MATH 9 5.

Sum and Product of Roots of Quadratic

Equations
1st Quarter
 Vieta's Formulas
Table of Contents:  Relationship between Coefficients and
Roots
1. Quadratic Equations

 Definition and Form of Quadratic

Equations 6. Equations Transformable to Quadratic
 Solving Quadratic Equations by Equations (Including Rational Algebraic
Factoring Equations)
 Solving Quadratic Equations by
 Recognizing Equations Transformable to
Completing the Square
Quadratic Form
 Quadratic Formula
 Conversion of Equations to Quadratic
 Discriminant and Nature of Roots
Form

2. Quadratic Inequalities
7. Quadratic Functions
 Solving Quadratic Inequalities
 Definition and Form of Quadratic
 Graphical Representation of Quadratic
Functions
Inequalities
 Vertex Form and Standard Form of
Quadratic Functions
 Axis of Symmetry and Vertex of
3. Rational Algebraic Equations
Quadratic Functions
 Definition and Examples of Rational
Algebraic Equations
 Solving Rational Algebraic Equations 8. Graphs of Quadratic Functions
 Restrictions and Extraneous Solutions
 Plotting Quadratic Functions
 Vertex, Axis of Symmetry, and Intercepts
 Characteristics of Graphs (Concavity,
4. Nature of Roots of Quadratic Equations
Maximum/Minimum Points)
 Discriminant and Nature of Roots
 Real and Distinct Roots
 Real and Equal Roots 9. Finding the Equation using Quadratic
 Complex Roots Function

 Determining the Quadratic Function from

Graphical Information
 Using Data Points to Find the Quadratic
Equation
 10. Applications of Quadratic Functions such as factoring, completing the
square, or applying the quadratic
 Projectile Motion
formula.
 Maximum/Minimum Problems
 Optimization Problems  Vertex Form: The vertex form of a
 Revenue and Profit Problems quadratic equation is a(x - h)^2 + k =
0, where (h, k) represents the
coordinates of the vertex. This form
Lesson
Lesson Quadratic
1: 1: Sets Equations
provides information about the vertex
of the parabolic graph and is helpful
 Definition: A quadratic equation is a
for analyzing transformations and
polynomial equation of the second
graphing quadratic functions.Union:
degree, meaning it contains a variable
The union of two sets A and B,
raised to the power of 2. In general
denoted as A ∪ B, is a set that contains
form, a quadratic equation is written as
all the elements present in either A or
ax^2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c
B, or in both.
are constants, and x represents the
variable. Quadratic equations often  Factored Form: The factored form of a
arise in various areas of mathematics quadratic equation is (x - r1)(x - r2) = 0,
and have a wide range of applications where r1 and r2 are the roots or
in science, engineering, and solutions of the equation. This form is
economics. advantageous for finding the roots of a
 History: Quadratic equations have a quadratic equation quickly and
long history dating back to ancient efficiently.
civilizations. The Babylonians,
Characteristics of Quadratic Equations:
Egyptians, and Greeks all developed
methods for solving quadratic Quadratic equations possess several notable
equations. Ancient mathematicians characteristics.
made significant contributions to the
 Degree: Quadratic equations have a
understanding of quadratic equations,
degree of 2, indicating that the highest
including the discovery of the
power of the variable is 2. This
quadratic formula.
distinguishes them from linear equations
(degree 1) and higher-degree
polynomial equations.
Types of Quadratic Equations:
 Parabolic Shape: The graph of a
Quadratic equations can be classified into quadratic equation is a parabola.
different types based on their forms. The Depending on the coefficient of the x^2
three common forms are: term (a), the parabola can open upwards
(a > 0) or downwards (a < 0). The shape
 Standard Form: The standard form of a
and orientation of the parabola are
quadratic equation is ax^2 + bx + c =
crucial in understanding the behavior of
0, where a, b, and c are constants, and
quadratic functions.
a ≠ 0. This form is useful for solving
 Discriminant: The discriminant (Δ) of a
quadratic equations using methods
quadratic equation is the part of the
 quadratic formula under the square root equation into a perfect square trinomial. To
sign: Δ = b^2 - 4ac. It provides valuable solve a quadratic equation by completing the
information about the nature of the square, follow these steps:
roots of the quadratic equation. For
Example:
example, if Δ > 0, the equation has two
distinct real roots; if Δ = 0, the equation Solve the quadratic equation: x^2 + 6x - 7 =
has two real and equal roots; if Δ < 0, 0.
the equation has two complex roots.

Solution:
Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring:
To solve this quadratic equation by
Factoring is a method used to solve quadratic completing the square, we can rewrite it as
equations by expressing the equation as a follows:
product of two binomials. To solve a
x^2 + 6x - 7 = 0
quadratic equation by factoring, follow these
steps: (x + 3)^2 - 16 = 0

Example: (x + 3)^2 = 16

Solve the quadratic equation: x^2 - 7x + 10 = Taking the square root of both sides, we get:
0. x + 3 = ±√16

x + 3 = ±4
Solution: Solving these equations, we find:
To solve this quadratic equation by factoring, x = -3 + 4 or x = -3 - 4
we can rewrite it as follows:
x = 1 or x = -7
x^2 - 7x + 10 = 0
Therefore, the solutions to the quadratic
(x - 2)(x - 5) = 0 equation are x = 1 and x = -7.
Setting each factor equal to zero, we get:

x - 2 = 0 or x - 5 = 0 Quadratic Formula:
Solving these equations, we find: The quadratic formula provides a direct
x = 2 or x = 5 method to find the roots of a quadratic
equation. It is given by:
Therefore, the solutions to the quadratic
equation are x = 2 and x = 5.
Example:

Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing Solve the quadratic equation: 3x^2 + 2x - 1 =

the Square: 0.

Completing the square is a technique used to

solve quadratic equations by transforming the
Solution:

To solve this quadratic equation using the Examples:

quadratic formula, we can substitute the
1. Solve the quadratic equation 2x^2 - 5x
values into the formula:
+ 2 = 0.
x = (-b ± √(b^2 - 4ac))/(2a)
Solution:
x = (-2 ± √(2^2 - 4(3)(-1)))/(2(3))
Step 1: Identify the coefficients:
x = (-2 ± √(4 + 12))/(6)
a = 2, b = -5, c = 2
x = (-2 ± √16)/(6)
Step 2: Apply the quadratic formula:
x = (-2 ± 4)/(6)
x = (-b ± √(b^2 - 4ac))/(2a).
Simplifying further, we get:
Step 3: Substitute the values:
x = (2/6) or x = (-6/6)
x = (-(-5) ± √((-5)^2 - 4(2)(2)))/(2(2))
x = 1/3 or x = -1
Step 4: Simplify: x = (5 ± √(25 - 16))/4
Therefore, the solutions to the quadratic
equation are x = 1/3 and x = -1.
Step 5: Evaluate: x = (5 ± √9)/4.

Discriminant and Nature of Roots: Step 6: Simplify further: x = (5 ± 3)/4

The discriminant (Δ) is a value derived from Step 7: Find the solutions:
the coefficients of a quadratic equation and is x = 2 or x = 7/2.
used to determine the nature of its roots. The
discriminant is given by Δ = b^2 - 4ac. 2. Find the roots of the quadratic
Example: equation x^2 - 6x + 9 = 0

Find the nature of the roots for the quadratic

equation: 2x^2 + 5x + 2 = 0. Solution:

Step 1: Identify the coefficients:

Solution: a = 1, b = -6, c = 9.

To determine the nature of the roots using Step 2: Apply the quadratic formula:
the discriminant, we can calculate the x = (-b ± √(b^2 - 4ac))/(2a).
discriminant value:
Step 3: Substitute the values:
Δ = (5^2) - 4(2)(2)
x = (-(-6) ± √((-6)^2 - 4(1)(9)))/(2(1)).
Δ = 25 - 16
Step 4: Simplify:
Δ=9
x = (6 ± √(36 - 36))/2.
Since the discriminant (Δ) is positive, the
quadratic equation has two distinct real roots. Step 5: Evaluate: x = (6 ± √0)/2.
 Step 6: Simplify further: x = (6 ± 0)/2.

Step 7: Find the solutions: Types of Quadratic Inequalities:

x = 3 (with multiplicity 2). 1. Solution Set: The solution set of a

quadratic inequality consists of all
the values of x that satisfy the
Lesson Quadratic Inequalities inequality.
 2:Lesson 1: Sets
2. Interval Notation: The solution set is often
represented using interval notation, such
 Definition: Quadratic inequalities are as (a, b) or [a, b], where a and b represent
inequalities that involve quadratic the lower and upper bounds of the
expressions. They are written in the interval.
form ax^2 + bx + c > 0, ax^2 + bx + c Examples:
< 0, ax^2 + bx + c ≥ 0, or ax^2 + bx +
c ≤ 0, where a, b, and c are constants, 1. Solve the quadratic inequality x^2 -
and x represents the variable. 4x > 3.
 History: The study of quadratic
inequalities has been influenced by the Solution:
historical development of quadratic
equations. As mathematicians explored Step 1: Rewrite the inequality in
quadratic equations, they also standard form: x^2 - 4x - 3 > 0
investigated the properties and
solutions of quadratic inequalities. Step 2: Factorize the quadratic
Ancient civilizations, including the expression: (x - 3)(x + 1) > 0.
Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks,
made significant contributions to the Step 3: Identify the critical points:
understanding of inequalities, paving x = 3 and x = -1.
the way for the study of quadratic
inequalities. Step 4: Plot the critical points on a
number line and choose test points
in each interval.
Types of Quadratic Inequalities:

1. Greater than (>): Quadratic Step 5: Determine the sign of the

inequalities in the form ax^2 + bx + quadratic expression in each
c > 0 or ax^2 + bx + c ≥ 0 indicate interval.
that the quadratic expression is
greater than zero or non-negative, Step 6: Write the solution set in
respectively. interval notation: (-∞, -1) ∪ (3, +∞).
2. Less than (<): Quadratic inequalities
in the form ax^2 + bx + c < 0 or
ax^2 + bx + c ≤ 0 indicate that the Examples:
quadratic expression is less than 2. Solve the quadratic inequality 2x^2
zero or non-positive, respectively. + 5x ≤ 3
 Solution: points on the graph, such as (0, 0), (1, -3), and
(4, 0), to get an idea of its shape.
Step 1: Rewrite the inequality in Next, we shade the region below the graph
standard form: 2x^2 + 5x - 3 ≤ 0. since we are dealing with y < x^2 - 4x.
Step 2: Factorize the quadratic The shaded region represents the solution set
expression: (2x - 1)(x + 3) ≤ 0. of the quadratic inequality.
Step 3: Identify the critical points: Therefore, the graph of the quadratic
inequality y < x^2 - 4x is the region below the
x = 1/2 and x = -3.
graph of the quadratic equation y = x^2 - 4x.
Step 4: Plot the critical points on a
number line and choose test points
in each interval. Understanding how to solve quadratic
inequalities and graphically represent them is
Step 5: Determine the sign of the
essential in interpreting and solving real-
quadratic expression in each
world problems. By using these techniques,
interval.
you can determine the solution sets and
Step 6: Write the solution set in visualize the behavior of quadratic inequalities
interval notation: (-∞, -3] ∪ [1/2, on the coordinate plane.
+∞).

Graphical Representation of Quadratic Lesson Rational Algebraic Equations

 3:Lesson 1: Sets
Inequalities:

Graphical representation is a useful tool to  Definition: Rational algebraic equations

visualize and analyze quadratic inequalities. are equations that involve rational
By graphing the quadratic inequality, we can expressions, where a rational
determine the solution set and understand its expression is the quotient of two
behavior on the coordinate plane. polynomial expressions. Rational
algebraic equations can be written in
the form P(x)/Q(x) = R(x)/S(x), where
Example: P(x), Q(x), R(x), and S(x) are polynomials
and x represents the variable.
Graph the quadratic inequality: y < x^2 - 4x.
 History: The study of rational algebraic
equations dates back to ancient
Solution: civilizations, where mathematicians
developed methods for solving
To graph this quadratic inequality, we can first problems involving fractions and ratios.
plot the graph of the quadratic equation y = Over time, various mathematicians
x^2 - 4x. contributed to the understanding and
The graph is a downward-opening parabola solution techniques of rational
with its vertex at (2, -4). We can plot some algebraic equations, including notable
 figures like Fibonacci, François Viète, Solving Rational Algebraic Equations:
and René Descartes.Examples:
To solve rational algebraic equations, follow
these steps:
Examples:
1. (x^2 + 3)/(x - 1) = 2 a. Identify any domain restrictions by finding
2. (2x - 1)/(x + 2) = 3/(x - 4) values of x that make the denominator zero.

b. Simplify the rational expressions, if

possible, by canceling common factors in the
Types of Rational Algebraic Equations:
numerator and denominator.
1. Linear Rational Equations: These are
c. Cross-multiply and solve the resulting
rational equations where the highest
equation for the variable.
power of the variable in both the
numerator and denominator is 1. d. Check for extraneous solutions by verifying
2. Quadratic Rational Equations: These if the obtained solutions satisfy the original
are rational equations where the equation.
highest power of the variable in either
the numerator or denominator is 2.
3. Higher-Degree Rational Equations: Example:
These are rational equations where the Solve the rational algebraic equation: (x +
highest power of the variable in either 2)/(x - 1) = 2.
the numerator or denominator is
greater than 2.
Solution:
Key Concepts: Step 1: Identify domain restrictions: x ≠ 1 (to
 Vertical Asymptotes: Rational algebraic avoid division by zero).
equations may have vertical Step 2: Simplify the rational expression, if
asymptotes where the denominator of possible: No simplification needed.
the rational expression is equal to zero.
 Domain Restrictions: Rational algebraic Step 3: Cross-multiply and solve the resulting
equations often have domain equation:
restrictions where certain values of the (x + 2) = 2(x - 1)
variable cause the denominator to be
x + 2 = 2x - 2
equal to zero, making the expression
undefined. 2=x
 Simplification: It is often useful to
Step 4: Check for extraneous solutions:
simplify rational algebraic equations by
Substitute x = 2 back into the original
canceling common factors in the
equation.
numerator and denominator.
[(2) + 2]/[(2) - 1] = 2

4/1 = 2

The solution x = 2 satisfies the equation.

Restrictions and Extraneous Solutions:
Lesson 4: Nature of Roots of Quadratic
Rational algebraic equations may have
restrictions on the domain due to values that
 Definition: The nature of roots of
make the denominator zero. These
quadratic equations refers to the types
restrictions help determine the valid solution
of solutions they possess. Depending
set. Additionally, when solving rational
on the values of the coefficients and
equations, it is essential to check for
the discriminant, quadratic equations
extraneous solutions, which are solutions
can have real and distinct roots, real
obtained during the solving process but do
and equal roots, or complex roots.
not satisfy the original equation.
 Real and Distinct Roots:
When a quadratic equation has real
and distinct roots, it means that the
Example:
equation intersects the x-axis at two
Solve the rational algebraic equation: (x + distinct points. This occurs when the
1)/(x - 3) = 2. discriminant (Δ) is positive.
 Real and Equal Roots:
A quadratic equation has real and
Solution: equal roots when the discriminant (Δ)
is zero. In this case, the equation
Step 1: Identify domain restrictions: x ≠ 3 (to
avoid division by zero). touches the x-axis at a single point,
indicating that it has one real solution
Step 2: Simplify the rational expression, if that is repeated.
possible: No simplification needed.  Complex Roots:
Step 3: Cross-multiply and solve the resulting A quadratic equation has complex
equation: roots when the discriminant (Δ) is
negative. In this case, the equation
(x + 1) = 2(x - 3) does not intersect the x-axis, indicating
x + 1 = 2x - 6 that it has no real solutions. Instead, it
has two complex solutions that are
7=x conjugates of each other, involving the
Step 4: Check for extraneous solutions: imaginary unit i.
Substitute x = 7 back into the original  History: The understanding of the
equation. nature of roots of quadratic equations
has evolved throughout history.
[(7) + 1]/[(7) - 3] = 2
Ancient mathematicians, such as the
8/4 = 2 Babylonians and Greeks, recognized
different cases of quadratic equations,
The solution x = 7 satisfies the equation.
but the formal understanding of
discriminants and the nature of roots
developed during the Renaissance
period with mathematicians like
François Viète and René Descartes.
 Δ=9

Vieta's Formulas:

Vieta's formulas are a set of relationships Since the discriminant (Δ) is positive (Δ > 0),
between the coefficients of a quadratic the quadratic equation has real and distinct
equation and the sums and products of its roots.
roots. For a quadratic equation ax^2 + bx + c
= 0 with roots α and β, Vieta's formulas state:
2. Determine the nature of the roots for
The sum of the roots α + β is equal to -b/a.
the quadratic equation: x^2 + 4x + 4 =
The product of the roots α * β is equal to c/a. 0.

Vieta's formulas provide a convenient way to

express the relationship between the
Solution:
coefficients and roots of a quadratic equation
without directly solving for the roots. The coefficients of the equation are a = 1, b =
4, and c = 4. Calculating the discriminant:

Δ = b^2 - 4ac
Relationship between Coefficients and Roots:
Δ = 4^2 - 4(1)(4)
The coefficients of a quadratic equation are
directly related to its roots. Specifically: Δ = 16 - 16

The coefficient of x^2, a, is proportional to Δ=0

the product of the roots α * β.

The coefficient of x, b, is proportional to the

Since the discriminant (Δ) is zero (Δ = 0), the
negative sum of the roots - (α + β).
quadratic equation has real and equal roots.
These relationships help us understand how
changes in the coefficients affect the
properties of the roots, such as their sum and 3. Determine the nature of the roots for
product. the quadratic equation: x^2 + 2x + 5 =
0.
Examples:

1. Determine the nature of the roots for

the quadratic equation: 2x^2 + 5x + 2 Solution:
= 0.
The coefficients of the equation are a = 1, b =
Solution: 2, and c = 5. Calculating the discriminant:

The coefficients of the equation are a = 2, b = Δ = b^2 - 4ac

5, and c = 2. Calculating the discriminant:
Δ = 2^2 - 4(1)(5)
Δ = b^2 - 4ac
Δ = 4 - 20
Δ = 5^2 - 4(2)(2)
Δ = -16
Δ = 25 - 16
 solutions. It provides information
about the relationship between the
Since the discriminant (Δ) is negative (Δ < 0),
coefficients of the quadratic
the quadratic equation has complex roots.
equation.
 Product of Roots:
The product of the roots
Key Concepts:
represents the multiplicative
 Real and distinct roots occur property of the solutions. It
when the discriminant is provides information about the
positive and the equation constant term of the quadratic
crosses the x-axis at two distinct equation.
points.  History: The study of rational algebraic
 Real and equal roots occur when the equations dates back to ancient
discriminant is zero, and the equation civilizations, where mathematicians
touches the x-axis at a single point. developed.
 Complex roots occur when the
discriminant is negative, and the
Types of Quadratic Equations:
equation does not intersect the x-
axis.Understanding principal roots and  Monic Quadratic Equations: These are
irrational numbers is essential for quadratic equations where the
working with advanced mathematical coefficient of x^2 is 1. They have the
concepts, such as algebra, form x^2 + bx + c = 0.
trigonometry, and calculus. These  Non-Monic Quadratic Equations: These
concepts expand our number system are quadratic equations where the
beyond rational numbers and allow us coefficient of x^2 is not 1. They have
to explore the fascinating world of the form ax^2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠
non-repeating and non-terminating 0.
decimals.

Lesson 5: Sum and Product of Roots of Key Concepts:

Quadratic Equations
 Monic Quadratic Equations: For a
 Definition: The sum and product of monic quadratic equation x^2 + bx + c
roots of a quadratic equation refer to = 0, the sum of the roots is -b, and the
the algebraic properties of the product of the roots is c.
solutions. For a quadratic equation  Non-Monic Quadratic Equations: For a
ax^2 + bx + c = 0, the sum of the non-monic quadratic equation ax^2 +
roots is given by -b/a, and the product bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0, the sum of the
of the roots is given by c/a. roots is -b/a, and the product of the
 Sum of Roots: roots is c/a.
The sum of the roots represents
the additive property of the
 2x^2 + 4x - 7 = 0

Example:

1. Consider the quadratic equation x^2 - The equation is now in quadratic form.
5x + 6 = 0.

The sum of the roots is -(-5)/1 = 5. Alternatively, we can use the completing the
The product of the roots is 6/1 = 6. square method to convert the equation into
quadratic form.
2. 2x^2 + 3x - 5 = 0.

The sum of the roots is -3/2. Step 1: Move the constant term to the other
The product of the roots is -5/2. side of the equation:

3x + 4 - (2x^2 + 7x - 3) = 0
3. 4x^2 - 2x + 1 = 0

The sum of the roots is -(-2)/4 = 1/2. Step 2: Rearrange the terms:
The product of the roots is 1/4.
-2x^2 - 4x + 7 = 0

Conversion of Equations to Quadratic Form:

Conversion of equations to quadratic form Step 3: Divide through by the leading

involves transforming equations into a coefficient to make it monic (coefficient of
quadratic equation by manipulating the x^2 equal to 1):
terms. This process allows us to apply -(2x^2 + 4x) + 7 = 0
quadratic equation-solving techniques to find
their solutions. One common technique for
conversion is completing the square. Step 4: Complete the square by adding the
square of half the coefficient of x to both
sides:
Example:
-(2x^2 + 4x + 4) + 7 + 4 = 0 + 4
Let's convert the equation 3x + 4 = 2x^2 + 7x
- 3 into quadratic form.
Step 5: Simplify the equation:

-(2x + 2)^2 + 11 = 0
Step 1: Arrange the equation in standard form
(ax^2 + bx + c = 0):

2x^2 + 7x - 3 - (3x + 4) = 0 The equation is now in quadratic form.

Step 2: Combine like terms: By converting equations to quadratic form,

2x^2 + 7x - 3 - 3x - 4 = 0 we can apply various quadratic equation-
solving techniques such as factoring,
completing the square, or using the quadratic
Key Concepts:
formula to find their solutions. This method
expands our problem-solving capabilities and  Quadratic Form: Equations
allows us to utilize the well-developed theory transformable to quadratic equations
of quadratic equations to solve a broader take on a quadratic form, typically in
range of problems. the form ax^2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b,
and c are coefficients.
 Solution Techniques: Once
transformed into quadratic form, these
Lesson 6: Equations Transformable to equations can be solved using
Quadratic Equations (Including techniques such as factoring,
Rational Algebraic Equations) completing the square, or using the
quadratic formula.
 Definition: Equations transformable to
quadratic equations are equations that Example:
can be rewritten in quadratic form. This
1. Solve the equation 3x + 2 = 5.
transformation allows us to apply
quadratic equation solving techniques
to find their solutions.
Solution:
 History: The concept of transforming
equations to quadratic form has been To transform this linear equation into
used throughout history by quadratic form, we can subtract 5 from both
mathematicians to solve a variety of sides:
problems. This approach allows the
3x + 2 - 5 = 5 - 5
utilization of quadratic equation-
solving techniques, which have been 3x - 3 = 0
studied and refined over centuries.

The equation is now in quadratic form, and

Types of Equations Transformable to we can solve it by factoring:
Quadratic Equations:
3(x - 1) = 0
1. Linear Equations: Linear equations can
be transformed into quadratic
equations by adding or subtracting From this, we find that x - 1 = 0, or x = 1 is
terms to isolate the variable. the solution.
2. Rational Algebraic Equations: Rational
algebraic equations, involving rational
expressions, can be transformed into 2. Solve the rational algebraic equation (x
quadratic equations by multiplying + 1)/(x - 2) = 3.
both sides by a common denominator
to eliminate fractions.
Solution: Standard Form:

To transform this rational algebraic equation The standard form of a quadratic function is
into quadratic form, we can multiply both given by f(x) = ax^2 + bx + c. In this form, the
sides by (x - 2) to eliminate the denominator: coefficients "a," "b," and "c" represent the
characteristics of the parabola, such as the
(x + 1)/(x - 2) * (x - 2) = 3 * (x - 2)
direction of opening and the position of the
(x + 1) = 3(x - 2) vertex.

Expanding and simplifying: Example:

x + 1 = 3x - 6 Let's consider the quadratic function f(x) = -
2x^2 + 4x + 3. In this case, the coefficient "a"
is -2, indicating a downward opening
Now, we have a linear equation. We can parabola. The coefficient "b" is 4, representing
proceed to solve it: the horizontal shift, and the constant term "c"
x - 3x = -6 - 1 is 3, indicating the vertical shift.

-2x = -7

x = 7/2 Axis of Symmetry and Vertex of Quadratic

Functions:

Thus, the solution to the rational algebraic

equation is x = 7/2. Axis of Symmetry:

The axis of symmetry is a vertical line that

passes through the vertex of a quadratic
Vertex Form: function. It divides the parabola into two
The vertex form of a quadratic function is symmetric halves. The equation of the axis of
given by f(x) = a(x - h)^2 + k, where (h, k) symmetry is given by x = h, where (h, k)
represents the coordinates of the vertex. The represents the coordinates of the vertex.
value of "a" determines the direction and
width of the parabola.
Example:

Consider the quadratic function f(x) = (x -

Example: 2)^2 - 3. The vertex is located at (2, -3), and
Consider the quadratic function f(x) = 2(x - the equation of the axis of symmetry is x = 2.
3)^2 + 5. Here, the vertex is located at the The parabola is symmetric with respect to the
point (3, 5), and the coefficient "2" indicates line x = 2.
that the parabola opens upward and is
narrower compared to the standard form.
 developed by mathematicians such as
Al-Khwarizmi, Leonardo da Vinci, and
Vertex:
René Descartes.
The vertex of a quadratic function represents
the minimum or maximum point on the
parabola. In the vertex form (h, k) or the
standard form (-b/2a, f(-b/2a)), the vertex's x- Key Concepts:
coordinate provides the axis of symmetry, and
 Vertex: The vertex is the minimum or
the y-coordinate represents the function's
maximum point on the graph of a
extreme value.
quadratic function. It represents the
highest or lowest point of the
parabola.
Example:
 Axis of Symmetry: The axis of
Consider the quadratic function f(x) = -2x^2 symmetry is a vertical line that passes
+ 4x + 3. By using the formula -b/2a, we can through the vertex, dividing the
determine the x-coordinate of the vertex: x = parabola into two symmetric halves.
-4/(2*(-2)) = 1. The corresponding y-  Concavity: The concavity of a quadratic
coordinate can be found by substituting x = 1 function determines the direction in
into the function: f(1) = -2(1)^2 + 4(1) + 3 = which the parabola opens. It can be
5. Therefore, the vertex is located at (1, 5). upward or downward.
 x-intercepts: The x-intercepts are the
points where the parabola intersects
Understanding the vertex form, standard form, the x-axis. These are the solutions to
axis of symmetry, and vertex of quadratic the equation f(x) = 0.
functions provides valuable information  y-intercept: The y-intercept is the point
about the characteristics and behavior of the where the parabola intersects the y-
parabola. These concepts help analyze the axis. It is the value of the function
graph, determine the direction of opening, when x is 0.
identify the location of the vertex, and
establish symmetry within the function.
Example:

Lesson 7: Quadratic Functions 1. Consider the quadratic function f(x) =

x^2 - 3x + 2. The coefficient of x^2 is
 Definition: A quadratic function is a 1, making it a monic quadratic
function of the form f(x) = ax^2 + bx + function. The vertex can be found
c, where a, b, and c are constants, and using the formula x = -b/2a: x = -(-
a ≠ 0. Quadratic functions represent 3)/(2*1) = 3/2. The y-coordinate of the
parabolic curves and are a type of vertex can be calculated by
polynomial function of degree substituting x = 3/2 into the function:
 History: the Babylonians and Greeks. f(3/2) = (3/2)^2 - 3(3/2) + 2 = 1/4.
The concept of quadratic functions and Therefore, the vertex is located at (3/2,
their properties have been further 1/4), and the parabola opens upward.
 about the y-intercept (c) and can be
2. Consider the quadratic function f(x) = - used to find the x-intercepts.
2x^2 + 4x - 3. The coefficient of x^2 is
-2, making it a non-monic quadratic
function. The vertex can be found Steps for Graphing Quadratic Functions:
using the formula x = -b/2a: x = -
1. Determine the vertex using the formula
4/(2*(-2)) = 1. The y-coordinate of the
x = -b/2a (for functions in standard
vertex can be calculated by
form) or by analyzing the equation (for
substituting x = 1 into the function: f(1)
functions in vertex form).
= -2(1)^2 + 4(1) - 3 = -1. Therefore,
2. Identify the axis of symmetry, which is
the vertex is located at (1, -1), and the
a vertical line passing through the
parabola opens downward.
vertex (x = h).
3. Find the y-intercept by substituting x =
Understanding quadratic functions, their
0 into the function.
characteristics, and their graphical
4. Plot the vertex, axis of symmetry, and
representations is essential in various
y-intercept on the coordinate plane.
mathematical applications and problem-
5. Determine additional points by
solving. The properties of vertex, axis of
selecting x-values on both sides of the
symmetry, concavity, and intercepts help
vertex and calculating the
analyze and interpret the behavior of
corresponding y-values using the
quadratic functions, enabling us to model
function.
and solve real-world problems effectively.
6. Connect the plotted points to form a
smooth parabolic curve.

Lesson 8: Graphing Quadratic

Functions Example:

 Definition: Graphing quadratic Consider the quadratic function f(x) = (x -

functions involves plotting the 2)^2 - 3.
corresponding parabola on a
coordinate plane. It helps visualize the
relationship between the input (x) and The vertex can be found by comparing the
output (y) values of the function and equation to the vertex form: h = 2 and k = -3.
understand its behavior. Thus, the vertex is located at (2, -3).

The axis of symmetry is x = 2.

Graphing Techniques: The y-intercept can be found by substituting x
 Vertex Form: The vertex form (f(x) = a(x = 0 into the function: f(0) = (0 - 2)^2 - 3 = 1.
- h)^2 + k) provides the vertex Therefore, the y-intercept is at (0, 1).
coordinates (h, k), allowing the vertex By selecting additional x-values, we can
to be plotted directly. calculate corresponding y-values and plot the
 Standard Form: The standard form (f(x) points.
= ax^2 + bx + c) provides information
For example, when x = 1, y = (1 - 2)^2 - 3 = - shape, position, and orientation of the
2. graph.
2. Shape: The sign of the leading
When x = 3, y = (3 - 2)^2 - 3 = -2.
coefficient determines whether the
By connecting the plotted points and using parabola opens upward or downward.
the symmetry of the parabola, we obtain a U- 3. Position: The vertex represents the
shaped graph that opens upward, with the minimum or maximum point on the
vertex at (2, -3). The axis of symmetry is x = 2, graph.
and the y-intercept is at (0, 1). 4. Orientation: The concavity of the
parabola determines the direction in
which the graph opens.
Lesson 9: Finding the Equation using
Quadratic Function Example:
 Definition: Finding the equation using Given the vertex of a quadratic function as (-2,
quadratic functions involves 3) and the y-intercept as (0, 4), we can find
determining the quadratic equation the equation using the vertex form.
based on given information about the
function's characteristics, such as the
vertex, intercepts, or other key points Step 1: Substitute the vertex coordinates into
on the graph. the vertex form, f(x) = a(x - h)^2 + k:

f(x) = a(x - (-2))^2 + 3

Types of Information Used:

 Vertex and Intercept: If the vertex and

Step 2: Use the y-intercept to find the value of
one of the intercepts are known, the
"a":
equation can be determined using the
vertex form or by factoring the 4 = a(0 - (-2))^2 + 3
quadratic expression.
4 = 4a + 3
 Intercepts: If both x-intercepts are
known, the equation can be found 4a = 1
using the factored form.
a = 1/4
 Other Key Points: If additional key
points on the graph are given, the
equation can be determined by Step 3: Substitute the value of "a" back into
forming a system of equations and the equation:
solving for the unknown coefficients.
f(x) = (1/4)(x + 2)^2 + 3

Key Concepts:

1. Coefficients: The coefficients of the Therefore, the equation of the quadratic

quadratic equation determine the function is f(x) = (1/4)(x + 2)^2 + 3.
Finding the equation using quadratic Key Concepts:
functions allows us to represent and model
 Real-World Context: Applications of
real-world scenarios, solve problems, and
quadratic functions involve solving
make predictions. Understanding how the
problems in real-life situations,
characteristics of the quadratic function relate
incorporating relevant variables and
to the equation helps analyze and interpret
parameters.
the behavior of the graph. By utilizing given
 Modeling: Quadratic functions provide
information and applying appropriate
mathematical models that represent
techniques, we can determine the equation
the behavior and relationships
that best represents the quadratic function.
observed in the application domain.
 Solution Interpretation: Solutions to
quadratic equations in real-world
Lesson 10: Applications of Quadratic applications are interpreted and
Functions analyzed in the context of the problem
to draw meaningful conclusions.
 Definition: Applications of quadratic
functions refer to real-world scenarios
where quadratic equations and
Example:
functions are used to model and solve
problems from various fields such as 1. Projectile Motion
physics, engineering, economics, and
Consider the scenario of a ball being
biology.
thrown into the air. The height of the ball
can be modeled by a quadratic function.
Types of Applications: Given an initial height, initial velocity, and
acceleration due to gravity, the function
1. Projectile Motion: Quadratic functions
can help determine the maximum height
can model the trajectory of a projectile,
reached, time of flight, and range of the
such as a launched object or a thrown
projectile.
ball.
2. Optimization Problems: Quadratic
functions are used to optimize certain
2. Optimization Problem
quantities, such as finding the
maximum area or the minimum cost. Suppose a farmer wants to fence a
3. Revenue and Profit: Quadratic rectangular area using a fixed length of
functions can represent revenue and fencing. The quadratic function can be
profit functions in business and used to find the dimensions that maximize
economics. the enclosed area, thus optimizing the use
4. Bridge Design and Architecture: of available materials.
Quadratic functions are used to model
arches and other structures to ensure
stability and balance. 3. Revenue and Profit

In business, quadratic functions can model

revenue and profit functions based on
various factors such as product price,
production cost, and sales volume. These
models help analyze the relationship
between these variables and make
informed decisions regarding pricing and
production strategies.

4. Bridge Design

Quadratic functions can be utilized in

bridge design to model the shape of
arches and ensure structural stability. The
curve of the arch is often represented by a
quadratic equation, allowing engineers to
design bridges that can withstand the
forces acting upon them.

Applications of quadratic functions

provide practical examples of how
mathematics can be applied to solve real-
world problems. By understanding the
characteristics and modeling capabilities
of quadratic functions, we can analyze and
interpret data, make predictions, and
optimize solutions in various fields. These
applications demonstrate the importance
of quadratic functions in practical
decision-making and problem-solving
processes.
 2nd Quarter

6. Algebra

Table of Contents:  Review of Algebraic Concepts

 Solving Equations and Inequalities
1. Direct Variations
 Simplifying Expressions
 Definition and Characteristics  Factoring and Expanding
 Direct Variation Equation  Algebraic Manipulations
 Graphical Representation
 Examples and Applications
7. Zero, Negative Integral and Rational
Exponents
2. Indirect Variations
 Introduction to Exponents
 Definition and Characteristics  Zero Exponent
 Indirect Variation Equation  Negative Exponents
 Graphical Representation  Rational Exponents
 Examples and Applications  Simplifying Expressions with
Exponents

3. Joint Variations
8. Radicals
 Definition and Characteristics
 Joint Variation Equation  Definition and Notation
 Graphical Representation  Simplifying and Rationalizing Radicals
 Examples and Applications  Operations with Radicals
 Solving Radical Equations

4. Inverse Variations
9. Radical Equations and its Application
 Definition and Characteristics
 Inverse Variation Equation  Solving Radical Equations
 Graphical Representation  Extraneous Solutions
 Examples and Applications  Applications of Radical Equations

5. Combined Variations

 Definition and Characteristics

 Combined Variation Equation
 Graphical Representation
 Examples and Applications
 Graphical Representation:

Lesson 1: Direct Variations

 The graph of a direct variation is a
straight line passing through the origin
 Definition: Direct variation refers to a
(0, 0).
relationship between two variables
 As x increases, y increases
where one variable is directly
proportionally, resulting in a positive
proportional to the other. In this case,
slope.
as one variable increases, the other
also increases, and vice versa. This
concept is often expressed using an Example: The graph of y = 3x represents a
equation of the form y = kx, where y direct variation, where y increases three times
and x are the variables, and k is the for every unit increase in x.
constant of variation.

Examples:
Characteristics:
The distance traveled by a car at a constant
 The ratio of the two variables
speed over time.
remains constant.
 The graph of a direct variation is a The cost of purchasing a certain number of
straight line passing through the items at a fixed price per item.
origin (0, 0).
The relationship between weight and height
 The constant of variation (k)
in direct proportionality.
represents the rate of change or the
proportionality constant.
Applications:

Direct Variation Equation: Calculating the income based on the number

of hours worked at an hourly wage rate.
 The direct variation equation is of the
form y = kx, where y and x represent Determining the distance traveled by an
the variables, and k is the constant of object with a constant speed over time.
variation. Estimating the amount of paint needed to
cover a given area.
Example: If y is directly proportional to
x, and y = 5 when x = 2, the direct Direct variation has been studied for centuries
variation equation can be written as y and has various applications in different fields.
= kx. Substituting the values, 5 = k * 2. It provides a fundamental understanding of
Solving for k, we find k = 2. Therefore, proportional relationships between variables
the direct variation equation is y = 2x. and allows us to make predictions and solve
problems in real-world contexts. By
recognizing the characteristics of direct
variations and utilizing the direct variation
equation, we can analyze data, interpret
Graphical Representation:
graphs, and solve mathematical and practical
problems more effectively.  The graph of an indirect variation is a
hyperbola, with the x and y-axes acting
as asymptotes.
Lesson 2: Indirect Variations  As x increases, y decreases
proportionally, resulting in a curve
 Definition: Indirect variation, also
approaching the x and y-axes.
known as inverse variation, refers to a
relationship between two variables Example: The graph of y = 4/x represents an
where one variable increases while the indirect variation, where y decreases as x
other decreases, or vice versa. In this increases.
case, as one variable increases, the
other decreases, and vice versa. This
concept is often expressed using an Examples:
equation of the form y = k/x, where y
The time taken to complete a task inversely
and x are the variables, and k is the
proportional to the number of workers
constant of variation.
involved.
 Characteristics:
 The product of the two variables The pressure exerted by a gas inversely
remains constant. proportional to the volume it occupies.
 As one variable increases, the The speed of a vehicle inversely proportional
other variable decreases to the time taken to travel a fixed distance.
proportionally, and vice versa.
 The constant of variation (k) Applications:
represents the rate of change or Calculating the time taken to complete a job
the proportionality constant. when the number of workers is known.

Determining the pressure exerted by a gas

Indirect Variation Equation: when the volume it occupies changes.

 The indirect variation equation is of the Estimating the time it takes for a vehicle to
form y = k/x, where y and x represent travel a certain distance based on its speed.
the variables, and k is the constant of Indirect variation, or inverse variation, is a
variation. valuable concept used in many practical
Example: If y is inversely proportional applications. Understanding how variables
to x, and y = 10 when x = 2, the change inversely allows us to make
indirect variation equation can be predictions, solve problems, and analyze real-
written as y = k/x. Substituting the world situations. By recognizing the
values, 10 = k / 2. Solving for k, we find characteristics of indirect variations and
k = 20. Therefore, the indirect variation utilizing the indirect variation equation, we
equation is y = 20/x. can interpret data, analyze graphs, and solve
mathematical and practical problems more
effectively.

Graphical Representation:
Lesson 3: Joint Variations
The graph of a joint variation may not have a
 Definition: Joint variation refers to a specific shape since it depends on the direct
relationship between three or more and indirect variations involved.
variables where one variable is directly
The graph may exhibit different patterns
proportional to one or more variables
depending on how the variables change.
and inversely proportional to others. In
this case, as one variable increases, the
other variables may increase or
Examples:
decrease depending on their direct or
indirect relationship. This concept is The force of attraction between two masses
often expressed using an equation of varies jointly with the masses and inversely
the form y = kxz, where y, x, and z are with the square of the distance between them
the variables, and k is the constant of (Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation).
variation.
The amount of work done varies jointly with
 Characteristics:
the force applied and the distance over which
 The variation involves three or
the force is applied.
more variables.
 The product of the variables in The speed of a moving object varies jointly
the direct proportion remains with the distance traveled and the time taken.
constant.
 The product of the variables in
the indirect proportion also Applications:
remains constant. Calculating the force of attraction between
celestial bodies based on their masses and
Joint Variation Equation: the distance between them.

The joint variation equation is of the form y = Determining the amount of work done when
kxz, where y, x, and z represent the variables, applying a force over a specific distance.
and k is the constant of variation. Estimating the speed of an object based on
Example: If y varies jointly with x and z, and the distance it has traveled and the time it has
when y = 10, x = 2, and z = 5, the joint taken.
variation equation can be written as y = kxz.
Substituting the values, 10 = k * 2 * 5. Solving
for k, we find k = 1. Therefore, the joint Joint variation involves multiple variables and
variation equation is y = xz. can be found in various scientific and real-
world contexts. By understanding the
characteristics and utilizing the joint variation
equation, we can analyze and predict
relationships between variables and solve
problems effectively. Recognizing how Graphical Representation:
variables are jointly related helps us interpret
The graph of an inverse variation is a
data, make informed decisions, and model
hyperbola, with the x and y-axes acting as
complex phenomena in physics, engineering,
asymptotes.
and other fields.
As x increases, y decreases proportionally,
resulting in a curve approaching the x and y-
Lesson 4: Inverse Variations
axes.

 Definition: Inverse variation, also

known as inverse proportionality, refers
Examples:
to a relationship between two variables
where the product of the variables The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional
remains constant. In this case, as one to its volume when the temperature and
variable increases, the other variable amount of gas are constant (Boyle's Law).
decreases, and vice versa. This concept
The time taken to complete a task is inversely
is often expressed using an equation of
proportional to the number of workers
the form y = k/x, where y and x are the
involved.
variables, and k is the constant of
variation. The intensity of light is inversely proportional
 Characteristics: to the square of the distance from the light
 As one variable increases, the source.
other variable decreases
proportionally, and vice versa.
 The product of the variables Applications:
remains the same throughout
the relationship.
Calculating the volume of a gas when the
pressure is known, assuming constant
temperature and amount of gas.
Inverse Variation Equation: Determining the time taken to complete a job
when the number of workers is known.

The inverse variation equation is of the form y Estimating the intensity of light at different
= k/x, where y and x represent the variables, distances from a light source.
and k is the constant of variation.

Example: If y varies inversely with x, and when Inverse variation has been studied for
y = 6, x = 3, the inverse variation equation can centuries and has numerous applications in
be written as y = k/x. Substituting the values, physics, chemistry, engineering, and other
6 = k / 3. Solving for k, we find k = 18. fields. Understanding the characteristics and
Therefore, the inverse variation equation is y utilizing the inverse variation equation allows
= 18/x. us to analyze relationships between variables
and solve practical problems. By recognizing
the nature of inverse variations, we can Graphical Representation:
interpret data, make predictions, and model
phenomena accurately in various scientific
and real-world contexts. The graph of a combined variation may
exhibit different shapes and patterns,
Lesson 5: Combined Variations depending on the direct and inverse
variations involved.

 Definition: Combined variation refers The graph may include curves, lines, or
to a relationship between two or more combinations thereof.
variables where one variable is directly
proportional to one or more variables
and inversely proportional to others. In Examples:
this case, the relationship involves both
The time it takes for a car to travel a certain
direct and inverse variations
distance varies directly with the speed of the
simultaneously. The equation for
car and inversely with the condition of the
combined variation may include
road surface.
multiple variables and constants.
 Characteristic: The force required to stretch or compress a
 The variation involves both spring varies directly with the displacement
direct and inverse variations. and inversely with the spring constant.
 The product of the variables in The amount of interest earned on an
the direct proportion remains investment varies directly with the principal
constant. and the interest rate, and inversely with the
 The product of the variables in compounding period.
the indirect proportion also
remains constant.
Applications:

Combined Variation Equation: Estimating the time it takes for a vehicle to

travel a given distance based on the speed
and road conditions.
The combined variation equation is of the Determining the force required to compress
form y = kx^a / z^b, where y, x, z, a, and b or stretch a spring based on the displacement
represent the variables and exponents, and k and spring constant.
is the constant of variation.
Calculating the interest earned on an
Example: If y varies directly with x and investment based on the principal, interest
inversely with the square of z, the combined rate, and compounding period.
variation equation can be written as y = kx /
z^2. Combined variation provides a more
comprehensive model for relationships
between variables, incorporating both direct
and inverse variations. Understanding how
variables interact in combined variations
allows us to analyze complex phenomena and equal sign and cannot be
solve practical problems. By recognizing the solved. Examples of expressions
characteristics and utilizing the combined include 3x + 5 or (2a - b) / 7.
variation equation, we can interpret data, - Equations are mathematical
make predictions, and model real-world statements that include an
situations effectively. equal sign (=). They express a
relationship between two
expressions and can be solved
Lesson 6: Algebra to find the value(s) of the
variable(s). Examples of
 Definition: Algebra is a branch of
equations include 2x + 3 = 7 or
mathematics that deals with symbols,
4y^2 - 5 = 11.
variables, and the rules for
manipulating them. It provides a
 Operations (Addition, Subtraction,
powerful tool for solving equations,
Multiplication, Division)
representing relationships, and
- Addition is the operation of
analyzing patterns. Algebraic
combining two or more
techniques are widely used in various
numbers to obtain a sum.
fields of mathematics and have
- Subtraction is the operation of
practical applications in many areas of
taking one number away from
science, engineering, and economics.
another to obtain a difference.
- Multiplication is the operation
Review of Algebraic Concepts of repeated addition or
Definition: Review and recap of fundamental combining equal groups.
algebraic concepts and techniques, including: - Division is the operation of
sharing or distributing a
 Variables and Constants quantity into equal parts.
- Variables are symbols used to  Order of Operations
represent unknown or changing (PEMDAS/BODMAS)
quantities in mathematical The order of operations is a set of
expressions and equations. They rules used to evaluate mathematical
are typically represented by expressions in a consistent manner.
letters, such as x, y, or z. The acronym PEMDAS (or BODMAS)
- Constants, on the other hand, represents the order in which
are fixed values that do not operations should be performed:
change. They can be numerical - Parentheses (or Brackets)
values or specific terms in an - Exponents (or Orders, Roots)
expression or equation. - Multiplication and Division
 Expressions and Equations (from left to right)
- Expressions are mathematical - Addition and Subtraction (from
statements that consist of left to right)
variables, constants, and  Simplifying Expressions
operations. They do not have an
 Simplifying expressions involves equations, we aim to simplify the
reducing them to their simplest or equation by combining like terms,
most compact form by combining like then isolate the variable by
terms, applying the distributive performing operations to move all
property, and performing necessary terms containing the variable to one
operations. This makes expressions side of the equation.
easier to work with and understand.  Literal Equations
 Evaluating Expressions Literal equations are equations that
Evaluating expressions means finding involve multiple variables. They are
the numerical value of an expression often used to represent relationships
by substituting specific values for the between quantities in formulas or
variables. This can be done by equations. The goal is to solve the
following the order of operations and equation for one variable in terms of
performing the necessary calculations. the others.
 Systems of Equations
Systems of equations involve multiple
Solving Equations and Inequalities: equations with multiple variables. The
solutions to the system are the values
Definition: Techniques for solving algebraic
of the variables that satisfy all the
equations and inequalities, including:
equations simultaneously. Systems of
 One-Step Equations equations can be solved using various
One-step equations are algebraic methods, such as substitution,
equations that can be solved in a elimination, or matrix methods.
single step by performing one  Quadratic Equations
operation (addition, subtraction, Quadratic equations are second-
multiplication, or division) on both degree equations that can be written
sides of the equation. The goal is to in the form ax^2 + bx + c = 0, where
isolate the variable and determine its a, b, and c are constants, and x
value. represents the variable. These
 Multi-Step Equations equations often have two solutions,
Multi-step equations are algebraic known as roots or solutions, and can
equations that require multiple steps be solved using methods like
to solve. They involve more than one factoring, completing the square, or
operation and may require combining using the quadratic formula.
like terms, distributing, or applying  Absolute Value Equations
the order of operations. The goal is Absolute value equations involve the
still to isolate the variable and find its absolute value of a variable. They can
value. be written in the form |x| = a or |ax +
 Equations with Variables on Both b| = c, where a, b, and c are constants.
Sides These equations often have two
Equations with variables on both sides solutions and require considering
involve terms with variables on both both the positive and negative cases
sides of the equation. To solve these of the absolute value expression.
  Linear Inequalities to simplify expressions and perform
Linear inequalities are mathematical operations.
statements that compare two  Factoring
expressions using inequality symbols Factoring involves expressing an
(<, >, ≤, ≥). They represent a range of algebraic expression as a product of
possible values for a variable and can its factors. This is done by identifying
be solved similarly to equations, but common factors, using special
the solution is a range rather than a factoring formulas, or applying
single value. factoring techniques specific to
 Quadratic Inequalities certain types of expressions, such as
Quadratic inequalities are inequalities difference of squares or perfect
that involve quadratic expressions. square trinomials.
They can be written in the form ax^2  Expanding
+ bx + c < 0, ax^2 + bx + c > 0, ax^2 Expanding refers to the process of
+ bx + c ≤ 0, or ax^2 + bx + c ≥ 0, multiplying out an algebraic
where a, b, and c are constants. The expression that is written in factored
solutions to quadratic inequalities are form. This is done by distributing the
the values of x that satisfy the multiplication across all terms in the
inequality and can be found by expression and combining like terms,
analyzing the sign of the quadratic if applicable.
expression.  Removing Parentheses
Removing parentheses involves
applying the distributive property to
Simplifying Expressions: simplify an expression. It requires
multiplying each term inside the
Definition: Strategies for simplifying algebraic
parentheses by the factor outside the
expressions, including:
parentheses.
 Combining Like Terms  Using Exponents
Combining like terms is the process of Exponents are a shorthand notation
simplifying algebraic expressions by used to represent repeated
adding or subtracting terms that have multiplication. They indicate how
the same variable and exponent. This many times a base number should be
involves collecting terms with similar multiplied by itself. Exponents have
variables and combining their various properties, such as the
coefficients. product rule, power rule, and quotient
 Distributive Property rule, that allow for simplification and
The distributive property states that manipulation of expressions involving
multiplying a number by a sum or exponents.
difference is equivalent to multiplying
the number by each term in the sum
or difference and then adding or Factoring and Expanding:
subtracting the results. It is often used
Definition: Techniques for factoring and
expanding algebraic expressions, including:
 Greatest Common Factor (GCF) Expanding polynomials refers to the
The Greatest Common Factor (GCF) is process of multiplying two or more
the largest number or term that polynomials together. It involves
divides evenly into a given set of applying the distributive property
numbers or algebraic expressions. It repeatedly to distribute each term of
represents the highest common factor one polynomial to every term of the
shared by the numbers or terms. other polynomial. The result is a
 Difference of Squares polynomial with multiple terms.
The difference of squares is a special
algebraic pattern that occurs when
subtracting two perfect square terms. Algebraic Manipulations:
It can be factored into the product of
Definition: Manipulating algebraic expressions
a binomial and its conjugate. For
and equations using various operations,
example, a^2 - b^2 can be factored
including:
as (a + b)(a - b).
 Perfect Square Trinomials  Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
Perfect square trinomials are Adding and subtracting polynomials
trinomials that can be factored into involves combining like terms to
the square of a binomial. They have simplify the expression. It is done by
the form a^2 + 2ab + b^2 or a^2 - aligning the terms with the same
2ab + b^2, where a and b are variable and adding or subtracting
constants. For example, x^2 + 4x + 4 their coefficients.
can be factored as (x + 2)^2.  Multiplying and Dividing Polynomials
 Quadratic Trinomials - Multiplying polynomials is
Quadratic trinomials are trinomials done by applying the
that can be written in the form ax^2 + distributive property multiple
bx + c, where a, b, and c are constants times, distributing each term of
and a ≠ 0. They represent quadratic one polynomial to every term
equations and can be factored or of the other polynomial, and
solved using methods such as then combining like terms.
factoring, completing the square, or - Dividing polynomials can be
using the quadratic formula. done using long division or
 Expanding Binomials synthetic division, following a
Expanding binomials involves process similar to dividing
multiplying two binomials together. numbers.
This can be done by using the  Rational Expressions
distributive property and multiplying Rational expressions are fractions that
each term of one binomial by each involve polynomials in the numerator
term of the other binomial. The and denominator. They can be
resulting expression will be a simplified by factoring and canceling
trinomial. common factors, just like simplifying
 Expanding Polynomials numerical fractions.
 Complex Fractions
 Complex fractions are fractions that applying logarithmic or exponential
contain a fraction in either the properties to isolate the variable.
numerator, denominator, or both.
They can be simplified by multiplying
the numerator and denominator by  History: Algebra has a rich history, with
the least common denominator to roots dating back to ancient
eliminate the complex fraction. civilizations such as Babylon and Egypt.
 Simplifying Radicals Over the centuries, algebraic
Simplifying radicals involves finding techniques and concepts have evolved,
the simplest form of a radical providing a powerful framework for
expression. This is done by identifying solving complex problems and
perfect square factors within the expressing relationships in
radicand, factoring them out, and mathematics and other disciplines.
simplifying the expression.
 Rationalizing Denominators
Rationalizing denominators is the Example:
process of eliminating radicals from Solving an Equation:
the denominator of a fraction. It is
done by multiplying the numerator Given the equation 2x + 5 = 13, we can solve
and denominator by a suitable for x as follows:
expression that will result in an Step 1: Subtract 5 from both sides: 2x + 5 - 5
expression with no radicals in the = 13 - 5
denominator.
 Logarithms and Exponents Step 2: Simplify: 2x = 8
- Logarithms are mathematical Step 3: Divide both sides by 2: (2x)/2 = 8/2
operations that represent the
Step 4: Simplify: x = 4
exponent to which a base must
be raised to obtain a given
number. They are the inverse
Algebra provides us with a powerful set of
operation of exponentiation.
tools to solve equations, manipulate
- Exponents represent repeated
expressions, and analyze mathematical
multiplication of a base
relationships. It serves as the foundation for
number. They indicate how
advanced mathematics and enables us to
many times the base should be
understand and describe complex systems
multiplied by itself.
and phenomena in a precise and structured
 Logarithmic and Exponential
way.
Equations
Logarithmic and exponential
equations involve equations that Lesson 7: Zero, Negative Integral and
contain logarithmic or exponential Rational Exponents
terms. Solving such equations may
require converting between
 Definition: Exponents are mathematical
logarithmic and exponential forms or
notations used to represent repeated
 multiplication of a base number. In this Rational Exponents:
section, we will explore different types
Rational exponents are fractional exponents
of exponents, including zero
that represent the nth root of a number raised
exponents, negative integral
to a power. The numerator of the fraction
exponents, and rational exponents.
represents the exponent, and the
 History: The concept of exponents has
denominator represents the root.
been used for centuries in various
mathematical traditions, but it was Example: 4^(1/2) = √4 = 2
formalized and introduced into
modern mathematics by the Persian
mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa These types of exponents are crucial in
al-Khwarizmi in the 9th century. algebra and provide a flexible notation
 Characteristics: system for expressing mathematical
 Zero exponents: Any nonzero relationships and calculations. They allow us
base raised to the power of zero to simplify and manipulate expressions
is equal to 1. involving powers and roots, solve equations,
 Negative integral exponents: A and model real-world phenomena. By
nonzero base raised to a understanding and applying the principles of
negative exponent is equivalent zero, negative integral, and rational
to the reciprocal of the base exponents, we can work with exponential
raised to the positive exponent. expressions and equations more effectively,
 Rational exponents: They expanding our mathematical toolkit.
represent a combination of
radicals and integer exponents.
Lesson 8: Radicals
The numerator represents the
exponent, and the denominator  Definition: Radicals are mathematical
represents the root. expressions that involve roots of
Zero Exponents: numbers or variables. They are an
essential part of algebra and play a
Zero exponents occur when a base is raised to significant role in various mathematical
the power of zero (x^0). The result is always 1. applications. In this section, we will
Example: 2^0 = 1 explore the concept of radicals and
their properties.
 History: The concept of radicals dates
Negative Integral Exponents: back to ancient mathematics, with the
earliest known use of square roots
Negative integral exponents indicate the
traced to the ancient Babylonians
reciprocal of a number raised to the positive
around 2000 BCE. The notation for
exponent (-x). It signifies dividing 1 by the
radicals was introduced by the German
number raised to the positive exponent.
mathematician Christoff Rudolff in the
Example: 2^(-3) = 1/(2^3) = 1/8 16th century.
  Characteristics:
 Radicand: The number or
Multiplying and Dividing Radicals:
expression inside the radical
symbol. Multiplying and dividing radicals involves
 Index: The index of a radical multiplying or dividing their coefficients and
determines the root being simplifying the radicands if possible.
taken. The square root has an
Example: √7 × √3 = √(7 × 3) = √21
index of 2, the cube root has an
index of 3, and so on. Example: √15 / √5 = √(15 / 5) = √3
 Rationalizing Denominators:
Rationalizing the denominator
involves eliminating radicals Radicals are used extensively in algebra,
from the denominator of a calculus, and other branches of mathematics.
fraction by multiplying the They allow us to represent and manipulate
numerator and denominator by numbers involving roots, solve equations,
a suitable expression to remove simplify expressions, and analyze
the radical. mathematical relationships. Understanding
and working with radicals is essential for
advanced mathematical concepts and their
Radicals represent the root of a number or applications in various scientific and real-
variable. They are written using the radical world contexts.
symbol (√) and the radicand, which is the
number or expression inside the radical.

Example: √9 = 3 Lesson 9: Radical Equations and its

Application

 Definition: Radical equations involve

Simplifying Radicals: equations that contain radical
Simplifying radicals involves finding the expressions. These equations can be
simplest form of a radical expression by challenging to solve, and their
simplifying the radicand and applying the applications can be found in various
properties of radicals. fields, including physics, engineering,
and finance. In this section, we will
Example: √18 = √(9 × 2) = √9 × √2 = 3√2
explore radical equations and their
applications.
 History: The study of radical equations
Adding and Subtracting Radicals:
can be traced back to ancient
Adding and subtracting radicals requires mathematicians, who used methods to
simplifying the radicals to have the same approximate roots, including the
radicands and then combining or subtracting Babylonians and ancient Greeks.
their coefficients.  Characteristics:
 Complex Solutions: Radical
Example: √5 + √8 = √(5 × 2) + √(4 × 2) = √10
equations may have complex
+ 2√2
 solutions, involving imaginary Example: √(x + 2) = -5
numbers, depending on the
Square both sides: (√(x + 2))^2 = (-5)^2
nature of the equation and the
radicand. Simplify: x + 2 = 25
 Extraneous Solutions: Care must Solve for x: x = 23
be taken when solving radical
equations to check for Check the solution: √(23 + 2) = √25 = 5
extraneous solutions and verify (Valid solution)
if the solutions satisfy the
original equation.
Applications of Radical Equations:

Radical equations are equations that contain Radical equations have applications in various
radical expressions involving variables. The fields, including physics, engineering, and
goal is to solve for the variable by isolating finance. They are used to model and solve
the radical term and finding the values that problems involving rates of change, growth,
make the equation true. decay, and other real-world phenomena.
Examples include radioactive decay,
Example: √(x + 2) = 5 population growth, and compound interest
calculations.

Solving Radical Equations

Solving radical equations involves eliminating Understanding and solving radical equations
the radical expression by raising both sides of is essential for solving real-world problems,
the equation to a suitable power, simplifying, modeling physical phenomena, and analyzing
and solving for the variable. mathematical relationships. By applying
techniques to isolate and eliminate radicals,
Example: √(x + 2) = 5 we can find solutions to radical equations and
Square both sides: (√(x + 2))^2 = 5^2 assess their applicability to the original
problem. Awareness of extraneous solutions
Simplify: x + 2 = 25
is crucial to ensure accurate and valid
Solve for x: x = 23 solutions.

2.8 Extraneous Solutions

Extraneous solutions are solutions that arise

during the process of solving radical
equations but do not satisfy the original
equation. They can occur when squaring or
raising both sides of an equation, introducing
additional solutions that do not work in the
original equation.
 3rd Quarter  Conditions for a Quadrilateral to be a
Parallelogram
 Proving Parallelograms using
Table of Contents: Conditions and Theorems

1. Quadrilaterals 6. Proportion

 Definition and Types of Quadrilaterals  Definition and Properties of Proportions

 Properties and Characteristics of  Solving Proportions
Quadrilaterals  Applications of Proportions
 Examples of Quadrilaterals

7. Similarity of Polygons
2. Parallelograms
 Definition and Criteria for Similarity of
 Definition and Properties of Polygons
Parallelograms  Similarity Ratios and Scale Factors
 Opposite sides, angles, and diagonals in  Applications of Similarity in Polygon
Parallelograms Problems
 Special Types of Parallelograms
(Rectangle, Square, Rhombus)
8. Similarity of Triangles

 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles

3. Properties to find measures of angles, sides,
 Angle-Angle Similarity (AA)
and other quantities involving parallelograms
 Side-Angle-Side Similarity (SAS)
 Angle Relationships in Parallelograms  Side-Side-Side Similarity (SSS)
 Side Relationships in Parallelograms
 Diagonal Relationships in
Parallelograms 9. Similarity of right triangles

 Criteria for Similarity of Right Triangles

 Similarity Theorems for Right Triangles
4. Theorems of trapezoids and kites
(AA, SSS)
 Properties and Characteristics of
Trapezoids
 Theorems and Relationships in 10. Application of Theorems showing that
Trapezoids triangles are similar
 Properties and Characteristics of Kites
 Using Triangle Similarity Theorems to
 Theorems and Relationships in Kites
Solve Problems
 Finding Unknown Measures in Similar
Triangles
5. Determines condition that guarantee a
quadrilateral a parallelogram
11. Fundamental theorems of proportionality
to solve problems involving proportions Lesson 1: Quadrilaterals

 Proportional Relationships in Triangles

 Definition: Quadrilaterals are polygonal
 Proportional Segments in Triangles
shapes with four sides. They are
 Solving Problems involving Proportions
fundamental geometric figures that
appear in various contexts and have
unique properties. In this section, we
12. Problems that involve similarity
will explore the definition, types,
 Challenging Problems Involving characteristics, history, and
Similarity applications of quadrilaterals.
 Real-World Applications of Similarity Quadrilaterals are closed geometric
shapes with four sides and four angles.
 History:
13. Pythagorean Theorem and its proof - The study of quadrilaterals dates
back to ancient times, with the
 Statement and Proof of the
Egyptians and Babylonians
Pythagorean Theorem
having knowledge about various
 Applications and Problems using the
quadrilateral properties.
Pythagorean Theorem
- The Greek mathematician Euclid
included the study of
quadrilaterals in his influential
work "Elements" in the 3rd
century BCE.
 Characteristics:
 The sum of the interior angles
of a quadrilateral is always 360
degrees.
 Quadrilaterals can have parallel
sides, equal sides, right angles,
or symmetry.
 Diagonals in quadrilaterals can
intersect or be perpendicular to
each other.

Types of Quadrilaterals:

Some common types of quadrilaterals include

squares, rectangles, parallelograms,
rhombuses, trapezoids, and kites.
Properties and Characteristics of  Engineering: Quadrilaterals are used in
Quadrilaterals: engineering applications, such as
creating stable structures and
designing efficient floor plans.
1. Sides and Angles: Quadrilaterals have  Computer Graphics: Quadrilaterals are
four sides and four angles. essential in computer graphics for
2. Diagonals: Diagonals are line segments rendering and modeling shapes and
connecting non-adjacent vertices of a objects.
quadrilateral.
3. Symmetry: Some quadrilaterals exhibit
line symmetry or rotational symmetry. Quadrilaterals play a crucial role in geometry
and have significant practical applications in
various fields. Understanding the types and
Examples of Quadrilaterals:
characteristics of quadrilaterals allows us to
1. Square: A square is a quadrilateral with analyze and describe their properties
four equal sides and four right angles. accurately. The study of quadrilaterals
2. Rectangle: A rectangle is a provides a foundation for more advanced
quadrilateral with four right angles, geometric concepts and problem-solving in
where opposite sides are equal. mathematics and real-world applications.
3. Parallelogram: A parallelogram is a
quadrilateral with opposite sides that
Lesson 2: Parallelograms
are parallel and equal in length.
4. Rhombus: A rhombus is a quadrilateral
 Definition: Parallelograms are special
with four equal sides but not
types of quadrilaterals that have
necessarily right angles.
specific properties and characteristics.
5. Trapezoid: A trapezoid is a
In this section, we will explore the
quadrilateral with one pair of parallel
definition, types, characteristics,
sides.
history, and applications of
6. Kite: A kite is a quadrilateral with two
parallelograms.
pairs of adjacent sides that are equal.
 History:
- The study of parallelograms
dates back to ancient times,
Applications of Quadrilaterals:
with early civilizations
recognizing their properties and
 Architecture: Quadrilaterals, such as applications.
rectangles and squares, are commonly - The Greek mathematician Euclid
used in architectural designs and provided detailed propositions
constructions. and proofs about
 Art and Design: Many patterns and parallelograms in his work
geometric designs incorporate "Elements."
quadrilaterals.
  Characteristics: Special Types of Parallelograms:
 Opposite sides of a
parallelogram are parallel and
equal in length. 1. Rectangle: A rectangle is a
 Opposite angles of a parallelogram with four right angles.
parallelogram are equal. 2. Square: A square is a parallelogram
 Consecutive angles in a with four equal sides and four right
parallelogram are angles.
supplementary (add up to 180 3. Rhombus: A rhombus is a
degrees). parallelogram with four equal sides but
 Diagonals of a parallelogram not necessarily right angles.
bisect each other.
Applications of Parallelograms:

Properties:

Parallelograms have several key properties,  Architecture: Parallelograms, such as

including: rectangles and squares, are commonly
used in architectural designs for
1. Opposite sides are parallel and equal in
windows, doors, and building
length.
foundations.
2. Opposite angles are equal.
 Engineering: Parallelograms are used in
3. Consecutive angles are supplementary
structural engineering to distribute
(add up to 180 degrees).
loads and provide stability in bridges
4. Diagonals bisect each other.
and buildings.
 Carpentry: Parallelogram-shaped
Opposite Sides, Angles, and Diagonals in frames are used in furniture
Parallelograms: construction, such as bookshelves and
tables.
 Navigation: Parallelograms play a role
 Opposite Sides: In a parallelogram, the in navigational tools, such as
opposite sides are parallel and equal in compasses and plotting courses.
length. ​
 Opposite Angles: The opposite angles
in a parallelogram are equal. Lesson 3: Properties to find measures
 Diagonals: The diagonals of a of angles, sides, and other quantities
parallelogram bisect each other, involving parallelograms
meaning they divide each other into
two equal segments.
In this section, we will explore the properties
and formulas that can be used to find
measures of angles, sides, and other
quantities in parallelograms. Understanding
these properties will allow us to analyze and  Opposite Sides: Opposite sides of a
solve various problems involving parallelogram are parallel and equal in
parallelograms. length.
 Diagonal Relationships: The diagonals
of a parallelogram bisect each other,
 History: The study of parallelogram
dividing each other into two equal
properties and formulas dates back to
segments.
ancient mathematicians, such as Euclid,
who explored their geometric Diagonal Relationships in Parallelograms:
properties and relationships.
 Charactersitics:
- Opposite angles in a  Diagonal Lengths: The diagonals of a
parallelogram are equal. parallelogram divide it into four
- Consecutive angles in a congruent triangles.
parallelogram are  Theorem: The sum of the squares of
supplementary (add up to 180 the lengths of the diagonals of a
degrees). parallelogram is equal to the sum of
- Opposite sides of a the squares of its sides.
parallelogram are parallel and
equal in length.
Applications of Properties in Parallelograms:
- Diagonals of a parallelogram
bisect each other.
 Measurement: The properties of
Angle Relationships in Parallelograms: parallelograms are used in
construction, architecture, and
engineering to accurately measure
 Opposite Angles: The opposite angles angles and sides.
in a parallelogram are equal.  Design: Parallelogram properties are
applied in designing structures and
 Consecutive Angles: Consecutive angles objects with specific angle and side
in a parallelogram are supplementary, requirements.
meaning they add up to 180 degrees.  Mathematics: The properties of
parallelograms are used to solve
 Diagonal Angles: The angles formed by geometry problems and prove
the intersection of the diagonals in a geometric theorems.
parallelogram are equal.

Understanding the properties and formulas

associated with angles, sides, and other
Side Relationships in Parallelograms:
quantities in parallelograms allows us to
accurately analyze and solve problems
involving these geometric shapes. The
applications of these properties extend to
various fields, including architecture, non-parallel sides and one of the
engineering, and mathematics, where the parallel sides.
precise measurement of angles and sides is
crucial. Median of a Trapezoid: The median of
a trapezoid is a line segment
connecting the midpoints of the two
non-parallel sides.
Lesson 4: Theorems of trapezoids and
kites
Theorems of Trapezoids:

In this section, we will explore the theorems  Midsegment Theorem: The

and properties related to trapezoids and kites. midsegment of a trapezoid is
parallel to each base and its
 Definition: Trapezoids and kites are length is equal to the average of
specific types of quadrilaterals that the lengths of the bases.
have unique characteristics and  Bases Angles Theorem: The base
relationships among their sides, angles, angles of a trapezoid are
and diagonals. Understanding these congruent.
theorems will help us analyze and solve
problems involving trapezoids and Properties of Kites:
kites.
 History: The study of trapezoids and Definition: A kite is a quadrilateral with
kites can be traced back to ancient two pairs of adjacent sides that are
mathematicians, including Euclid, who equal in length.
explored their properties and
relationships. Diagonals: The diagonals of a kite are
 Characteristics: perpendicular and bisect each other.
 Trapezoids have one pair of
parallel sides. Theorems of Kites:
 Kites have two pairs of adjacent
sides that are equal in length.  Diagonal Theorem: The longer
 Diagonals of kites are diagonal of a kite bisects the
perpendicular and bisect each shorter diagonal into two
other. congruent segments.
 Angle Bisector Theorem: The
Properties of Trapezoids: diagonals of a kite bisect the
opposite angles.
Definition: A trapezoid is a
quadrilateral with one pair of parallel
sides.

Base Angles: The base angles of a

trapezoid are the angles formed by the
 Applications of Theorems in Trapezoids Criteria for a Quadrilateral to be a
and Kites: Parallelogram:

 Architecture and Engineering: 1. Opposite Sides: If the opposite sides of

The properties and theorems of a quadrilateral are parallel, it is a
trapezoids and kites are applied condition that guarantees the
in designing structures, such as quadrilateral to be a parallelogram.
roofs and bridges. 2. Opposite Angles: If the opposite angles
 Mathematics: The theorems of of a quadrilateral are equal, it is a
trapezoids and kites are used to condition that guarantees the
solve geometry problems, prove quadrilateral to be a parallelogram.
geometric relationships, and
make accurate measurements.
Proving Parallelograms using Conditions and
Theorems:
Lesson 5: Determines condition that
guarantee a quadrilateral a
parallelogram Using Parallel Side Property: If we can show
that the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
parallel, it can be proven to be a
In this section, we will explore the conditions
parallelogram.
and criteria that determine whether a
quadrilateral can be classified as a Using Equal Angle Property: If we can
parallelogram. By examining specific demonstrate that the opposite angles of a
properties and relationships among the sides, quadrilateral are equal, it can be proven to be
angles, and diagonals of a quadrilateral, we a parallelogram.
can establish conditions that guarantee its
Using a Combination of Properties: In some
classification as a parallelogram.
cases, both the parallel side and equal angle
 History: The criteria for determining properties can be utilized to establish that a
parallelograms have been established quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
and studied by mathematicians for
centuries, with contributions from
ancient mathematicians like Euclid. Example:
 Characteristics: Consider a quadrilateral with sides AB, BC, CD,
 Parallelograms have opposite sides and DA. To determine whether it is a
that are parallel and equal in parallelogram, we examine the following
length. conditions:
 Parallelograms have opposite
angles that are equal.
If AB is parallel to CD and BC is parallel to DA,
the quadrilateral satisfies the condition for
opposite sides being parallel, and thus, it is a
parallelogram.
If angle ABC is equal to angle CDA and angle  Scale Factor: The ratio between
BCD is equal to angle DAB, the quadrilateral corresponding quantities in a
satisfies the condition for opposite angles proportion is known as the scale
being equal, and therefore, it is a factor.
parallelogram.  Proportional Reasoning:
Proportions enable us to solve
problems involving unknown
Understanding the conditions that guarantee quantities using known ratios.
a quadrilateral to be a parallelogram allows us
to classify and analyze geometric shapes
accurately. By applying these conditions, we Types of Proportions:
can determine the nature of quadrilaterals
and their properties. This knowledge is
valuable in geometry, design, and various Direct Proportion: In direct proportion, as one
applications where the properties of quantity increases, the other quantity also
parallelograms play a crucial role. increases in the same ratio.

Inverse Proportion: In inverse proportion, as

one quantity increases, the other quantity
decreases in the same ratio.
Lesson 6: Proportion

Proportion is a fundamental concept in

Examples of Proportions:
mathematics that describes the equality of
ratios between two or more quantities. In this
section, we will explore the definition, types,
1. Direct Proportion Example: If 3 apples
characteristics, history, and applications of
cost $6, then 6 apples would cost $12
proportions.
in a direct proportion.
 Definition: A proportion is an equation 2. Inverse Proportion Example: If 4
that states the equality of two ratios. workers can complete a job in 10 days,
 Notation: Proportions are typically then 8 workers can complete the same
expressed using the symbol "=", job in 5 days in an inverse proportion.
indicating equality, and the ":" or "/"
symbol to represent ratios.
 History: Proportional relationships and Applications of Proportions:
the concept of proportion have been
studied for thousands of years, with
ancient civilizations like the Egyptians,  Scaling: Proportions are used to scale
Babylonians, and Greeks exploring and up or down measurements in maps,
applying proportions in various fields. blueprints, and models.
 Characteristics:  Cooking and Baking: Proportions are
 Equality of Ratios: In a essential in recipes to adjust ingredient
proportion, the ratios on both quantities according to the desired
sides of the equation are equal. serving size.
  Finance and Business: Proportions are Types of Similarity:
used in financial calculations, such as
calculating interest rates, discounts,
and taxes.  AA Similarity: Two polygons are similar
if they have two pairs of corresponding
angles that are congruent.
Understanding proportions allows us to solve  SSS Similarity: Two polygons are similar
problems involving ratios and unknown if the ratios of their corresponding side
quantities. Proportional reasoning is essential lengths are equal.
in various real-life situations, including
scaling, cooking, finance, and more. By
mastering proportions, we develop a powerful Characteristics of Similar Polygons:
tool for analyzing and solving problems in
mathematics and everyday li
Proportional Side Lengths: Corresponding
sides of similar polygons are in proportion to
Lesson 7: Similarity of Polygons each other.

Congruent Angles: Corresponding angles of

similar polygons are congruent.
In this section, we will explore the concept of
similarity in polygons. Similarity is a
fundamental geometric property that
Example of Similar Polygons:
describes the proportional relationship
between the corresponding sides and angles
of two or more polygons. We will discuss the Consider two triangles ABC and DEF. If angle
definition, types, characteristics, history, and A is congruent to angle D, angle B is
provide examples to illustrate the concept of congruent to angle E, and angle C is
similarity of polygons. congruent to angle F, and the ratios of their
 Definition: Two polygons are similar if corresponding side lengths AB:DE, BC:EF, and
their corresponding angles are AC:DF are equal, then the two triangles are
congruent, and the ratios of their similar.
corresponding side lengths are equal.
 History: Ancient mathematicians,
including Euclid, made significant Applications of Similar Polygons:
contributions to the study of similarity
in polygons.
 Characteristics:  Scale Drawings: Similar polygons are
 Similar polygons have congruent used in creating scale drawings of
corresponding angles. objects or maps.
 The corresponding side lengths of  Indirect Measurement: Similar
similar polygons are in polygons can be employed to
proportion. determine the dimensions of
 inaccessible objects by measuring triangles are in proportion to each
corresponding parts of a similar object. other.
 Real-world Geometry: Similarity is  Congruent Angles: Corresponding
relevant in various fields such as angles of similar triangles are
architecture, engineering, and design congruent.
to accurately represent and model
objects and structures.
Types of Similarity:

Understanding the concept of similarity in

polygons enables us to analyze and solve
AA Similarity: Two triangles are similar if they
problems involving proportional relationships
have two pairs of corresponding angles that
between corresponding sides and angles.
are congruent.
Similarity is a powerful tool in geometry and
has practical applications in fields such as SSS Similarity: Two triangles are similar if the
design, architecture, and engineering. By ratios of their corresponding side lengths are
studying similar polygons, we gain a deeper equal.
understanding of the relationship between
shape and proportion.
Example of Similar Triangles:

Lesson 8: Similarity of Triangles

Consider two triangles ABC and DEF. If angle
In this section, we will explore the concept of
A is congruent to angle D, angle B is
similarity in triangles. Similarity is a
congruent to angle E, and angle C is
fundamental property that describes the
congruent to angle F, and the ratios of their
proportional relationship between
corresponding side lengths AB:DE, BC:EF, and
corresponding sides and angles of two or
AC:DF are equal, then the two triangles are
more triangles. We will discuss the definition,
similar.
types, characteristics, history, and provide
examples to illustrate the concept of similarity
of triangles..
Applications of Similar Triangles:
 Definition: Two triangles are similar if
their corresponding angles are
congruent, and the ratios of their  Scale Models: Similar triangles are used
corresponding side lengths are equal. to create accurate scale models of
 History Two polygons are similar if objects or buildings.
their corresponding angles are  Trigonometry: Similar triangles are
congruent, and the ratios of their utilized in trigonometric calculations
corresponding side lengths are equal. and applications.
 Characteristics:  Surveying and Navigation: Similar
 Proportional Side Lengths: triangles are employed in surveying
Corresponding sides of similar and navigation to estimate distances or
heights.
 Types of Similarity in Right Triangles:

Understanding the concept of similarity in

triangles enables us to analyze and solve
AA Similarity: Two right triangles are similar if
problems involving proportional relationships
they have two pairs of corresponding angles
between corresponding sides and angles.
that are congruent.
Similar triangles play a crucial role in various
fields such as trigonometry, surveying, and SSS Similarity: Two right triangles are similar if
scale modeling. By studying similar triangles, the ratios of their corresponding side lengths
we gain a deeper understanding of the are equal.
relationship between shape and proportion.

Example of Similar Right Triangles:

Lesson 9: Similarity of right triangles

Consider two right triangles ABC and DEF. If

In this section, we will explore the concept of angle A is congruent to angle D, angle B is
similarity in right triangles. Similarity is a congruent to angle E, and the ratios of their
fundamental property that describes the corresponding side lengths AB:DE, BC:EF, and
proportional relationship between AC:DF are equal, then the two right triangles
corresponding sides and angles of two or are similar.
more right triangles. We will discuss the
definition, types, characteristics, history, and
provide examples to illustrate the concept of Applications of Similar Right Triangles:
similarity of right triangles.

 Definition: Two right triangles are  Trigonometry: Similar right triangles

similar if their corresponding angles are fundamental in trigonometric
are congruent, and the ratios of their calculations, such as finding unknown
corresponding side lengths are equal. side lengths or angles using ratios.
 History: Ancient mathematicians,  Solving Real-World Problems: Similar
including Euclid, contributed to the right triangles are used to solve
study of similarity in right triangles. problems involving height, distance,
 Characteristics: and indirect measurement.
 Proportional Side Lengths:
Corresponding sides of similar
right triangles are in proportion to Understanding the concept of similarity in
each other. right triangles allows us to solve problems
 Congruent Angles: Corresponding involving proportional relationships between
acute angles of similar right corresponding sides and angles. Similar right
triangles are congruent. triangles play a vital role in trigonometry and
various real-world applications where indirect
measurements and ratios are involved. By
studying similar right triangles, we gain a
deeper understanding of the relationship triangles are equal, the triangles are
between shape and proportion in the context similar.
of right-angled geometry.

Using Similar Triangles to Solve Geometric

Lesson 10: Application of Theorems
Problems:
showing that triangles are similar

In this section, we will explore the application

Proportional Relationships: Similar triangles
of theorems that establish the similarity of
allow us to establish proportional
triangles. By examining specific conditions
relationships between corresponding sides
and theorems, we can determine when
and use these ratios to solve problems
triangles are similar and apply this knowledge
involving unknown side lengths or areas.
to solve various geometric problems. We will
discuss the definition, types, characteristics, Indirect Measurement: Similar triangles can
history, and provide examples to illustrate the be used to determine measurements that are
applications of theorems showing that difficult or impossible to obtain directly.
triangles are similar.

 Definition: Two triangles are similar if

Application:
their corresponding angles are
congruent, and the ratios of their
corresponding side lengths are equal.
 Shadow Problems: Using similar
 History: The study of triangle similarity
triangles, we can determine the height
has been developed by ancient
of an object or building based on its
mathematicians and further refined
shadow and the shadow length of a
over the centuries by mathematicians
known object.
like Euclid.
 Scale Drawings: Similar triangles can be
 Characteristics: Similar triangles have
used to create accurate scale drawings
congruent corresponding angles and
of objects or buildings.
proportional corresponding side
 Navigation and Surveying: Similar
lengths.
triangles are employed in navigation
and surveying to estimate distances or
heights.
Theorems:

 Angle-Angle (AA) Similarity Theorem: If

two angles of one triangle are
congruent to two angles of another Lesson 11: Fundamental theorems of
triangle, the triangles are similar. proportionality to solve problems
involving proportions
 Side-Side-Side (SSS) Similarity  Definition: A proportion is an equation
Theorem: If the ratios of the that states that two ratios are equal.
corresponding side lengths of two
  History: The concept of proportions proportionality, and we can set up the
has a long history dating back to proportion (5/8) = (x/12) to solve for x, the
ancient civilizations such as Babylon unknown time.
and Egypt, where proportional
relationships were used in trade and
measurement. Applications of Proportional Relationships:
 Characteristics:
 Scaling and Resizing: Proportional
 Constant Ratio: In a direct
relationships are used to scale and
proportion, the ratio of
resize objects or models.
corresponding values remains
 Financial Calculations: Proportional
the same. In an inverse
relationships are utilized in interest
proportion, the product of
calculations, exchange rates, and
corresponding values remains
financial planning.
the same.
 Cooking and Recipes: Proportions are
essential in cooking and baking, where
ingredients need to be adjusted based
Fundamental Theorems of Proportionality:
on the desired serving size.

Theorem 1: If a/b = c/d, then ad = bc

(Product of Means = Product of Extremes). Lesson 12: Problems that involve
similarity

Theorem 2: If a/b = c/d, then a/(a + b) = c/(c

 Definition: Problems that involve
+ d) (Midsegment Theorem for Similar
similarity require the use of similar
Triangles).
figures or triangles to establish
proportional relationships and solve
for unknown values or measurements.
Types of Proportionality:
 History: The use of similarity in
 Direct Proportion: The values of two problem-solving dates back to ancient
quantities increase or decrease civilizations, where proportional
together at a constant ratio. relationships were employed in trade,
 Inverse Proportion: The values of two measurement, and architecture.
quantities change in opposite  Characteristics:
directions while their product remains  Proportional Relationships:
constant. Similarity problems rely on
​ establishing proportional
relationships between
Example of Proportional Problems:
corresponding sides or
dimensions of similar figures.
If it takes 5 hours for 8 workers to build a wall,  Application of Theorems:
how long would it take 12 workers to build Similarity problems often require
the same wall? This problem involves direct the application of theorems and
 principles related to similar to reconstruct three-dimensional
figures and triangles. images from two-dimensional slices.

Types of Similarity Problems: Lesson 13: Pythagorean Theorem and

its proof

 Geometric Problems: Problems that  Definition: The Pythagorean Theorem

involve finding unknown side lengths, states that in a right triangle, the
areas, or volumes using the concept of square of the length of the hypotenuse
similarity. (the side opposite the right angle) is
 Real-World Applications: Problems that equal to the sum of the squares of the
involve indirect measurements, such as other two sides.
determining the height of a building or  History: The Pythagorean Theorem is
the distance between two inaccessible named after the ancient Greek
objects. mathematician Pythagoras, who was
one of the first to prove and study its
properties. However, evidence
Example of a Similarity Problem: suggests that the theorem was known
and used by earlier civilizations such as
the Babylonians and Egyptians.
Given two similar triangles with side lengths  Characteristics:
of 4 cm and 6 cm, find the ratio of their  Right Triangle: The Pythagorean
corresponding side lengths if one side of the Theorem applies exclusively to
larger triangle is 12 cm. By setting up a right triangles.
proportion (4/6) = (x/12), we can solve for x,  Square of Side Lengths: The
which represents the corresponding side theorem deals with the squares
length of the smaller triangle. of the side lengths rather than
the side lengths themselves.

Applications of Similarity Problems:

Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem:

 Architecture and Engineering: Similarity

is utilized in scaling blueprints, creating There are several different proofs of the
accurate models, and designing Pythagorean Theorem, including geometric,
structures. algebraic, and trigonometric approaches. The
 Map Scaling: Similarity is used to scale most commonly known proof is the
maps and determine distances geometric proof using squares.
between locations.
 Medical Imaging: Similarity is
employed in medical imaging
techniques, such as CT scans and MRI,
Example of the Pythagorean Theorem:

In a right triangle with side lengths of 3 units

and 4 units, we can use the Pythagorean
Theorem to find the length of the
hypotenuse. Applying the theorem, we have
(3^2 + 4^2) = (5^2), which simplifies to 9 +
16 = 25. Taking the square root of both sides,
we find that the hypotenuse has a length of 5
units.

Applications of the Pythagorean Theorem:

 Distance Calculation: The Pythagorean

Theorem is used to find the distance
between two points in a coordinate
plane or in three-dimensional space.
 Construction: The theorem is applied in
construction and engineering to
ensure the stability and accuracy of
structures.
 Navigation: The theorem is utilized in
navigation, such as determining the
distance between two locations on a
map or calculating the course of a ship.
 4th Quarter

Table of Contents: 6. Laws of Sines and Cosines and its

Applications

 The Law of Sines: Definition and

1. Triangle Trigonometry
application in solving triangles
 Definition and concept of trigonometry  The Law of Cosines: Definition and
in triangles application in solving triangles
 Trigonometric functions in right
triangles
 Finding missing side lengths and angles 7. Oblique Triangles
using trigonometric ratios
 Definition and properties of oblique
triangles (triangles that are not right
triangles)
2. The 6 Trigonometric Ratios: Sine, Cosine,
 Solving oblique triangles using
Tangent, Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent
trigonometric ratios and the Laws of
 Definition and properties of each Sines and Cosines
trigonometric ratio
 Relationships between the ratios in a
right triangle

3. Trigonometric Ratios of Specific Angles

 Special angles (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°)

and their trigonometric ratios
 Memorizing and using the values of
trigonometric ratios for specific angles

4. Angles of Elevation and Depression

 Definition and concept of angles of

elevation and depression
 Solving problems involving angles of
elevation and depression

5. Application of Trigonometric Ratios

 Real-world applications of trigonometry,

such as calculating distances, heights,
and angles in various contexts
 Solving problems involving triangles
and trigonometric ratios
 Concept:

Trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, tangent,

Lesson 1: Triangle Trigonometry secant, cosecant, and cotangent) are used to
relate the angles and side lengths of a
triangle.
Triangle trigonometry is a branch of
trigonometry that focuses on the
relationships between the sides and angles of
Trigonometric Functions in Right Triangles:
a triangle. It provides methods for calculating
unknown side lengths or angles using
trigonometric ratios. In this lesson, we will
Trigonometric Ratios: The six trigonometric
explore the definition, types, characteristics,
ratios (sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant,
history, and provide examples for each
and cotangent) are defined in terms of the
subtopic to enhance understanding of
sides of a right triangle.
triangle trigonometry.

 Definition: Triangle trigonometry

involves the study of the relationships SOH-CAH-TOA: Mnemonic for remembering
between the sides and angles of a the trigonometric ratios:
triangle using trigonometric functions.
Sine = Opposite/Hypotenuse,
 History: Ancient Origins:
- Trigonometry has roots in Cosine = Adjacent/Hypotenuse,
ancient civilizations such as the Tangent = Opposite/Adjacent.
Babylonians and Egyptians, who
used basic trigonometric
concepts for surveying and Finding Missing Side Lengths and Angles
astronomy. using Trigonometric Ratios:
- Development and
Advancement: The Greek
mathematician Hipparchus is Solving for Side Lengths: Given an angle and
credited with the development one side length, trigonometric ratios can be
of trigonometry as a used to find the lengths of the other sides.
mathematical discipline.
 Characteristics: Solving for Angles: Given two side lengths,
trigonometric ratios can be used to find the
 Right Triangles: Triangle
trigonometry primarily deals measure of an angle.
with right triangles, where one
angle measures 90 degrees.
Example of Triangle Trigonometry:
 Side Ratios: Trigonometric ratios
provide a relationship between Given a right triangle with an angle measuring
the side lengths of a right 30 degrees and a side length of 5 units, we
triangle and the measures of its can use trigonometric ratios to find the length
angles. of the opposite side. Using the sine ratio (sin
θ = Opposite/Hypotenuse), we have sin 30° =
x/5. Solving for x, we find that the length of Sine (sin):
the opposite side is x = 5 * sin 30°.
Definition: The sine of an angle is the ratio of
the length of the side opposite the angle to
the length of the hypotenuse.
Triangle trigonometry is essential in various
fields such as engineering, physics, and Characteristics: The sine ratio ranges between
navigation. Understanding the concepts and -1 and 1, representing the height of a triangle
techniques of triangle trigonometry allows us relative to its hypotenuse.
to solve problems involving triangles, angles,
Example: In a right triangle with an angle θ,
and side lengths. By applying trigonometric
sin θ = opposite/hypotenuse.
ratios and principles, we can accurately
calculate unknown quantities and make
informed decisions in real-world scenarios.
Cosine (cos):

Definition: The cosine of an angle is the ratio

of the length of the side adjacent to the angle
to the length of the hypotenuse.
Lesson 2: The 6 Trigonometric Ratios:
Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Secant, Characteristics: The cosine ratio ranges
Cosecant, and Cotangent between -1 and 1, representing the width of a
triangle relative to its hypotenuse.

The six trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine, Example: In a right triangle with an angle θ,
tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent) are cos θ = adjacent/hypotenuse.
fundamental concepts in trigonometry that
relate the angles of a right triangle to the
ratios of its side lengths. In this lesson, we will Tangent (tan):
explore the definition, types, characteristics,
Definition: The tangent of an angle is the ratio
history, and provide examples for each
of the length of the side opposite the angle to
subtopic to deepen the understanding of the
the length of the side adjacent to the angle.
six trigonometric ratios.
Characteristics: The tangent ratio can take any
 Definition: Trigonometric ratios are
real value, representing the slope of a line or
mathematical functions that relate the
the steepness of a triangle's side.
angles of a right triangle to the ratios
of its side lengths. Example: In a right triangle with an angle θ,
tan θ = opposite/adjacent.

Concept:

Trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, Secant (sec):

tangent, secant, cosecant, and
Definition: The secant of an angle is the
cotangent) are used to relate the
reciprocal of the cosine of that angle.
angles and side lengths of a triangle.
Characteristics: The secant ratio represents
the multiplicative inverse of the cosine ratio.
Example: In a right triangle with an angle θ, common angles without the need for
sec θ = 1/cos θ. extensive calculations. In this lesson, we will
explore the definition, types, characteristics,
history, and provide examples for each
Cosecant (csc): subtopic to enhance understanding of
Definition: The cosecant of an angle is the trigonometric ratios of specific angles.
reciprocal of the sine of that angle.  Definition: Trigonometric ratios of
Characteristics: The cosecant ratio represents specific angles are predefined values of
the multiplicative inverse of the sine ratio. sine, cosine, and tangent for certain
angles that frequently occur in
Example: In a right triangle with an angle θ, trigonometric calculations.
csc θ = 1/sin θ.

Special Angles (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°):

Cotangent (cot): Definition: Special angles refer to commonly
Definition: The cotangent of an angle is the encountered angles in trigonometry that have
reciprocal of the tangent of that angle. specific trigonometric ratios.

Characteristics: The cotangent ratio Types: The special angles include 0°, 30°, 45°,
represents the multiplicative inverse of the 60°, and 90°.
tangent ratio. Characteristics: These angles are often used as
Example: In a right triangle with an angle θ, reference angles due to their simplicity and
cot θ = 1/tan θ. frequently occurring trigonometric ratios.

The six trigonometric ratios are fundamental Trigonometric Ratios for Special Angles:
tools in trigonometry, enabling us to solve  Sine and Cosine Ratios: The
various problems involving right triangles. trigonometric ratios for special angles
They provide insights into the relationships can be determined by using the values
between angles and side lengths, allowing us of side lengths in corresponding
to calculate missing quantities and make triangles.
accurate measurements. By understanding  Tangent Ratio: The tangent ratio for
and applying the six trigonometric ratios, we special angles is obtained by dividing
can analyze and solve complex problems in the sine ratio by the cosine ratio.
fields such as engineering, physics, and
navigation.+3
Memorizing and Using Trigonometric Ratios
for Specific Angles:

Lesson 3: Trigonometric Ratios of

Specific Angles  Memorization Techniques: Strategies
These ratios provide a convenient way to such as mnemonic devices and
quickly determine the trigonometric values of patterns can help in remembering the
 values of trigonometric ratios for sight and a horizontal reference line. These
special angles. angles play a significant role in various real-
 Applying Trigonometric Ratios: world applications, such as surveying,
Trigonometric ratios for specific angles architecture, and navigation. In this lesson, we
are used to quickly solve trigonometric will explore the definition, types,
problems involving these angles. characteristics, history, and provide examples
for each subtopic to develop a solid
understanding of angles of elevation and
Examples of Trigonometric Ratios for Specific
depression.
Angles:
 Definition: An angle of elevation is the
angle formed when an observer's line
For a 30° angle in a right triangle, the sine of sight is upward from a horizontal
ratio is 1/2, the cosine ratio is √3/2, and the reference line. An angle of depression
tangent ratio is 1/√3. is the angle formed when an observer's
line of sight is downward from a
In a 45° angle in a right triangle, the sine ratio
horizontal reference line.
is √2/2, the cosine ratio is √2/2, and the
 History: The study of polygons dates
tangent ratio is 1.
back to ancient times, with the Greeks
For a 60° angle in a right triangle, the sine and Egyptians making significant
ratio is √3/2, the cosine ratio is 1/2, and the contributions. Euclid's "Elements"
tangent ratio is √3. introduced the foundational principles
of polygons, including their properties
and classifications.
Understanding and utilizing the trigonometric
ratios of specific angles allow for quick Concept:
calculations and simplification of Angles of elevation and depression are
trigonometric problems. These ratios serve as measured with respect to a horizontal line,
building blocks for more complex typically the ground or a reference point.
trigonometric concepts and applications. By
mastering the values of trigonometric ratios
for common angles, individuals can efficiently Characteristics of Angles of Elevation and
solve trigonometric equations, perform Depression:
geometric calculations, and analyze various
 Angle Measurement: Angles of
real-world situations that involve angles and
elevation and depression are measured
distances.
in degrees or radians.
 Range of Values: These angles can
have a range from 0° to 90°, as they
Lesson 4: Angles of Elevation and
represent the inclination of the line of
Depression
sight.
Angles of elevation and depression are
important concepts in trigonometry that
describe the angles formed between a line of
Applications of Angles of Elevation and Lesson 5: Application of Trigonometric
Depression: Ratios
 Surveying: Angles of elevation and
 Definition: A triangle is a polygon with
depression are used in surveying to
three sides and three angles. It is one
measure the height, distance, and
of the fundamental shapes in geometry
slope of objects or features.
and serves as the building block for
 Architecture: Architects utilize these
many other geometric concepts.
angles to design structures and
 History: The study of triangles dates
determine the optimal placement of
back to ancient civilizations, including
windows, roofs, and other elements.
the Egyptians and Babylonians. The
 Navigation: Navigational tools, such as
Greeks, particularly Euclid, made
sextants, rely on angles of elevation
significant contributions to
and depression to calculate distances
understanding the properties and
and positions.
relationships of triangles, which are still
used today.

Examples of Angles of Elevation and

Depression:
Lesson 6: Laws of Sines and Cosines
and its Applications
Angle of Elevation: Suppose an observer looks
The laws of sines and cosines are powerful
up at the top of a tower from a horizontal
mathematical tools used in trigonometry to
distance. The angle formed between the
solve triangles that are not necessarily right
observer's line of sight and the horizontal line
triangles. These laws provide relationships
is the angle of elevation.
between the angles and sides of a triangle,
Angle of Depression: If an observer looks allowing us to find missing angles or sides
down at a boat from a cliff, the angle formed when certain information is known.
between the observer's line of sight and the
Law of Sines:
horizontal line is the angle of depression.
Definition: The law of sines states that the
ratio of the length of a side of a triangle to
Understanding angles of elevation and the sine of its opposite angle is constant. It
depression is crucial for various practical provides a relationship between the angles
applications involving height, distance, and and sides of any triangle.
slope calculations. By mastering these
Formula: The law of sines can be expressed as
concepts, individuals can accurately interpret
sin(A)/a = sin(B)/b = sin(C)/c, where A, B, and
and analyze real-world situations, solve
C are the angles of the triangle, and a, b, and
trigonometric problems, and make informed
c are the lengths of the sides opposite those
decisions based on the measured angles.
angles.

Application: The law of sines is useful when

we have information about an angle and its
opposite side, and we want to find the mapping, and determining the lengths
lengths of other sides or angles in the of sides in non-right triangles.
triangle.  Physics: The laws of sines and cosines
find applications in physics, particularly
in the analysis of forces and vector
Law of Cosines: components.
Definition: The law of cosines relates the
lengths of the sides of a triangle to the cosine Understanding the laws of sines and cosines
of one of its angles. It allows us to find the allows us to solve a wide range of triangle
length of a side when we know the lengths of problems and apply trigonometric principles
the other two sides and the included angle. in various real-world scenarios. By utilizing
these laws, individuals can accurately
Formula: The law of cosines can be expressed
determine unknown side lengths or angles in
as c² = a² + b² - 2ab cos(C), where a, b, and c
non-right triangles, leading to more precise
are the lengths of the sides, and C is the
calculations and informed decision-making.
included angle between sides a and b.

Application: The law of cosines is useful when

we have information about the lengths of two
sides and the included angle, and we want to Lesson 7: Oblique Triangles
find the length of the third side or other
angles in the triangle. Oblique triangles are triangles that do not
have a right angle. They can be categorized
into three types: acute, obtuse, and right-
Solving Triangles using the Laws of Sines and oblique triangles. In this lesson, we will
Cosines: explore the definition, types, and provide
examples for each subtopic to develop a solid
 Ambiguous Case: The ambiguous case
understanding of oblique triangles.
occurs when we have certain
information about a triangle but there  Definition: An oblique triangle is a
are multiple possible solutions or no triangle that does not have a right
solution at all. angle (90 degrees).
Examples: Using the laws of sines and cosines,
we can solve various types of triangles, such Types of Oblique Triangles:
as acute, obtuse, and right triangles, for
 Acute Triangle: An acute triangle is an
missing side lengths or angles.
oblique triangle where all angles are
Applications of the Laws of Sines and Cosines: less than 90 degrees.
 Navigation: The laws of sines and  Obtuse Triangle: An obtuse triangle is
cosines are used in navigation, an oblique triangle where one angle is
especially in calculating distances and greater than 90 degrees.
angles for aircraft or ship navigation.  Right-Oblique Triangle: A right-oblique
 Engineering: These laws are employed triangle is an oblique triangle that does
in engineering for triangulation,
 not have a right angle, but one angle is astronomy, and geology, where angles
exactly 90 degrees. and distances need to be calculated.

Understanding oblique triangles is essential in

Characteristics: Oblique triangles have varying trigonometry as they introduce more complex
side lengths and angle measures, which scenarios compared to right triangles. By
require specific methods such as the laws of mastering the techniques to solve oblique
sines and cosines to solve. triangles using the laws of sines and cosines,
individuals can accurately determine side
lengths, angle measures, and other geometric
Solving Oblique Triangles: properties of these triangles, enabling them
to solve real-world problems and make
 Using the Law of Sines: The law of
informed decisions in various fields.
sines can be used to solve oblique
triangles when we have information -----END-----
about an angle and its opposite side,
or two angles and a side.
 Using the Law of Cosines: The law of
cosines can be used to solve oblique
triangles when we have information
about the lengths of two sides and the
included angle, or three sides.
 Ambiguous Case: The ambiguous case
occurs when we have certain
information about an oblique triangle,
but there are multiple possible
solutions or no solution at all.

Applications of Oblique Triangles:

 Surveying and Navigation: Oblique

triangles are used in surveying and
navigation to determine distances,
angles, and positions of objects or
landmarks.
 Architecture and Engineering:
Architects and engineers utilize oblique
triangles to design structures, calculate
roof pitches, and determine the
lengths and angles of various
components.
 Trigonometric Applications: Oblique
triangles have applications in various
fields of science, such as physics,