Pressure

Learning Outcomes

Pressure
 Pressure is defined as force acting on unit area where the force acts perpendicular to the
surface.

𝐹
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 =
𝐴
 It is a scalar quantity
 Unit: Pa, N/m2

Examples
Assignment 7 Qns 1 and 2

Pressure in a fluid (liquid)

 A fluid can exert a pressure in any direction. (divers experience the same water pressure on all
parts of their body)
 At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions at a given depth.

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Examples
Assignment 7 Qns 3 and 4

Hydraulic systems
How is pressure transmitted in a hydraulic press?
• It is based on Pascal’s theory that when pressure is
applied to a fluid in an enclosed system, the pressure
throughout the fluid is constant.
• This works for incompressible liquids
• Make use of P = F/A to calculate the force on piston B
Presence of air reduces stiffness or slows the response of
the system. It may also require greater power to be
delivered to the system as energy is used to compress the
hydraulic lift system air bubbles
 Principle of conservation of energy applies in hydraulic systems:
work done on piston A = work done by fluid to move piston B.

Applications of hydraulic systems

Example
Assignment 7 Qn 5 & 11

Gas pressure

 By the definition of pressure, gas pressure is the average force per unit area exerted by gas
particles when they collide with the walls of the container.

When the volume of the gas decreases, the frequency

of collision between particles and the wall
increases, therefore average force exerted on the wall
increases. As a result, pressure increases.

Extension: When a gas is compressed, it undergoes a change of state. Pressurised carbon dioxide
is used to decaffeinate coffee beans because caffeine dissolves in carbon dioxide.

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Atmospheric Pressure

If the height of the atmosphere is 8.5 km, what is

the average pressure due to the atmosphere at
sea level? (average density of air, ρ = 1.225
kg/m3, g = 9.81 N/kg)

Measuring atmospheric pressure (barometer)

• In reality, a perfect vacuum cannot exist, so there will be a little air trapped above the mercury in
the glass tube.
• What happens if the barometer is brought to a mountaintop?
Answer: The weight of the atmosphere pressing down on the mountaintop is smaller compared
to the atmospheric pressure pressing down on Earth at sea level. Therefore, on the
mountaintop, less mercury will flow into the glass tube and the height of the mercury column
decreases.

Units of pressure Corresponding atmospheric pressure

Pa or N/m2 1.01325 × 105 Pa or N/m2
cmHg, mmHg (mmHg is also known as torr) 76 cmHg or 760 mmHg
atm 1 atm
bar 1.01325 bar

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 • The pressure at B is equal to the atmospheric
pressure
• The atmospheric pressure can be calculated if the
height h of the mercury barometer is known. h is
usually about 76 cm.
• Density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3
• Therefore, Patm = hρg
= 0.76 m × 13600 × 10
= 1.03 × 105 Pa
• Atmospheric pressure is usually expressed as 76
cmHg. (Hg = chemical symbol of mercury)

The height of the liquid column is

independent of its inclination

(a) State the atmospheric pressure shown by the

barometer.

(b) When air was introduced into the barometer

tube, the difference between the mercury levels in
the barometer tube and the reservoir became 746
mm. Deduce the pressure of the air above the
mercury in the barometer tube.

c) After the air was introduced, the barometer tube

is lowered so that its lower end is immersed more
deeply in the reservoir. By considering the air above
the mercury in the barometer tube, explain briefly
why the difference in mercury levels in the tube and
reservoir is now less than 746 mm.

Example
If mercury (ρm = 13 600 kg m−3) in a barometer is replaced with water (ρw = 1000 kg m−3),
determine the height of the water column. The height of a mercury column is 760 mm at sea level.

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Example

In a simple barometer that measures atmospheric pressure, the mercury column is measured at
760 mm at sea level. Some air is then introduced into the vacuum at the top of the mercury column.
(a) Explain how this will affect the mercury column.
(b) Determine the pressure due to the trapped air, given that the height of the mercury column
is now 500 mm. Atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg.

Example

What are the pressures in mm Hg at the points (A to F) indicated on the mercury barometer?

Assignment 7 Qns 6 to 9

Why does atmospheric pressure

decrease with height?

Explain the following scenarios using pressure concepts.

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Example
What is the total pressure on a scuba diver when she is 12 m
below the surface of the ocean? Assume standard atmospheric
conditions.
(Patm = 1.0 ×105 Pa, density of sea water = 1.03 ×103 kg/m3)

Manometer
Measuring pressure difference using a manometer

Since both ends of the tube are exposed to the

surroundings, the pressure on the surface of the liquid is
equal in both ends of the tube.

Pgas < Patm

Pressure difference = Patm – Pgas = ρgh

Pgas > Patm

Pressure difference = Pgas – Patm = ρgh

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Example

The pressure pg of a gas in a container is measured using a

manometer and found to be 56 cm Hg. Determine the height
difference between the two arms, given that the atmospheric
pressure p0 is 76 cm Hg.

Assignment 7 Qn 10

Example
A water manometer is connected to a laboratory gas supply, as shown in the figure.

Before the gas supply is connected, the water is at the same level on the two sides of the
manometer.
(a) Explain why
(i) the water level moves down on the left side of the manometer when the gas supply is
connected.
(ii) the water levels finally remain constant at the levels shown.
(b) Calculate the pressure difference being measured by the manometer in the figure. The
gravitational field strength g is 10 N/kg and the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
(c) Suggest how the manometer can be changed to measure greater pressure differences using a
tube of the same length.

Example

Fig 1.1 Fig 1.2 Fig 1.3

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(a) State whether the pressure inside the gas pipe in Fig 1.1 is larger than or smaller than
atmospheric pressure.
(b) The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and the gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg. Calculate the
pressure difference between the gas inside the pipe and atmospheric pressure in Fig 1.1.
(c) The manometers shown in Fig 1.2 and 1.3 are connected to the same gas pipe at the same
pressure as shown in Fig 1.1.
On Fig 1.2 and 1.3, draw the levels of the liquid in each manometer if
(i) the manometer in Fig 1.2 contains water and has tubes with twice the diameter of the tubes
in Fig 1.1.
(ii) the manometer in Fig 1.3 contains a liquid with density half that of water.

Extension
How does an aneroid barometer work?

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 Temperature

Some definitions

Temperature Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of an object

It determines the direction of net thermal energy transfer between two objects
SI unit: Kelvin
Heat or thermal It refers to the amount of thermal energy that is being transferred from a hotter to a
energy colder region.
SI unit: Joule
Temperature Method used to quantify the variable which is temperature
scale
Fahrenheit Used in America
scale Has 2 fixed points ice point (32°F) and steam point (212°F)

Celsius scale Has 2 fixed points ice point (0°C) and steam point (100°C)

Thermodynamic Temperature in kelvin = Temperature in °C + 273

scale

Thermometric substances

• Thermometric substances have physical (thermometric) properties that vary uniformly and
continuously with temperature.

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Calibration of a liquid-in-glass thermometer

Determining the fixed points

 Melting point of pure ice and boiling point of water is chosen as the fixed points because they are
common physical phenomena, which are easily reproducible.

 Immerse the bulb and the lower part of the thermometer

stem into a funnel containing pure melting ice.
 When the mercury level in the thermometer stem is
steady, make a mark l0 at that level on the stem. This is
the ice point.

 Insert the thermometer into the apparatus. The bulb

should be just above the boiling water.
 The stem of the thermometer should protrude from the
top of the apparatus.
 When the mercury level in the thermometer stem
remains steady, make a mark l100 at that level on the
stem. This is the steam point.

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Thermocouple

 Consists of two wires made of different metals

such as iron and copper
 The wires are joined to form two junctions, which
produce a small electromotive force when there is a
temperature difference between them.

Advantages
• Wire junction is small and needs very little heat to warm it up. Responds very quickly to temperature
changes and can be used in very small or precise locations.
• Output is an electrical signal which can be used to operate electrical equipment capable of giving
warnings of sudden temperature changes or keeping continuous records of temperatures. (e.g. in
airplanes)
• Depending on the metals chosen, temperatures up to 1500˚C can be measured.

Questions
The resistance of a piece of platinum wire is 450 Ω when placed in pure melting ice and 560 Ω when placed
in steam above boiling water. Determine the temperature of a molten substance if the resistance of the wire
is found to be 1260 Ω when placed in the substance.

The range of a mercury-in-glass thermometer is from −10°C to 110°C. The length of the mercury thread
between the −10°C and 110°C marks on the stem is 20 cm. Determine the temperature when the length of
the mercury thread is 12 cm from the −10°C mark.

A thermocouple is used to measure the temperature in a gas turbine. An e.m.f. of 45 mV is obtained when
junction X is kept at 0°C and junction Y is kept at 100°C. The e.m.f. changes to 65 mV when the hot junction
is placed in the gas turbine.
(a) Why is the thermocouple suitable for measuring the temperature in a gas turbine?
(b) Calculate the temperature in the gas turbine.

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13. A cup is filled with 0.3 kg of water at 50 °C and a pail is filled with 5.0 kg of water at 30 °C.
Which of the following is false?

A The water in the cup has a higher temperature than the water in the pail.
B There is more mass of water in the pail than in the cup.
C There is more thermal energy stored in the pail than in the cup.
D When the cup is placed together with the pail, heat will flow from the pail to the cup.

14. The resistance of an alloy wire is 25 Ω when it is placed in a cup of pure melting ice. At room
temperature of 28 °C, the resistance is 38 Ω. If the wire is put in boiling water at 100 °C, what
will be the resistance?

A 28 Ω B 46 Ω C 71 Ω D 152 Ω