3.

CURRENT ELECTRICTY
Current Electricity:
It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of electric charges in motion.
Electric current or strength of current:
It is the rate of flow of charges through a conductor of any cross-section.
Steady current:
q
If the flow of charges is uniform, then the current is steady. It is given by, I =
t
where q is the charge which flows through a conductor of any cross-section in rime t.
Instantaneous current:
It is the current at a given instant of time.
dq
If the flow of charges is non-uniform, then instantaneous current is given by, I=
dt
where dq is the small amount of charge which flows through a conductor of any cross-section in small
interval of time dt .
Ampere is the SI unit of current.
q
Consider, I = , If q =1 coulomb, t =1 second, then I = 1 ampere,
t
Ampere:
Electric Current is said to be 1 ampere, when l coulomb of charge flows in one second through a
conductor of any cross section,
Current carriers:
The charged particles whose flow in a given direction constitutes electric current are called current
carriers or charge carriers.
In metals, free electrons are the charge carriers. In electrolytic conductors, both positive and negative
ions are the charge carriers. In gases, positive ions and electrons are the charge carriers. In semiconductors,
both electrons and holes are the charge carriers.
Convention for the direction of current:
By convention, the direction of flow of positive charge gives the direction of current. This current is
called conventional current. The direction of electron current is opposite to the conventional current.
Electric current is a scalar quantity:
Even though, electric current has both magnitude and direction, it is a scalar quantity. This is because
the value of electric current does not depend on its direction. That is, the current in a wire remain unchanged
if it is bent, tied with a knot.
Note:
1. If n is the number of free electrons that flows in a conductor of any cross section in time interval t, then
ne
the current is given by, I =
t
2. If q1 is the total positive charge moving in the forward direction and q2 is the total negative charge
moving in the forward direction in a time during the same time interval t, then the current is
q1 q 2 q1 - q 2
I= - =
t t t
3. If q1 is the total positive charge moving in the forward direction and q2 is the total negative charge
moving in the backward direction in a time during the same time interval t, then the current is
q1 q 2 q1 + q 2
I= + =
t t t
4. The current in domestic appliances is of the order of an ampere while in electronic circuits it is in the
range of microampere to milli ampere.
5. The currents through our nerves are in microampere.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 1

Current density;
It is the current per unit area of cross-section of the wire.

Current I
Current density = Þ J=
Area of cross - section A

Current density is a vector quantity. Its direction is same as that of current.

1. Its SI unit is A/m2
2. Its dimensional formula is [AL-2]
! ! ! ! !
3. Current density in vector form I = J • A where I is the dot product of J and A . A is the area vector
which represents cross sectional area of the conductor.
!
4. If A makes an angle q with the direction of current, then I = JA cos q . Where A cos q is the
component of A along the direction of flow of current.
I q ne
5. Current density in terms of charge and number of charge carriers, J = = =
A At At
6. Current density in terms of drift velocity and number density of charge,
I nAv d e
J= = = nv d e (! I = nAvd e )
A A
7. If the current flows through a conductor of varying cross-section, the current is same at all points along
its length. If this is not true, the charge will not to be conserved. But current density is different at
different points along its length. This is because area of cross-section is different at different points.
Mechanism of flow of current in a metallic conductor:
The free elections will be in random motion within the conductor (Similar to
that of molecules of a gas inside a container). Due to the random motion, the free
electrons collide with positive ions/atoms and undergo change in direction at each
collision.
The average thermal speed of the free electrons is of the order 105m/s. but the average thermal velocity
is zero because of random motion. That is, free electrons in the conductor do not move in any specific direction.
Therefore, the net flow of electrons (charges) inside the conductor in any direction is zero. Hence, net current
in the conductor is zero.
Maintaining of steady current in a conductor:
Consider a cylindrical conductor and two identical discs of dielectric having
the radii equal to that of cylinder. Put the charges +Q and -Q on the two discs and
attaches them to two ends of the cylinder. Due to this, a potential difference is
developed across the ends of the conductor. Then, an electric field will be set up in
the conductor and its direction is from positively charged disc to negatively charged
disc. Due to this field, the free electrons accelerate towards +Q and neutralize the
charges on the discs. The free electrons flow as long as there is electric field inside
the conductor. In this situation, there will be a current for a short time and no current
thereafter.
In order to maintain a steady current in a conductor, a continuous flow of
charges is required. This is possible if the two ends of the conductor are maintained
at different potentials. To maintain potential difference across a conductor, we can
use the battery or dynamo.
Ohm's Law:
Statement:
The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across
its ends, provided the temperature & other physical conditions of the conductor are kept constant.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 2

Explanation:
V
Ohm's Law is given by, I µ V Þ I =
R
Where I is the current in the conductor,
V is the potential difference applied across ends of the conductor,
R is the resistance of the conductor.
The devices which obey Ohm’s Law called ohmic devices or ohmic substances
Ex: Metallic conductors, voltmeter and ammeter.
For ohmic devices, current increases linearly with increase in voltage.
The devices which do not obey Ohm’s law called non-ohmic devices or Non-ohmic substances
Ex: semiconductors, triodes, diodes etc.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law:
1. It is not applicable for semiconductors,
2. It is not applicable for superconductors
3. It is not applicable for vacuum tubes
4. It is not applicable for metallic conductors at very low and very high temperatures.
Note: Resistance of a conductor is independent of applied voltage.
Resistance of a conductor:
It is defined as the ratio of potential difference applied across the ends of the conductor to the current
flowing through it.

Potential difference V
Resistance = ÞR=
Electric current I
It is the amount of opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of electric current through it.
The SI unit of resistance is W
V
In R = if V= 1 volt, I = l ampere, then R= 1 ohm.
I
The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm, if 1A of current flows through it when a potential
difference of 1V is applied across its ends.
Circuit symbol of resistance is
Origin of resistivity (or) resistance:
When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, an
electric field is set up in it. This electric field accelerates the free
electrons. As the electrons move through the conductor, they collide
with the fixed positive ions/atoms free electrons. This opposition to
the motion of free electrons is the origin of resistivity/resistance.
When the temperature of the conductor increases collisions and hence
resistance increases.
A wire is carrying a current. Is it charged (or) not:
No, the current in a wire is due to flow of free electrons in a definite direction. But the number of
protons in the wire at any instant is equal to number of electrons and charge on the electron is equal and
opposite to that of proton. Hence net charge on the wire is zero.
Factors depend on the resistance of a conductor:
1. Length of the conductor 3. Nature of the conductor.
2. Area of cross section of the conductor. 4. Temperature of the conductor.

Resistance in terms of resistivity:

The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to length of the conductor and inversely
proportional to area of cross-section of the conductor.
L rL
It can be shown that, R µ ÞR=
A A
Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 3
Where R is the resistance of the conductor r is the resistivity of the material of conductor, L is the length of
the conductor and A is area of cross-section of the conductor.
Resistivity of a conductor:
It is the resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit area of cross- section
RA
Consider r = --------- (1) its SI unit is W m
L
when A=1m2, L= l m, then r =R
For a metallic cylindrical wire with radius r, A = pr 2
Rp r 2
Eq. (1) Þ r =
L
1. Resistivity is constant for a given material. It is independent of dimensions (length and area of cross-
section) of the conductor. It indicates the nature of the material.
2. For good conductors like copper, its value is of the order of 10-8 W m and for insulator like quartz it is
of the order of 1016 W m
3. For perfect conductors, the resistivity is zero and for perfect insulator the resistivity is infinity.
4. Greater the value of resistivity, stronger the electric field required to establish a given current.
5. Factors affecting the resistivity:
n e 2t 1 m 1
We have, conductivity, s = but resistivity, r = Þ r = 2 Þ r µ
m s ne t nt
Resistivity is inversely proportional to the number of free electrons per unit volume (n) of the conductor and
relaxation time (t ) of the electrons in a conductor. But for a given conductor, n is constant and it depends on
the nature of the material. So, resistivity of a conductor depends on the nature of the material.
But relaxation time decreases with increase in temperature. So, resistivity increases with increase in
temperature.
Note: When a wire is stretched to three times to length, then the new resistivity will be same. This is because
the resistivity depends on the nature of the material and temperature. It does not depend on the dimensions of
the wire.
Resistivity of metals with temperature:
The resistivity of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the temperature.
For a conductor, it can be shown that, r t = r o (1 + a t )
where r t is the resistivity at a temperature t oC
r o is the resistivity at a temperature 0 oC
a is the temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
Note:
1. Manganin and Constantan coils are used in making of standard resistors because they are having very
low temperature co-efficient of resistivity. i.e. their resistivity is very slightly affected by changes in
their temperature when current flows through them.
2. The resistivity of a semiconductor is inversely proportional to the temperature.
3. The value of temperature coefficient of resistance is positive only for metals and alloys. It is negative
for semiconductors.
Variation of resistivity of copper with temperature:
The curve shows that, as the temperature increases the resistivity
also increases.
Variation of resistivity of nichrome, manganin and constantan
with temperature:
The curve shows that, as the temperature increases
the resistivity increases linearly.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 4

Variation of resistivity of semiconductor with temperature:
The curve shows that, as the temperature increases the
resistivity decreases.
Conductance:
It is defined as the reciprocal of the resistance of a conductor.
1 1
Conductance = ÞG=
Resistance R
Its SI unit is W -1 . Its another unit is siemen (S)
Conductivity:
It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor.
1 1
Conductivity = Þs =
Resistivity r
Its SI unit is W -1 m -1 . It’s another unit is siemen per meter (S/m)
Drift velocity:
It is an average velocity with which free electrons drift in a
metallic wire when potential difference is applied across its ends.
When potential difference is applied across a conductor, an
electric field is set up in it. This electric field accelerates free
electrons. Then the free electrons drift in a metallic wire.
Relaxation time:
It is an average time interval between two successive
collisions of electrons with fixed atoms/positive ions in a metal.
Order of relaxation time is 10 -14 s.
Drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor:
Let m be the mass of an electron, -e be the charge of the electron, u be the
average initial velocity of the electrons, E be the field in the conductor, v be the
drift velocity (final velocity) of the electrons, a be the acceleration of the
electrons, t be the relaxation time of the electrons.
We have, v = u + at ---------- (1)
In the absence of electric field, the free electrons will move in random directions.
Therefore, average initial velocity of all the electrons is zero.
ie u = 0 and v = v d drift velocity.
\ (1) Þ v d = at --------- (2)
F - eE
But F = ma Þ a = Þ a = (! F = -eE )
m m
eEt
(2) Þ v d = -
m
Note:
1. The random motion of free electrons does not contribute to the drift of these electrons. Also, the average
collision-time (relaxation time) is constant for a given material at a given temperature. Therefore when
no electric field exists in a conductor, the free electrons stay at rest or v d = 0 and when a field exists,
eEt
they move with a constant velocity v d = - = kE where k is a constant depends on the material of the
m
conductor and its temperature.
2. The magnitude of drift velocity is of the order of 10 -3 m / s . With this velocity, the free electron will take
nearly 17 minute to drift through a wire of length 1m. it is surprising that the electric bulb glows as soon
as switch is on, whatever may be its distance from the switch. The fact is that the electric impulse (wave)

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 5

 ( )
propagates in the wire with a velocity almost equal to the velocity of light c = 3 ´ 10 8 m / s and so takes
negligible time.
Distinguish between thermal velocity and drift velocity:

Thermal velocity Drift velocity

1 It is the velocity acquired by the electron It is the velocity acquired by the electron due
due to thermal energy. to external electric field.
2 It increases with increase in temperature. It decreases with increase in temperature
3 It is independent of applied voltage It increases with applied voltage.
4 It is of the order of 10 5 m / s It is the order of 10 -3 m / s

Mobility of free electrons:

It is the drift velocity acquired by free electrons per unit electric field.
V
Mobility, µ = d where Vd is the drift velocity and E is the electric field.
E
The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs.
Mobility is independent of applied electric field. It decreases with increases in temperature.
Electric current in terms of drift velocity of the free electrons:
Consider a cylindrical metal wire of length l and uniform cross-sectional area A. The conductor is
connected to a battery.
When a potential difference is applied across the ends of the conductor, an electric field E will be set
up in the conductor. Due to this electric field, the electrons drift with a velocity Vd in a direction opposite to
the direction of electric field.
q
By definition, the current flowing through the conductor is given by i = -------- (1)
t
Total free charge, q = Number of free electrons ´ charge of each electron
q = N ´ e ----- (2)
Number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor is given by
Number of free electrons
n=
Volume of the conductor
N
Þ n = Þ N = n ´V Þ N = n ´ A´ l (! V = area of cross sec tion ´ length )
V
\ (2) Þ q = nAl e ------- (3)
nAl e æ lö
(3) in (1) Þ i = Þ i = nAv d e ç! v d = ÷
t è tø
! !
Relation between current density and conductivity of a conductor (or) J = s E :
Let l is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire, A is area of cross-
section of the wire, V is the potential difference applied across the wire, E is the
electric field set up in the wire, v d is the drift velocity of the electrons, i is the
current in the wire,
V
We have, i = -------- (1)
R
rl V VA i 1 æV ö
But R = \ (1) Þ i = = = = ç ÷ --------- (2)
A rl rl A r è l ø
A
i V 1 ! !
But = J , = E and =s \ (2) Þ J = sE Þ J =s E
A l r

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In the above relation, R is the resistance of the wire, J is the current density, r is the resistivity of material of
the wire, s is the conductivity of the wire.
Conductivity of a material in terms of relaxation time:
Let l be the length of the cylindrical metallic wire, A is the area of cross-section of the wire, V is the
potential difference applied across the wire, E is the electric field set up in the wire, vd is the drift velocity of
the electrons, i is the current in the wire.
J i i
We have J = sE Þ s = but J = , \ s =
E A AE
nAv d e nv e eEt n e æ eEt ö
But i = nAv d e \s = Þ s = d but vd = \s = ç ÷
AE E m E è m ø
ne 2t
Þs =
m
In the above relations J is the current density, s is the conductivity of the wire, n is the number of
electrons per unit volume, t is the relaxation time, e is the charge of an electron and m is the mass of an
electron.
Resistor: It is a material of known resistance (or) it is a component of known resistance.
Wire wound resistors:
These are made by winding the wire of alloys such as nichrome, manganin and constantan. They are
used in resistance boxes.
Carbon resistors: These are the resistors made up of carbon.
Carbon resistors are cylindrical in shape and provided with two wires for electrical connection. They
are cheap and compact. Therefore, they are widely used in electrical circuits.
Carbon resistors are cylindrical in shape. Their length is few centimeters and diameter is few
millimeters. Because of small size of resistor color code is used to find the resistance value.
Steps to find the resistance value:
1. The resistors have a set of coloured rings painted on them.
2. First two rings (1&2) from the left end indicate first two digits in
a numerical value of resistance.
3. Third ring (3) indicates the decimal multiplier.
4. Fourth ring (4) indicates the tolerance (or) possible variation in percentage about indicated value.

colour Number
Multiplier Tolerance
3rd ring 4th ring
Black 0 10 0
Brown 1 101
Red 2 10 2
Orange 3 10 3
Yellow 4 10 4
Green 5 10 5
Blue 6 10 6
Violet 7 10 7
Gray 8 10 8
White 9 10 9
Gold - 10 -1 5%
Silver - 10 -2
10%
No colour - - 20%
Note: B.B. ROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wife wearing Gold Silver necklace.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 7

Potential difference between two points in a circuit:
Potential difference in a circuit is the work done to drive to unit positive charge from one point to
Work done W
another point in a circuit. Potential difference = ÞV =
Charge q
Electro motive force (emf) of a cell:
e.m.f of a cell is the work done by a cell to drive a unit positive charge throughout the circuit.
Work done W
emf = ÞE=
Charge q
SI unit of emf is volt
W
Consider, E = if W=1 joule, qo = 1coulomb, then E =1 volt
q
The emf of a cell is said to be 1 volt, when 1 joule of work is done by the cell to drive 1 coulomb of
charge completely round the circuit.
Cell: It is a source of emf.
Battery: It is source of emf consisting of number of cells.
Circuit: It is the combination of sources of emf’s and electrical components such as resistors, capacitors,
conducting wires etc.
Internal resistance of a cell:
It is the amount of opposition to the
flow of current offered by the electrolyte and
electrodes of the cell.
P and N are the electrodes of
electrolytic cell. R is the external resistance I
is the current in the circuit. emf is not a force,
it is energy spent or work done. It is called emf as this energy motivates the electric charges to flow with force.
Short circuiting of a cell:
If the electrodes of the cell are connected from outside in a circuit having negligible resistance, it is
said to be short circuited. If a cell is short circuited, it gets discharged because a very heavy current will be
drawn from the cell. This causes sulphating, disintegrating of lead oxide and ultimately buckling of the
electrodes.
External resistance: It is the amount of opposition to the flow of current outside the cell.
Cell in open circuit:
The cell is said to be in open circuit, if no current is drawn from the cell.
(or)
The cell is said to be in open circuit, if an external resistance of infinite value is connected to a cell.
Cell in closed circuit:
The cell is said to be in closed circuit, if the current is drawn from the cell.
(or)
The cell is said to be in closed circuit, if an external resistance of finite value is connected to a cell.
Current drawn by an external resistor:
Let E is the emf of the cell, I is the current in the circuit, R is the resistance of the external resistor, V
is potential difference across R, r is the internal resistance of the cell, V 1 is potential difference across r.
From Ohm's law,
Potential difference across R, V = I R
Potential difference across r, V 1 = I r
By the definition, e.m.f. of the cell, E = V + V 1
E
E = I R + I r Þ E = I (R + r ) Þ I =
(R + r )

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 8

Terminal potential difference:
It is the potential difference across the electrodes of the cell in the closed circuit
ER
It is given by, V = I R Þ V =
(R + r )
Terminal potential difference equal to emf of a cell:
ER
We have V = (If R = ¥ , then V= E. also if r = 0, then V = E)
(R + r )
1. Terminal potential difference of a cell is equal to emf of the cell, if the circuit is open.
2. Terminal potential difference of a cell is equal to emf of the cell, if the current is not drawn from the
cell.
3. Terminal potential difference of a cell is equal to emf of the cell, if the internal resistance of the cell is
zero.
Terminal potential difference of a cell is always less than its actual emf:
When a voltmeter is connected across a cell, part of the energy is used to overcome the internal
resistance of the cell. Hence the reading of a voltmeter is always less than actual e.m.f.

Potential difference (p.d) Electromotive force (emf)

1 It is the potential difference between two It is the maximum potential difference between the
points in the closed circuit. (or) It is the work electrodes of the cell in the open circuit. (or) It is the
done to drive unit positive test charge from work done or energy spent by a cell to drive a unit
one point to another point in a circuit. positive charge completely round the circuit.
2 It is the potential difference across any one It is equal to sum of the potential differences across all
component of circuit. the components of circuit.
3 It depends on the resistance between two It depends on the nature of electrodes and the nature
points in the circuit. of electrolyte of the solution.
4 It is less than or equal to the emf It is greater than or equal to the potential difference.
5 It is an effect It is the cause.
Grouping of resistors:
Resistors can be combined in various ways to get desired value of resistance. We can combine several
resistors to obtain some effective resistance. The effective resistance depends on the way the individual
resistors are combined. Two simple combinations are series and parallel combinations.
Resistors in series;
Resistors are said to be connected in series when they are connected end to end such that, the same
current flows through each resistor.
The total potential difference across the combination is equal to the sum of the potential differences across
each resistor.
Equivalent (effective) resistance when two resistors are in series:
Let A and B are the two resistors
connected in series, R1 and R2 are the
resistances of A and B respectively, V1 and
V2 are the potential differences across A and
B respectively, V is the potential difference
applied across the combination, I is the
current in the circuit.
In series combination V = V1 + V2 ----- (1)
From Ohm’s law, V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2 (I same through A and B )
(1) Þ V = IR1 + IR2 = I(R1 + R2) ----- (2)
If the combination is replaced by effective resistor of resistance Rs
We get, V = IRs ----- (3)
On comparing (2) and (3), we get, IRs = I (R1 + R2) Þ Rs = (R1 + R2)
For 3 resistors in series, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 9
 1. If n identical resistors of resistance R are connected in series, then Rs = nR
2. Law of resistances in series: when a number of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent
resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
3. This combination increases the effective resistance.
4. In series combination of resistors, the effective resistance is greater than the highest value of individual
resistances.
5. Series combination of resistors is potential divider circuit.
6. Series combination of resistors helps to maintain constant current at high potential.
Resistors in parallel:
Resistors are said to be connected in parallel
when they are connected between two common points
such that
1. The potential difference across each resistor is
same.
2. The main current is equal to the sum of
currents through each resistor.
Let A and B are the two resistors connected in
parallel, R1 and R2 are the resistances of A and B respectively, I1 and I2 are the currents through A and B
respectively, V be the potential difference applied across the combination, I is the main current in the circuit.
In parallel combination, I = I1 + I2 ----- (1)
V V
From Ohm's law, I 1 = and I 2 = (V is same across A and B)
R1 R2
éV V ù é1 1 ù
(1) Þ I = ê + ú Þ I =V ê + ú ----- (2)
ë R1 R2 û ë R1 R2 û
V
If the combination is replaced by effective resistor of resistance R p . We get, I = ------ (3)
Rp
V é1 1 ù 1 é1 1 ù
On comparing (2) and (3), we get, =V ê + úÞ =ê + ú
Rp ë R1 R2 û R p ë R1 R2 û
1 é1 1 1 ù
For 3 resistors =ê + + ú
R p ë R1 R2 R3 û
R
1. If n identical resistors of resistance R are connected in parallel, then R p =
n
R1 R2
2. For two resistors in parallel, R p =
R1 + R2
3. Law of resistances in parallel: when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of each resistance.
4. This combination of resistors decreases the effective resistance.
5. In parallel combination of resistors, the effective resistance is lesser than the lowest value of individual
resistances.
6. Parallel combination of resistors is a current divider circuit.
7. The parallel combination of resistors used to maintain large current at constant potential.
Distinguish between series combination Parallel combination of resistors:
Series combination Parallel combination
1 It is the end to end connection It is the connection between two common
points.
2 The current is same in all the resistors. The potential difference is same across all the
resistors

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 3 It is a potential divider circuit It is a current divider circuit.

4 V = V1 + V2 + V3+ -------+Vn I = I1+ I2 + I3 + ------- +In.

5 R = R1 + R2 + R3+ -------+Rn 1 1 1 1
= + +----+
R p R1 R2 Rn
6 This combination increases the effective This combination decreases the effective
resistance. resistance.
Note:
The series combination of resistors is used in the resistance boxes and in decorative bulbs. The parallel
combination of resistors is used in house hold electrical appliances.
Branch currents:
When two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the current through each resistor is called branch
current.
main current ´ resistance of other branch
It can be shown that, current in one branch =
total resistance
IR2 IR1
I1 = , similarly I 2 =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
1 1 1
I1 µ and I2 µ ÞIµ Þ
R1 R2 Rp
I 1 R1 = I 2 R2 = IR p = constant
For any number of resistors in parallel, IR product is constant.
Grouping of cells:
Like resistors, cells can be combined together in an electric circuit. a single cell provides a small
current. In order to get a higher current in a circuit, we can use two or more cells. A combination of cells is
called a battery. The battery cells are used in torches, automobiles, etc. Cells can be connected in series, parallel
or in a mixed way.
Cells in series:
Cells are said to be connected in
series when negative terminal of one cell
is connected to the positive terminal of the
other cell, and so on.
Let P and Q are the two cells
connected in series, E1 and E2 are the emfs of P and Q respectively, r1 and r2 are the internal resistances of P
and Q respectively, I is the current send by the two cells.
Let VAB, VBC and VAC be the potential differences between the points A & B, B & C and A & C respectively.
by the definition, emf of the cell, E = V + Ir Þ V = E - Ir
For the cell P Þ VAB = E1 – Ir1 ----- (1)
For the cell Q Þ VBC = E2 – Ir2 ----- (2)
But VAC = VAB + VBC ----- (3)
(l) and (2) in (3) Þ VAC = (E1 – Ir1)+ (E2 - Ir2)
= E1 – Ir1 + E2 - Ir2
Þ VAC = (E1 + E2) - I(r1 + r2) ------- (4)
When the combination is replaced by an equivalent cell of emf Es and an equivalent internal resistance rs
We get, VAC = Es - Irs ----- (5)
On comparing (4) and (5) we get, Es = E1 +E2 and rs = r1 + r2
Note:
1. For n cells of different internal resistance in series, Es = E1+E2+ ----- +En and rs = r1 + r2+ ------ + rn
2. For n identical cells in series each of emf E and internal resistance r, total emf, Es = E+E+ -----up to
n terms Þ E = nE, total internal resistance, rs = r + r + ----- up to n terms rs = nr

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 11

 3. In series combination of cells,
a. The total emf across the combination is equal to the sum of the emfs of all the cells.
b. Total internal resistance is equal to the sum of all the internal resistances.
Current across a resistor in cells in series circuit:
total emf Es
current in the circuit = ÞI=
total resistance R + rs
For n identical cells in series each of emf E and internal
nE
resistance r, I =
R + nr
Series combination of cells is preferred when the external resistance is very much larger than the total internal
resistance.
Cells in parallel:
Cells are said to be connected in
parallel when negative terminals of all the
cells are connected to one common point and
positive terminals connected to another
common point.
Let P and Q are the two cells
connected in parallel, E1 and E2 are the emfs of P and Q respectively, r1 and r2 are the internal resistances of P
and Q respectively, I1 and I2 are the currents send by the cells P and Q respectively, I is the main current send
by the two cells (I = I1 + I2),
V is the potential difference between the points A & B. It is same for both P & Q.
By the definition, emf of the cell,
E -V
E =V +I r Þ I r = E -V Þ I= ------- (1)
r
E -V
Current send by the cell P, (1) Þ I 1 = 1 ------- (2)
r1
E -V
Current send by the cell Q, (1) Þ I 2 = 2 ------- (3)
r2
The total current, I = I 1 + I 2 ------- (4)
E - V E2 - V E r - Vr2 + E 2 r1 - Vr1
(2) and (3) in (4) Þ I = 1 + ÞI= 12
r1 r2 r1 r2
E r + E 2 r1 - V (r1 + r2 ) E r + E 2 r1 V (r1 + r2 )
ÞI= 12 ÞI= 12 - ------- (5)
r1 r2 r1 r2 r1 r2
When the combination is replaced by an equivalent cell of emf E p and an equivalent internal resistance r p
Ep - V Ep V
We get I = = - ------- (6)
rp rp rp
Ep E1 r2 + E 2 r1 æ E r + E 2 r1 ö
On comparing (5) and (6), we get, = Þ E p = çç 1 2 ÷÷r p
rp r1 r2 è r1 r2 ø
æ E r + E 2 r1 ö r1 r2
Þ E p = çç 1 2 ÷÷ ------------ (7)
è r1 r2 ø r1 + r2
æ E r + E 2 r1 ö
Equivalent emf Þ E p = çç 1 2 ÷÷ ----------------- (8)
è r1 + r2 ø
rr
and Equivalent resistance Þ rp = 1 2 -------------- (9)
r1 + r2

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 12

Note:
Ep E1 E 2 1 1 1
1. We can express the (7) and (9) in simple way as = + and = +
rp r1 r2 r p r1 r2
2. For n cells of different resistances in parallel,
E p E1 E 2 E 1 1 1 1
= + + - - - - + n and = + +----+
rp r1 r2 rn r p r1 r2 rn
r
3. For n identical cells in parallel, E p = E and rp =
n
4. In parallel combination of cells
a. The total emf of the combination of cells is equal to the emf of one cell.
b. The reciprocal of total internal resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of internal resistance
of each cell.
Current across a resistor in cells in parallel circuit:
total emf Ep
current in the circuit = ÞI=
total resistance R + rp
For n identical cells in parallel each of emf E and internal resistance r,
nE
I=
nR + r
Parallel combination of cells is preferred when the external resistance is very
much less than the internal resistance.
Series-parallel combination of cells (or) mixed grouping of cells:
N identical cells each of emf E and internal resistance r connected in series- parallel combination. The
arrangement consists of n cells in series and m such series combinations in parallel. The arrangement is
connected to a resistor of resistance R.
Therefore, total number of cells in the combination, N = m n
nr
The total emf of the cells, E eq = n E and the total internal resistance of the cells, req =
m
We have,
total emf nE
current in the circuit = ÞI=
total resistance nr
R+
m
mnE
ÞI=
mR + nr
It can be shown that the current is maximum
nr
when m R = n r Þ R=
m
To get maximum current from the cells in series-parallel combination, an external resistance should be equal
to the total internal resistance.
nE mE
I max = (or) I max =
2R 2r
Electrical energy:
It is the energy dissipated in a resistor or in a circuit.
V2
Electrical energy dissipated in a resistor: W = V I t = I 2 R t = t
R
Where V is the potential difference across a resistor, I is the current that flows in the resistor in time t

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 13

Electrical energy dissipated in a circuit:
E2
W = E I t = I 2 (R + r ) t = t
(R + r )
Where E is the emf of the cell,
I is the current that flows in the circuit in time t.
Electrical power:
It is the electrical energy dissipated per second in a resistor or in a circuit.
V2
Electric power in a resistor is P = V I = I 2 R =
R
where V is the potential difference applied across a resistor and I is the current in the resistor.
E2
Electrical power in a circuit is P = E I = I (R + r ) =
2

(R + r )
where E is the emf of the cell, I is the current in the circuit and r is the internal resistance of the cell.
Power loss:
The power generated at power station must be transmitted to consumer through transmission cables.
Then there is power loss in the transmission cables due to resistance. This loss is called transmission loss.
We have PC = I 2 RC ------------ (1)
Let P be the power to be delivered to a device of resistance R through the cables. Let V be the potential
difference across R and I be the current passing through it.
P
Then P = V I Þ I = ------------ (2)
V
P 2 RC
Eq (2) in (1) Þ PC =
V2
Thus, to transmit a power P to a device, the power wasted PC is inversely proportional to V 2 . To reduce
power loss, the transmission cables must carry current at high voltages. Using step-up transformers, the power
from generation station is transmitted at very high voltages. But using electricity at such high voltages is not
safe. Therefore, step-down transformers are used at the receiving end to decrease the voltage to a suitable
value.
Note:
Current is allowed to flow in a metallic wire at constant potential difference when the wire becomes
hot, cold water is poured on half of its portion. By doing so, its other portion becomes still hotter. Because,
when cold water is poured on half portion of heated metal wire, the temperature of that portion of wire falls
and hence its resistance becomes less. Due to which the current in the circuit rises, causing more heating effect
as heat µ (current )
2

Electrical network:
It is the complicated arrangement of circuit elements such as resistors and cells.
Junction (or) Node in an electrical network:
It is a point in an electrical network at which more than two currents meet.
Electrical loop (or) mesh:
It is the closed path for circulation of current in an electrical network.
Kirchhoff’s rules of electrical network:
Ohm’s law can be used to analyse simple circuits. Complex circuits cannot be analysed using Ohm’s
law easily. Such circuits can be analysed using Kirchhoff’s laws which can be applied to both AC and DC
circuits.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 14

Kirchhoff’s junction rule:
Statement:
The sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the junction.
Explanation:
Let I 1 and I 2 are the currents entering the junction O and I 3 and I 4 are the
currents leaving the junction O.
From Kirchhoff’s junction rule, I 1 + I 2 = I 3 + I 4
Principle involved (or) significance of Kirchhoff’s junction rule: Law of conservation of charge
Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
Statement:
The algebraic sum of the IR (current and resistance) products is equal to
the algebraic sum of the emfs in an electrical loop.
Explanation:
On applying the loop rule to the loop ABCD, we get, I 1 R1 - I 2 R2 = E1 - E 2
Principle involved (or) significance of Kirchhoff’s loop rule: Law of conservation of energy.
Alternate statement of Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
The algebraic sum of the changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in
the loop is zero.
Sign conventions to apply Kirchhoff’s rules to a network:
1. The directions of currents are indicated arbitrarily.
2. The IR product is taken as positive. if the direction of observation is in the direction of current through
given resistor.
3. The IR product is taken as negative, if the direction of observation is in opposite to the direction of
current through given resistor.
4. The e.m.f. of the cell is taken as positive, if the direction of observation across the cell is from negative
terminal to positive terminal.
5. The e.m.f. of the cell is taken as negative, if the direction of observation
across the cell is from positive terminal to negative terminal.
Wheatstone bridge Network:
It is a device of four resistances and is used to measure one of the resistance
s in terms of other three resistances.
Wheatstone bridge Principle:
Wheatstone bridge principle states that when the bridge is balanced, the
product of the resistance of the opposite arms are equal.
Construction of Wheatstone bridge:
It was designed by Wheatstone in 1843. It is the combination of four
resistances P, Q, R and S in the form of quadrilateral ABCD. A
galvanometer is connected between junctions B and D. The line BD is called
galvanometer arm. A battery is connected between junctions A and C. This
AC is called the battery arm.
Condition for balance of a Wheatstone bridge using Kirchhoff’s rules:
Let, I 1 , I 2 , I 3 and I 4 are the currents through P, R, Q and S
respectively, G is the resistance of the galvanometer, I g is the current in the
galvanometer and E is the emf of the cell.
On applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop ABDA,
we get. I 1 P + I g G - I 2 R = 0
But for balance of network, I g = 0

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 15

 \ I 1 P - I 2 R = 0 Þ I 1 P = I 2 R -------- (1)
On applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop BCDB, we get
(I 1 - I g )Q - (I 2 + I g )S - I g G = 0 Þ I 1Q - I g Q - I 2 S + I g S - I g G = 0
For balance I g = 0 \ I 1Q - I 2 S = 0 Þ I 1Q = I 2 S -------- (2)
(1) I P I R P R
Þ 1 = 2 Þ =
( 2) I 1Q I 2 S Q S
This is the condition for balance of Wheatstone bridge
Balancing condition for Wheatstone network:
P R
I g = 0 (or) = (or) voltage across galvanometer = 0
Q S
Applications (or) uses of Wheatstone network:
1. It is used to find the resistance of a wire.
2. It is used to compare the resistances of two wires.
Metre-bridge:
It is the practical form of Wheatstone bridge. It works on
the principle of balanced Wheatstone network.
Construction:
It consists of uniform resistance wire AC of length l metre
stretched on wooden base board and clamped between two thick
right angled metal strips M1 and M2. Another straight metal strip
M3 is fixed between M1 and M2 so that two gaps will be formed.
R is unknown resistance which is to be determined. It is connected
across the left gap. S is the standard known resistance. It is
connected in the right gap. One terminal of the galvanometer is
connected to terminal B and another terminal to jockey J (slider).
A metre scale is fixed parallel to AC. A battery is connected between the terminals A and C through a key.
Working:
Determination of resistance:
Let D be the balance point when the resistance S is taken from the resistance box (R.B). Now the circuit
is equivalent to Wheatstone network. If the resistance of the wire AD is equal to P and tire resistance of the
wire DC is equal to Q, then from Wheatstone principle,
P R
= ----------------- (1)
Q S
As resistance µ length, R µ length of the wire AD, S µ Length of the wire DC
P length of the wire AD P l
\ (1) Þ = Þ = -------------------- (2)
Q length of the wire DC Q 100 - l
R l Sl Sl
On comparing (1) and (2), we get, = when l is in cm, R = , if l is in metre R =
S 100 - l 100 - l 1- l
Potentiometer:
Potentiometer is a device used to measure emf or potential difference more accurately.

Principle:
The principle of potentiometer is V µ l
where V is the potential difference across the potentiometer wire, l is the length of the potentiometer wire.
Uses/Applications of potentiometer:
1. It is used to find the internal resistance of a cell,
2. It is used to compare the emfs of two cells.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 16

Principle of working potentiometer:
It consists of a long uniform wire PQ of low temperature
coefficient of resistivity (manganin or constantan). It is stretched on
wooden board between the terminals P and Q. The length of the wire may
be lm or 4m or 10m. For compactness of the instrument, the wire has to
be folded. The end P of the wire is connected to the positive terminal of
battery (driver battery) and the end Q is connected to the negative
terminal through an ammeter, rheostat (Rh) and a key. This circuit is
called driving circuit or primary circuit. Again the end P is connected to
jockey J through the voltmeter. This circuit is called secondary circuit.
Jockey can be made contact at any point on the wire PQ by sliding along
PQ. A metre scale is fixed parallel to the wire.
Let V be the potential difference across the portion of wire of length l, resistance R, resistivity r and
uniform area of cross-section A. Let I be the current flowing through the wire
rl rl
From Ohm's law, V = IR, But R = \V = I Þ V = f l Þ V µ l provided I , r and A are constants.
A A
V Ir
Where f = = Þ potential gradient (or) potential drop per unit length.
l A
Sensitivity of potentiometer:
The sensitivity of potentiometer indicates the smallest potential difference that can be measured with
it. To increase the sensitivity, the value of potential gradient (f ) is kept least. Smaller is the value of f greater
will be the sensitivity. This can be achieved
1. By increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.
2. By reducing the current in the potentiometer wire by connecting a resistance in series with a
potentiometer wire. It is equivalent to increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.
Difference between potentiometer and voltmeter:
Potentiometer Voltmeter
1 It works on null method It works on deflection method
2 It is very accurate device It is an approximate device
3 Current is not drawn by it from the cell Current is drawn by it from the cell whose emf
whose emf is to be measured. is to be measured.
4 Its sensitivity is very high. Its sensitivity is very low.
5 It acts like an ideal voltmeter infinite It is an ordinary instrument of finite resistance.
resistance.
6 It is used to compare emfs of cells, compare It is used to measure potential difference
internal resistance of cells. between two points or terminals of cell.
7 It is of large size. It is of small size.

Internal resistance of a cell in terms of balancing lengths of potentiometer:

To find the internal resistance r of a cell of emf E using potentiometer, make the circuit connections as
shown in the figure.
1. The key K 1 is closed and the current in the potentiometer wire PQ is adjusted to a suitable value of
current using rheostat. The setting of the rheostat is not to be disturbed throughout the experiment
2. Keeping the key K 2 open, move the jockey J along the wire PQ till the galvanometer shows zero
deflection.
Then the length PJ 1 = l1 is measured.
From the principle of potentiometer, emf of the cell, E = f l1 ------ (1)
where f is the potential gradient across the potentiometer wire

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 17

 3. Now the key K 2 closed and a suitable resistance R is removed from
the resistance box. Move the jockey J along the wire PQ till the
galvanometer shows zero deflection.
Then the length PJ 2 = l 2 is measured.
From the principle of potentiometer, Potential difference across the cell,
V = f l 2 ------ (2) and
(1) Þ E = f l1 ------ (3)
(2) V f l 2
I (R + r ) l1
Þ = (! E = I (R + r ) and V = I R )
IR l2

Þ
(R + r ) =
l1 l l æ l -l ö
Þ (R + r ) = R 1 Þ r = R 1 - R Þ r = Rçç 1 2 ÷÷
R l2 l2 l2 è l2 ø
Comparing the emfs of two primary cells using potentiometer:
To compare the emfs E1 and E 2 of two primary cells, make the circuit connections as shown in the figure.
1. The key K is closed and the current in the potentiometer wire PQ is
adjusted to a suitable value of current using rheostat. The setting of the
rheostat is not to be disturbed throughout the experiment.
2. Close the key K 1 So that the cell of emf E1 is in the circuit. Move the
jockey J along the wire PQ till the galvanometer shows zero deflection.
Then the length PJ 1 = l1 is measured.
From the principle of potentiometer, emf of the cell, E1 = f l1 ----- (1)
where f is the potential gradient across the potentiometer wire.
3. Now open the key K 1 and close the key K 2 so that the cell of emf E 2 is
in the circuit. Move the jockey J along the wire PQ till the galvanometer
shows zero deflection.
Then the length PJ 2 = l 2 is measured
From the principle of potentiometer' emf of the cell, E 2 = f l 2 ----- (2)
Where f is the potential gradient across the potentiometer wire.
(1) Þ E1 = l1 ------ (3)
(2) E 2 l 2
Note: We prefer a potentiometer to measure emf of a cell rather than voltmeter because, a
potentiometer does not draw any current from the cell whose emf is to be determined, whereas voltmeter
always draws some current. Therefore emf measured by voltmeter is slightly less than actual value of emf of
the cell.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 18