 where Vin is the
𝑇
source voltage, R is the resistance of the
component and RT is the total resistance.

A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases

as the temperature increases.

A light dependent resistor is a resistor whose

resistance decreases as light intensity increases.

A relay is an electromagnetically operated switch.

When a small current passes through the
electromagnet, it switches on and attracts an iron
arm. This arm rotates about a pivot and pushes the
contacts in another circuit together.
● They are used to switch on a circuit with a
high current using a circuit with a small
current.

The above three components can be used in

conjunction to operate light-sensitive switches
and temperature-operated alarms.

Diodes only allow current to flow in one

direction, because they have a very high
resistance in the other direction. They can be
used as a rectifier (i.e. convert AC into DC).

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Digital electronics
● Analogue signals vary continuously in amplitude, frequency or both.
● Digital signals are a series of pulses with two states, a high state and a low state.
Digital signals carry more information per second and maintain their quality better
over longer distances compared to analogue signals.
○ All signals get weaker as they travel longer distances and need to be
amplified so they can be returned to the original. Noise in analogue signals is
amplified too when the signal is amplified, so the quality is reduced. However,
in digital signals, the noise is normally a lower amplitude than the high/low
states used, so it can be ignored.

Logic gates:

NOT gate AND gate OR gate NAND gate NOR gate

If the input is If both of the If either of the If both of the If either of the
one state, the inputs are high, inputs is high, outputs are inputs is high,
output will be the output will the output will high, the output the output will
the other state. be high; be high; will be low; be low;
otherwise the otherwise the otherwise the otherwise the
output will be output will be output will be output will be
low. low. high. high.

The symbols for the logic gates are shown in the diagram on the page above. Truth tables
show the corresponding output of one or more gates given all possible inputs.

Dangers of electricity
Hazards:

● Damaged insulation – contact with the wire due to gaps in the insulation can cause an
electric shock or pose a fire hazard by creating a short circuit.
● Overheating of cables – high currents passing through thin wire conductors cause the wires
to heat up to very high temperatures which could melt the insulation and cause a fire.
● Damp conditions – water can conduct a current so wet electrical equipment can cause an
electric shock.

Fuses:

● A fuse is a thin piece of wire which overheats and melts if the current is too high, protecting
the circuit.
● Fuses have a current rating which should be slightly higher than the current used by the
device in the circuit. The most common are 3A, 5A and 13A.

Circuit breakers:

● Circuit breakers consist of an automatic electromagnet switch which which breaks the
circuit if the current rises over a certain value.
● This is better than a fuse as it can be reset and used again, and they operate faster.

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Earthing metal cases:

● Earth wires creates a safe route for current to flow through in the case of a short circuit,
preventing electric shocks.
● Earth wires have a very low resistance so a strong current surges through them which
breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance.

Electromagnetic effects

Electromagnetic induction

● When a wire moves across a magnetic field, an e.m.f. is

induced in it. If it is part of a complete circuit, this causes a
current to flow.
● The induced current flows in such a direction that it
opposes the change that produced it.
● The induced e.m.f. can be increased by moving the wire
more quickly, using a stronger magnetic field, or increasing the length of the wire.
● The direction of the e.m.f. is determined by Fleming’s right hand rule as shown in the
diagram.
● An e.m.f. is also induced if a changing magnetic field links with a conductor. For example,
when a magnet is moved into a coil, the magnetic field through the coil changes and an
e.m.f. is induced in it. The more quickly the magnetic field changes, the greater the e.m.f.

AC generator

● In a direct current, the current only flows in one direction whereas in an alternating current,
the current continuously changes direction.
● An AC generator consists of a coil of wire between two permanent magnets. They
generate AC current because a slip ring commutator is used.
● As the coil rotates, the magnetic field through the coil changes, which induces an
e.m.f. in the coil.
● The magnitude of the e.m.f. is maximum
when the coil is horizontal as the field
lines are cut the fastest, and zero when
vertical as no field lines are being cut.
● The e.m.f. can be increased by increasing
the number of turns on the coil,
increasing the area of the coil, using a
stronger magnet or increasing the speed
of rotation.

Transformer

● A transformer consists of two coils wrapped around a soft iron core and is used to
transform voltages.
● An alternating current in the primary coil creates a changing magnetic field; this
changing magnetic field links with the secondary coil and induces an alternating
e.m.f. in it.

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 ● A step up transformer has more turns on the secondary which means the voltage of the
secondary is greater than that of the primary. A step down transformer has fewer turns on
the secondary which means the voltage of the secondary is less than that of the primary.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑁𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑉
● = = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑁𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
● For a 100% efficient transformer, because the power used is constant, 𝐼𝑝 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑠
● Transformers are used to step up the voltage in power lines which reduces power loss.
This is because a higher voltage means a smaller current and the loss of power due
to P=I2R will be lower.

The magnetic effect of a current

● The right hand grip rule determines the

direction of the magnetic field produced by a
current carrying wire.
● The magnetic field created by a solenoid is
like the field produced by a bar magnet.
● Increasing the current through the wire
increases the strength of the magnetic
field, and reversing the direction of the
current through the wire reverses the
direction of the magnetic field.
● The magnetic effect of current is used in
relays.
Force on a current-carrying conductor
● A force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field. Fleming’s left hand rule shows the
relative directions of the force, field, and current.
○ If a current-carrying wire is fixed in place
between two magnets which rest on a balance,
the wire will exert an equal and opposite force
on the magnets and the reading will change,
showing that a force is acting.
● If the current is reversed or the magnetic field is
reversed, the force will be reversed.
● A force is also exerted on charged particles moving
in a magnetic field (because moving charged particles are current). If a beam of
charged particles moves through a magnetic field, it will be deflected, showing that
there is a force.

DC motors

● DC motors consist of a coil of wire in between two permanent magnets.

● Current flows through the wire and it experiences a turning effect due to the forces exerted
on it in the magnetic field. The turning effect can be increased by:
○ increasing the current
○ using a stronger magnetic field
○ increasing the number of turns on the coil.
● A split ring commutator is used to ensure that the direction that the current flows in
the coil reverses every half turn.

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 CIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 5: Atomic Physics

Summary Notes

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The nuclear atom

An atom consists of:

● A positively charged nucleus made of:
○ Positive protons
○ Neutral neutrons
● Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of
the atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. Isotopes are forms of an element’s
atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
For a given nuclide 𝑍𝐴 𝑋 :
● X is the symbol of the element
● A is the nucleon number (number of neutrons and protons)
● Z is the proton number (number of protons)

Alpha particle scattering:

● An early model of the atom proposed by JJ Thomson
was the plum pudding model - that the atom consisted
of a cloud of positive charge with negatively charged
electrons dotted around inside it.
● In Rutherford’s scattering experiment, he aimed a beam
of alpha particles at a thin gold foil. He concluded that:
○ The atom was composed primarily of empty space
because most alpha particles passed straight through.
○ It had a nucleus which was massive and contained most
of the mass of the atom because it deflected some alpha
particles straight back.
○ The nucleus was positively charged because it repelled
the positively charged alpha particles.
upload.wikimedia.org
Nuclear fission:
● The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission
● Uranium-235 is a commonly used isotope as the fuel in nuclear reactors
● When a Uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a neutron, it splits into two daughter nuclei
and 2 or 3 neutrons, releasing energy in the process
● The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a chain reaction

Nuclear fusion:
● The process of fusing two nuclei to form a larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion
● Energy is released during this process
● Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other stars release energy

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Radioactivity
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus into a more stable
one by the release of radiation. It is a random process which means one cannot know what
nucleus will decay and when it will decay because it is down to chance.

Decay processes:

● Alpha:
○ A heavy nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus).
○ The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
equation: 𝑍 𝑋→ 𝑍−2 𝑌+ 2 𝛼
○ They are highly ionising and weakly penetrating. They are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
○ They are slightly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
● Beta:
○ A neutron turns into a proton and emits a beta particle (electron)
○ The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
𝐴 𝐴 0
equation: 𝑍 𝑋→ 𝑍+1 𝑌+
−1 𝑒−
○ They are moderately ionising and moderately penetrating. They are stopped by a
thin sheet of aluminium.
○ They are greatly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
● Gamma:
○ After a previous decay, a nuclei with excess energy emits a gamma particle.
○ Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
○ They are lowly ionising and highly penetrating. They are stopped by many
centimetres of lead.
○ They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Some ways of detecting radiation include:

● Photographic film:
○ The more radiation absorbed by the film, the darker it gets (the film is initially white).
○ They are worn as badges by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
● Geiger-Muller tube:
○ A Geiger-Muller tube is a tube which can detect radiation.
○ Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a clicking sound. The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.
● Cloud chamber:
○ A cloud chamber is a small container full of water vapour.
○ Alpha particles create short, broad tracks while beta particles produce long, wispy
tracks.

Weak radiation that can be detected from external sources is called background radiation. Sources
of background radiation include:
● Cosmic rays
● Radiation from underground rocks
● Nuclear fallout
● Medical rays

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 ● The half-life of an isotope is
the time taken for half the
nuclei to decay, or the time
taken for the activity to
halve.
● In the graph, the count rate
drops from 80 to 40 counts
per minute in 2 days, which
means the half-life is
around 2 days.
● Background radiation
has to be subtracted
before attempting to
perform half-life
calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
● Smoke detectors
○ Long half life alpha emitters are used in smoke detectors.
○ Alpha particles cause a current in the alarm.
○ If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are absorbed and the
current drops, triggering the alarm.
● Thickness monitoring
○ Long half life beta emitters can be used for thickness monitoring of metal
sheets.
○ A source and receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its
production. If there is a drop or rise in the number of beta particles detected,
then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be adjusted.
● Sterilisation of equipment
○ Gamma emitters are used to kill bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is
safe for operations.
● Diagnosis and treatment
○ Short half life gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used as tracers in
medicine as they concentrate in certain parts of the body.
■ The half life must be long enough for diagnostic procedures to be
performed, but short enough to not remain radioactive for too long.
○ Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to destroy tumours with
a high dose of radiation.

Exposure to radiation can destroy living cell membranes by ionisation, causing the cells to die, or
damage DNA which causes mutations that could lead to cancer.

Safety measures include:

● Minimising the time of exposure to radiation. For example, radioactive tracers with a short
half life should be used.
● Keeping as big a distance from the radioactive source as possible. They should be handled
using tongs and held far away from people.
● Using shielding against radiation, such as the concrete shielding around a nuclear reactor.
Radioactive sources must also be kept in a lead-lined box.

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