UNIT -II

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 UNIT – II
TRANSDUCERS
Introduction

 Nearly all engineering applications require some form of measuring, controlling, calculating,
communicating and recording of data.
 These operations, grouped or isolated, are inherent in measurement instrumentation.
 If the equipment is to be used for the quantitative analysis of an analogue signal, i.e., a
naturally occurring signal, the following must be taken into consideration: The analogue
signal to be measured may be temperature, pressure, humidity, velocity, flow rate, linear
motion, position, amongst others.
 This signal must be converted into an analogue electrical signal, typically voltage or current,
and then into a digital form that can be processed by an electronic circuit.
 The first task requires sensors to convert the physical quantities into electrical signals.
typically, voltage or current, and then into a digital form that can be processed by an
electronic circuit.
 The first task (see Fig. 1) requires sensors to convert the physical quantities into electrical
signals.
 Generally, the broad definition of a sensors/ transducers includes devices which convert
physical quantities (mechanical force) into analogue electrical signal (in the range of milli-
volts or milli-amps).

An electronic instrumentation system generally consists of three functional units. They are an Input
Unit, a Signal conditioning or processing Unit, and an Out Put Unit.

 Input Unit/Transducer: The input device receives the quantity whose value is to be
measured and is converted into its proportional incremental electrical signal such as voltage,
current, resistance change, inductance or even capacitance. Thus, the changed variable

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 contains the information of the measured variable. Such a functional element or device is
called a transducer.

 Signal conditioning or processing Unit: The output of the transducer is provided to the
input of the signal conditioning or processing unit. This unit amplifies the weak transducer
output and is filtered and modified to a form that is acceptable by the output unit. Thus, this
unit may have devices like amplifiers, filters, analog to digital converters, and so on.

 Output Unit: The output from the signal processing unit is fed to the input of the output unit.
The output unit measures the signal and indicates the value to the reader. The indication may
be either through an indicating meter, an Oscilloscope, or a chart recorder for visual display.
It may be a magnetic tape recorder for temporary or permanent storage of the data or it may
be a digital computer for data manipulation or process control.

Transducer:

Transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. The input quantity for most
instrumentation systems is non electrical. In order to use electrical methods and techniques for
measurement, manipulation, or control, the non-electrical quantity has to be converted into an
electrical signal by a device called Electrical Transducer. The block diagram of a transducer is given
below.

Sensing Element- It is a device producing measurable response to change in physical conditions.

Transduction Element- it converts sensor output to suitable electrical form.

Electrical Transducer:
An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which the physical, mechanical or optical quantity to
be measured is transformed directly by a suitable mechanism into voltage or current proportional to
the input measurand.
An electrical transducer must have the following parameters:

1. Linearity: The relationship between a physical parameter and the resulting electrical signal
must be linear.

2. Sensitivity: This is defined as the electrical output per unit change in the physical parameter.
High sensitivity is desirable for a transducer.

3. Dynamic range: The operating range of the transducer should be wide, to permit its use under
a wide range of measurement conditions.

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 4. Repeatability: The input/output relationship for a transducer should be predictable over a long
period of time. This ensures reliability of operation.

5. Physical size: The transducer must have minimal weight and volume, so that its presence in
the measurement system does not disturb the existing conditions.

6. Ruggedness: The transducer should be mechanically rugged to withstand overloads and some
safety arrangement should be provided for overload protection.

Advantages of Electrical Transducer: The main advantages of electrical transducers are as follows.

1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily.

2. The effect of friction is minimized.

3. The electrical or electronic systems can be controlled with a very small power level.

4. The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.

5. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at distance from the sensing medium.

6. The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling units.

7. The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any combination with outputs of similar
transducer or control signals.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

Transducers may be classified according to their application, method of energy conversion,

nature of the output signal and so on. All these classifications usually result in overlapping areas. A
sharp distinction between, and classification of, types of transducers is difficult.

The transducers can be broadly classified as:

I. On the basis of transduction principle used.
II. Active and passive transducers.
III. Primary and secondary transducer.
IV. Analog and digital transducers.
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.

On The Basis of Transduction Principle Used:

Based on how the input quantity is being converted into electrical quantity like Resistance,
Capacitance and Inductance, transducers are classified as:
1. Resistance Transducer.
2. Capacitance Transducer.
3. Inductance Transducer.

Resistance Transducer: Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the resistance changes
due to the change in some physical phenomenon. Principle of operation of resistance transducer is
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based on the resistance of a metal conductor which is expressed by a simple equation.
L
R 
A
Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
Examples:
Resistance thermometer- Used in the measurement of Temperature and Radiant.
Potentiometer device- Used in displacement measurement and pressure measurement.

Capacitance Transducer: In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted to a

change in the capacitance. A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of conducting
material separated by an electrical insulating material called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric
may be either flattened or rolled. The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges. The relationship between the capacitance and the size of
capacitor plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by

 0 r A
C
d
Where d = separation distance of plates in m
C=capacitance in Farad (F)
ε0 =absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr = relative permittivity
A =effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)

Examples:
Dielectric gauge: It is used to measure Thickness and Liquid level.
Capacitor Microphone: It is used to measure Noise Speech and Music.

Inductance Transducer: Inductance Transducers works based on principle that “change in the
magnetic characteristics of an electrical circuit in response to a physical quantity”
N 2 0 a
L
l
Where L= inductance in Henries (H).
N= number of turns in the coil.
0 = permeability.
a = cross-sectional area of the coil.
l = length of the coil.

Examples:
Reluctance pickup: It is used to measure Pressure, Vibrations, Position and Displacement.
Magnetostriction gauge: It is used to measure Sound, Force and Pressure.

Active And Passive Transducers:

Active transducers: These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation.
Therefore, they are also called as self-generating type transducers. The active transducers are self-

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generating devices which operate under the energy conversion principle. We get an equivalent
electrical signal as the output of active transducers e.g., temperature or strain to electric potential,
without any external source of energy being used.

Example: Photo voltaic cell- Used in light meters and solar cells.
Thermocouple-Used to measure Temperature Radiation, Heat flow.

Passive Transducers: These transducers need external source of power for their operation. So, they
are not self-generating type transducers. A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is used
as an external power source. These transducers produce the output signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or some other electrical parameter in response to the quantity to be
measured.

Example: Resistive Transducers: It is used to measure temperature, pressure, displacement etc.

Capacitive Transducers: It is used to measure liquid level, noise, thickness etc.
Inductive Transducers: It is used to measure pressure, vibration, position,
displacement etc.

Primary and Secondary Transducers:

Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical devices. The mechanical device
converts the physical quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical devices are
called as the Primary Transducers, because they deal with the physical quantity to be measured. The
electrical device then converts this mechanical signal into a corresponding electrical signal. Such
electrical devices are known as Secondary Transducers.

Examples of Primary Transducer: Bourdon Tube: It is used in pressure measurement.

Strain Gauge: It is used in force and strain measurements.

Example of Secondary Transducer: LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer): Used to

measure, Displacement, Force, Pressure measurement and Position etc.

Analog and Digital Transducers:

Analog Transducer: The transducer which produces their outputs in analog form or a form which is
a continuous function of time is referred as analog transducer.

Examples: Strain gauge: It is used to measure, Displacement, Force and Torque

measurement etc.
Thermistor: It is used to measure, Temperature and Flow measurement etc

Digital Transducer: The transducer which produces their outputs in digital form or a form pulses is
referred digital transducers.

Example: Turbine meter: Used for flow measurement.

Transducers and Inverse Transducers:

Transducers: A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into electrical
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variable is known as transducer.

Example: Thermocouple: It is used to measure, Temperature, Radiation and Heat

flow measurement.

Inverse Transducer: A measuring device which measures and converts an electrical variable into
nonelectrical variable is known as inverse transducer.

Example: Piezo-electric crystal: It is used to measure Pressure, Vibration and acceleration etc.

FACTORS FOR SELECTING A TRANSDUCER

The first step in the selection procedure is to clearly define the nature of quantity under
measurement (measurand) and know the range of magnitudes and frequencies that the measurand is
expected to exhibit. Next step will be to examine the available transducer principles for measurement
of desired quantity. The type of transducer selected must be compatible with the type and range of the
quantity to be measured and the output device.

The points to be considered in determining a transducer suitable for a specific measurement

are as follows:

Operating Principle: The transducers are many times selected on the basis of operating principle used
by them. The operating principle used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo
electric etc.
Operating Range: The range of the transducer should be large enough to encompass all the expected
magnitudes of the measurand.
Sensitivity: The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured input in order to
yield meaningful data.
Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring mechanical quantities. There are
situations where the actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected
to variation in another plan.
Electrical Output Characteristics: The electrical characteristics like the output impedance, the
frequency response, and the response time of the transducer output signal should be compatible with
the recording device and the rest of the measuring system equipment.
Environmental Compatibility: The transducer selected should be able to withstand the environmental
conditions to which it is likely to be subjected while carrying out measurements and tests. Such
parameters are temperature, acceleration, shock and vibration, moisture, and corrosive chemicals
might damage some transducers but not others.
Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as described by the
transfer function so as to avoid errors.
Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input impedance and low output impedance to
avoid loading effects.
Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals
and highly sensitive to desired signals.

TRANSDUCERS FOR MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY

The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a frame of reference, and
is a function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specification of its speed and direction of motion
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(e.g., 60 km/h to the north). Velocity is an important concept in kinematics, the branch of classical
mechanics that describes the motion of bodies.

Velocity is a physical vector quantity, both magnitude and direction are needed to define it. The scalar
absolute value of velocity is called "speed", being a coherent derived unit, whose quantity is measured
in the SI system as meters per second(m/s) or as the SI base unit of (m⋅s−1). For example, "5 meters
per second" is a scalar, whereas "5 meters per second east" is a vector.

If there is a change in speed, direction, or both, then the object has a changing velocity and is said to
be undergoing an acceleration.

Types of Velocity: Velocity is of two types based on the type of movement namely

 Linear or Translational Velocity.

 Angular or Rotational Velocity.

Linear Velocity: Linear velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement between an object
and a fixed point Linear or Translational velocity is measured in meters per second.

Angular Velocity: The rate of change of angular displacement is known as angular velocity. Angular
or Rotational velocity is measured in radians per second.

Transducers for measurement of Linear velocity:

In Linear Velocity Transducers the mechanical vibrations are converted into alternating voltages
based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Hence the transducers are called Electromagnetic
Transducers.The methods used for measurement of linear velocity utilize the following type of
transducers.

1. Electro-magnetic transducers.

2. Seismic transducers.

1. Electromagnetic Transducers

These are the most commonly used transducers for measurement of linear velocities. This transducer
utilizes the voltage produced in a coil on account of change in flux linkages resulting from change in
reluctance.

They are classified into two types

A) Moving coil type B) Moving magnet type

Moving Coil Type:

In this configuration the coil and the magnet are arranged in housing such that the magnet is
attached to the base of the housing and the coil is attached to the other side (top) of the housing with
the help of a spring so that the coil is suspended in the magnetic field as shown in the figure. The
body whose velocity is to be measured is connected to the base of the housing.

Due to the displacement of the body, the housing also gets displaced which in turn caused a
displacement of the coil in the magnetic field.

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This movement of the coil causes a change in the flux linkages between the Magnet and the coil, and
thus according to the electromagnetic induction principle an electrical voltage gets induced in the coil.
This induced voltage is proportional to the relative velocity of the spring and is given by the equation.

e  BLVr  108

Were,

e-Induced voltage,

B-Flux density,

L-Length of coil,

dx
Vr  =relative velocity of coil with respect to magnet (cm/s)
dt
Moving Magnet Type:

The sensing element is a rod type permanent magnet that is rigidly coupled to the device whose
velocity is being measured. There is a coil surrounding the permanent magnet. The motion of the
magnet induces a voltage in the coil and the amplitude of the voltage is directly proportional to the
velocity. The polarity of the output voltage determines the direction of motion.

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 For a coil placed in magnetic field the voltage generated is.

e0=BANv = Kv

K=BAN= a constant

Were,

B=flux density (Wb/m2),

A= area of coil (m2),

N= Number of turns of coil,

v = relative velocity of magnet with respect to coil

Advantages

 maintenance requirements are less,

 linear variation with velocity,
 robust,
 inexpensive,

Disadvantages

 operation affected by stray magnetic fields.

Seismic Transducer

A permanent magnet is suspended between two springs and fitted with low friction bearing rings. It act
as a seismic mass.The frame is rigidly attached to the object whose velocity is being measured.The object is
vibrating at a frequency in excess of the low natural frequency of the transducer.The self resonant frequencies of
seismic mass are typically 10 Hz to 15 Hz. If the operation at frequencies above 20 Hz occurs the mass is
relatively stationary, and the case and coil moving in the magnetic field has a large voltage induced in it which
is proportional to the velocity.

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 • The seismic transducer have a good frequency response.

• Both moving coil and seismic transducers have the disadvantage that connections must be made on the
moving part.

Measurement of Angular Velocity:

The measurement of angular velocity may be made with a tachometer. The tachometer may be
defined as:

i. An instrument used for measure of angular velocity, as of shaft, either by registering the total
number of revolutions during the period of contact, or by indicating directly the number of
revolutions per minute.

ii. An instrument which either continuously indicates the value of rotary speed or continuously
displays a reading of average speed over rapidly operated short intervals of time.

The tachometers are classified as:

1. Mechanical tachometers

2. Electrical tachometers

Mechanical Tachometers:

Hand speed tachometers: It has a spindle which can be attached to this to be measured. The spindle
is connected to mechanical counters which display the count. This indicator has an inbuilt stop watch
and a mechanical counter with automatic disconnect. The hand speed indicators can be used to speeds
of 20,000 to 30,000 rpm with an accuracy of 1 %.

Disadvantages of Mechanical Tachometers:

• Mechanical tachometers impose a load on the shafts to which they are connected and hence
absorb power. So, they cannot be used for applications involving small powers since the
attachment of tachometer to the shaft will decrease the speed. Therefore, mechanical
tachometers are only useful for heavy machinery.

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 • On account of inertia of mechanical parts, the mechanical tachometers are not able to follow
the variations in the speed. Therefore, they indicate only the average speed over a particular
interval of time. They cannot be used in applications where instantaneous indication of speed
is desired.

• The mechanical tachometers normally use an arrangement wherein a counter is used for
counting the number of events and a stop watch for measurement of time. The speed is
calculated from the reading of two. This involves large errors especially when the stop watch
is operated manually.

Electrical Tachometers:

D.C. Tachometer Generators: They consist of a small armature which is coupled to the machine
whose speed is to be measured. This armature revolves in a field of permanent magnet. The emf
generated is proportional to the product of flux and speed.

Since the flux of the permanent magnet is constant, the voltage generated is proportional to
speed. The polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of rotation. This emf is measured with the
help of a moving coil voltmeter having a uniform scale and calibrated directly in terms of speed.

A series resistance is used in the circuit for the purpose of limiting the current from the
generator in the event of a short circuit on the output side.

Advantages

i. The direction of rotation is directly indicated by the polarity of the output voltage.

ii. The output voltage is typically 10mv/rpm and can be measured with conventional type D.C.
voltmeters.

Disadvantages

i. Brushes of small tachometer generators often produce maintenance problems, as their contact
resistance may vary and produce appreciable error. Thus, the commutator and the brushes
require periodic maintenance.

ii. The input resistance of meter should be very high as compared with output resistance of
generator. This is required to limit the armature current to small value. If the armature current
is large, the field of the permanent magnet is distorted giving rise to non-linearity.

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AC Tachometer Generator:

The AC tachometer has stationary armature and rotating magnetic field. Thus, the commutator
and brushes are absent in AC tachometer generator. Rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the
stationary coil of the stator. Amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed.
Amplitude /frequency is used for measuring the angular velocity. If amplitude is used then it is
rectified and passed through capacitor filter for smoothening the ripples. The voltmeter reading gives
the measure of speed.

At low speed the frequency is very low and it is difficult to smooth out the ripples. At high speeds,
high frequency increases the impedance of the coils and maintaining linearity becomes a problem.

However, frequency is used as a measure of speed by using counters, as variation in frequency

is not much with factors like temperature, impedance etc.

TRANSDUCERS FOR MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION

Accelerometer:

An accelerometer is a sensor that measures the physical acceleration experienced by an object

due to inertial forces or due to mechanical excitation. Acceleration is defined as rate of change of
velocity with respect to time. It is a measure of how fast speed changes. It is a vector quantity having
both magnitude and direction. As a speedometer is a meter to measures speed, an accelerometer is a
meter to measure acceleration. An ability of an accelerometer to sense acceleration can be put to use
to measure a variety of things like tilt, vibration, rotation, collision, gravity, etc. Accelerometers
measure in terms of ‘g’ (‘g’ is acceleration measurement for gravity which is equal to 9.81m/s²).

Piezoelectric Accelerometer:

The most commonly used device is the piezoelectric accelerometer. As the name suggests, it
uses the principle of piezoelectric effect. The device consists of a piezoelectric quartz crystal on which
an accelerative force, whose value is to be measured, is applied. Due to the special self-generating
property, the crystal produces a voltage that is proportional to the accelerative force. The working and
the basic arrangement are shown in the figure below.

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 • When force is applied to the crystal, it develops a charge Q=dF, where d is the charge
sensitivity given by coulomb/newton

• Mass m is incorporated in direct contact with crystal. By applying varying acceleration to the
mass crystal assembly, the crystal experiences a force given by F=ma

• This force generates a varying charge Q= dF=dma

• If the crystal has a capacitance C, then output voltage is given by

Features:

• Small in size and light weight

• Natural frequency is high and can be used for high frequency applications, used for shock and
vibrations measurements

• Crystal is a source of high output impedance and proper design is required for impedance
matching

• Response is poor at low frequencies

Seismic Accelerometer:

The sensing element essentially is a seismic mass. It is attached to spring which in turn is
connected to its casing. A dashpot is also included to provide desirable damping effect otherwise
system may oscillate at its natural frequency. The dashpot is attached between the mass and the
casing. The unit is rigidly mounted on the body whose acceleration is to be measured.

Due the acceleration, the seismic mass experience a displacement and this displacement of the
mass is proportional to the acceleration. As the mass is connected to an electric displacement
transducer, the output of the transducer depends on the extent – to which the mass is displaced.

Hence the output of the transducer is calibrated to give a direct indication of the acceleration
characteristics of the structure.

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PASSIVE ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

Strain Gauges and Strain Measurement

Strain Gauge:

• Strain Gauge is a passive transducer that converts a mechanical displacement produced due to
a force into its corresponding change in resistance R, inductance L, or capacitance C.

• A strain gauge is basically used to measure the strain in a work piece. If a metal piece is
subjected to a tensile stress, the metal length will increase and thus will increase the electrical
resistance of the material.

• Similarly, if the metal is subjected to compressive stress, the length will decrease, but the
breadth will increase. This will also change the electrical resistance of the conductor.

• Also, there is a change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor when subjected to strain
due to a property called piezo-resistive effect.

Electrical Resistance Type Strain Gauge:

• In an electrical resistance strain gauge, the device consists of a thin wire placed on a flexible
paper tissue and is attached to a variety of materials to measure the strain of the material.

• In application, the strain gauge will be attached to a structural member with the help of
special cement. The gauge position will be in such a manner that the gauge wires are aligned
across the direction of the strain to be measured.

• The wire used for the purpose will have a diameter between 0.009 to 0.0025 centimeters.

• When a force is applied on the wire, there occurs a strain (consider tensile, within the elastic
limit) that increases the length and decreases its area.

• Thus, the resistance of the wire changes. This change in resistance is proportional to the strain
and is measured using a Wheatstone bridge.

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The following are the different types of strain gauges:

 Wire Strain Gauges.

 Foil Strain Gauges.

 Semiconductor Strain Gauges.

Wire Strain Gauges.

The wire strain gauge can be further divided into two. They are bonded and un-bonded strain gauge.

Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:

As shown in the figure below, an unbounded strain gauge has a resistance wire stretched
between two frames. The rigid pins of the two frames are insulated. When the wire is stretched due to
an applied force, there occurs a relative motion between the two frames and thus a strain is produced,
causing a change in resistance value. This change of resistance value will be equal to the strain input.

Application of Unbonded strain gauge:

• Used in places where the gauge is to be detached and used again and again

• Used in force, pressure and acceleration measurement

Advantages of Unbonded strain gauge:

• The range of this gauge is +/- 0.15% strain. This gauge has a very high accuracy.

Limitation of unbonded strain gauges:

• It occupies more space.

Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:

A bonded strain gauge will be either a wire type or a foil type as shown in the figure below. It is
connected to a paper or a thick plastic film support. The measuring leads are soldered or welded to the
gauge wire. The bonded strain gauge with the paper backing is connected to the elastic member whose
strain is to be measured.

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Rosettes:

Measurement of strain in more than one direction can be accomplished by placing single element
gauges at the proper locations. This combination of two or more strain gauge elements is known as
rosette. The different forms of rosettes are illustrated in figure.

Semiconductor Strain Gauge

• Semiconductor strain gauges are used when a very high gauge factor is required.

• They have a gauge factor 50 times as high as wire strain gauges.

• The resistance of the semiconductor changes with change in applied strain to have a high
sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is desirable.

• A high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance, which can be easily
measured with a good degree of accuracy.
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 • Semiconductor strain gauges depend for their action upon the piezo resistive effect, i.e.
change in value of the resistance due to change in resistivity, unlike metallic gauges where
change in resistance is mainly due to the change in dimension when strained.

• Semiconductor materials such as germanium and silicon are used as resistive materials. A
typical strain gauge consists of a strain material and leads that are placed in a protective box,
Semiconductor wafer or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05 mm are used.

• They are bonded on suitable insulating substrates, such as Teflon

Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge

1. Semiconductor strain gauges have a high gauge factor of about + 130.

2. This allows measurement of very small strains, of the order of 0.01 micro

3. Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain gauges are excellent

4. Life in excess of 10 x 106 operations and a frequency response of 1012 HZ.

5. Semiconductor strain gauges can be very small in size, ranging in length from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.

Disadvantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge

1. Sensitive to changes in temperature

2. Poor Linearity

3. Expensive.

Capacitive strain gauges:

• Based on the principle of variation of capacitance with variation of distance between

electrodes.

• The electrodes are flexible metal strips of about 0.1 mm thickness. The strain to be measured
is applied to the top plate.

• These change the distance between the curved electrodes resulting in changes of capacitance.

• The strain capacitance relationship in general not linear but variations in dimensions and
shape allow gauge characteristics to be chosen so as to match the range of capacitance to be
measured with good degree of accuracy.

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Specifications are:

1. Capacitance strain gauges have a range of about 0.5pF.

2. Its overall size is 5 mm x 17 mm x 1 mm.

3. Temperature up to 300 oC.

4. It uses a polyamide film of insulating material.

GAUGE FACTOR

• The gauge factor is defined as the unit change in resistance per unit change in length. It is
denoted as G or S. It is also called sensitivity of the strain gauge.

∆R = Corresponding change in resistance R

∆L= Change in length per unit length

• The resistance of the wire of strain gauge R is given by:

ρ = resistivity of the material of wire

L= length of the wire, A= cross sectional Area of

the wire, KD2, K is constant and D is the diameter

• When the wire is strained its length increases and the lateral dimension is reduced as a
function of Poisson’s ratio (µ); consequently, there is an increase in resistance

R=ρ (1)

Let the tensile stress ‘s’ applied to the wire. With result change in length ΔL, change in area ΔA,
change in diameter ΔD.

In order to find ΔR; R is differentiated w.r.t. stress ‘s’

ρ ρ ρ
= − + (2)

Dividing equation (2) throughout with R=ρ

1 1 ρ
= − +ρ (3)
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In equation (3) per unit change in resistance is due to (a) per unit change in length ΔL/L (b) per unit
change in area ΔA/A and (c) per unit change in resistivity Δρ/ρ

A= 𝐷 ∴ = 2. D. (4)

Dividing both sides by A

= = (5)
( )

1 1 ρ
= − +ρ

1 ρ
= − +ρ (6)

/
Now Poisson's ratio 𝑣= =- /

= -𝑣 × (7)

Putting equation (7) in equation (6)

1 ρ
= +𝑣 +ρ

For small variation above van be written as

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ / ∆
= + 2𝑣 + 𝐺 =∆ /
∈= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =

Gauge factor (𝐺 ) is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length

∆ ∆
=𝐺 =𝐺 ∈

∆ / ∆ /
Gauge factor= 1 + 2𝑣 + ∈
or = 1 + 2𝑣 + ∆ /

Gauge factor= 1 + 2𝑣 as the strain is in the term of microstrain

Gauge factor= 1 + 2𝑣 is valid only when Piezoresistive effect i.e. change in resistivity due to strain
is almost negligible

Problem: A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of small diameter. The gauge factor is
+4.2. Neglecting the Piezoresistive effect, calculate the Poisson’s ratio.

Solution:
∆ /
Gauge factor = 1 + 2𝑣 + ∈

Gauge factor= 1 + 2𝑣 (neglecting Piezoresistive effect)

∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑣=(4.2-1)/2 = 1.6

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DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

Construction of LVDT:

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) converts the displacement into an electrical signal.
LVDT consists of one primary winding (P) and two secondary windings (S1 and S2) with equal
number of turns wound on a cylindrical former. The two secondary windings are connected in series
opposition and are placed identically on either side of primary winding to which an AC excitation
voltage is connected. A movable soft iron core is placed within the cylindrical former. When the
displacement to be measured is applied to the arm of the core, the LVDT converts this displacement
into an electrical signal.

Operation:

The operating principle of LVDT depends on mutual inductance. In the LVDT when the
primary winding is supplied with A.C. supply voltage, it generates alternating magnetic field. Due to
this magnetic field an alternating voltage will be induced in the two secondary windings. In the figure
shown below VS 1 is the output voltage of secondary winding S1 and VS 2 is the output voltage of
secondary winding S2 .In order to get single differential output voltage two secondary windings are
connected in series opposition. Thus, the differential output voltage is given by, Vd  VS 1  VS 2

• Null Position – When the core is exactly at the center of the coil then the flux linked to both
the secondary winding will be equal. Due to equal flux linkage the secondary induced
voltages VS 1 &VS 2 are equal but they have opposite polarities. The differential output voltage
Vd is therefore zero. This position is called “null position”.

• Right of Null Position – Now if the core is displaced from its null position toward S1 then
flux linked to S1 increases and flux linked to S2 decreases. Therefore VS 1  VS 2 and the
differential output voltage of LVDT Vd will be positive.

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Left of Null Position – Similarly, if the core is displaced towards S2 then the VS 2  VS 1 and the
differential output voltage of LVDT Vd will be negative.

Merits of LVDT:

• LVDT has good linearity i.e., it produces linear output voltages.

• It can measure displacements of very high range (usually from 1.25 mm to 250 mm.)
• LVDT has high sensitivity
• LVDT has low hysteresis and has easy repeatability
• It consumes less power (about < 1w)

Demerits:

 It is sensitive to stray magnetic fields.

 Performance of LVDT is affected by variations in temperature.
 It has limited dynamic response.
 To provide high differential output, it requires large displacements.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER

The capacitive transducer is mainly used for measurement of linear displacement. The capacitive
transducer uses the following three effects.

 Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor plates.

 The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
 The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.

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Transducers Using Change in Area of Plates

• From the equation for capacitance, C is directly proportional to the area, A of the plates. Thus,
C changes linearly with change in area of plates. Hence this type of capacitive transducer is
useful for measurement of moderate to large displacements say from 1 mm to several cm. The
area changes linearly with displacement and also the capacitance.

• For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is:

l = length of overlapping part of plates in m

w = width of overlapping part of plates in m

The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is linear relationship between capacitance and
displacement.

This type of a capacitive transducer is suitable for measurement of linear displacement ranging from 1
to 10 cm. The accuracy is as high as 0.005%.

Thickness measurement

• Capacitive transducers can be used for the measurement of thickness of thin insulating sheets
like glass, mica, paper etc.

• Arrangement of parallel plates is such that the insulating sheet (dielectric) which is under
continuous production is passed between the plates without touching them.

a=total separation between plates

t=thickness of the sheet

ε=dielectric constant of the material of the sheet

Whenever there is increase of thickness of sheet by Δt, there is a corresponding increase in

capacitance by ΔC and hence

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ACTIVE ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS:

Piezoelectric Transducer:

 Electrical Transducer which uses properties of piezoelectric materials for conversion of

physical quantities into electrical signals
 Materials (Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz, Tourmaline) exhibit piezoelectricity →application of
any type of mechanical stress or strain leads to the generation of an electric voltage
proportional to the applied stress.
 Used in high frequency Accelerometers generating 1-30 mV per gravity of acceleration

Advantages are self-generating, so no need of external source, Simple to use as they have small
dimensions and large measuring range.

Disadvantages are not suitable for measurement in static condition, output may vary according to the
temperature variation of the crystal.

Photoelectric Transducers

Transducers which convert light energy into electric energy for measurement purposes. Electric
current is produced as the light waves are incident on the devices.

Photo electric transducers are classified as

 Photo-conductive
 Photo-voltaic
 Photo emissive

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Photo-conductive Transducers:

• Light is made to fall on the device and the resistance of that transducer element changes. The
higher the illumination, the lesser is the resistance offered by the device. Thus, the name
photoconductive cells.

• They are the elements whose conductivity is a function of radiation.

• Materials such as cadmium sulfide, germanium and silicon are the commercially available
photoconductive materials.

• Semiconductor junction photocells are used in some applications.

• In photo conductive applications, the cell is biased in reverse direction.

• When cell is illuninated, the reverse current increases and voltage is developed across the
resistor.

• The voltage is proportional to incident light.

• Typically, the current increases by 0.7 micro amps for 1 footcandle increase in illumination.

• TC is fast making it useful to use for optical frequencies.

Photovoltaic Transducer

• Transducers which produce an electric current to flow through the circuit when it is strikes by
light.

• These cells produce energy using light rays. These cells are widely used in generation of
electricity but can be used for measurement purposes also.

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 • The material used for these cells are Silicon, selenium and gold-doped germanium.

• Used in many applications like Solar cell.

• When a semiconductor material is exposed to light, photons of the light ray are absorbed by
semiconductor crystal which causes significant number of free electrons in the crystal, this
phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect.

• P-type silicon and N-type material are diffused to form a photovoltaic cell. Conversion
efficiency depends on spectral content and the intensity of illumination.

• Multiple unit silicon photovoltaic devices are used for sensing light in applications like
reading punched cards in data processing industry.

• Gold doped germanium cells with controlled spectral characteristics are used in infrared
region.

Photo Emissive Transducer:

• Vacuum phototube works on the principle that when the light falls on its cathode it causes the
electrons to emit from the cathode, consists of an anode, cathode, glass envelope and
connecting pins.

• Anode is a rod and the cathode is a curved plate coated with a photo emissive material like
Cesium antimony. Current is produced across anode and cathode which are sealed within an
evacuated envelope.

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  Electrons released are drawn towards the anode which is maintained at positive voltage. This
gives rise to a photoelectric current.

 Current produced is proportional to the intensity of the incident light and also depends on the
nature of material coating in the cathode.

• Vacuum photo tubes are characterized by a photo current that is linear over a wide range and
mostly used as standards in light comparison measurements.

• When a constant voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode, the current in the
circuit is directly proportional to the amount of light, or light intensity, falling on the cathode.

• The current through the tube is extremely small, usually in the range of a few microamperes.
In most cases therefore, the phototube is connected to an amplifier to provide a useful output.

• The photoelectric transducer, uses a phototube and a light source separately by a small
window whose aperture is controlled by the force-summing member of the pressure
transducer.

• The displacement of the force-summing member modulates the quantity of incident light on
the photosensitive element. According to the characteristics, a change in light intensity varies
the photo emissive properties at a rate approximately linear with displacement. This
transducer can use either a stable source of light or an ac modulated light.

• The advantages are its high efficiency and its adaptability to measuring both static and
dynamic conditions. The devices may have poor long-term stability, does not respond to high
frequency light variations, and requires a large displacement of the force-summing member.

Gas Filled Phototube

• Same like Vacuum tube except that envelope is filled with inert gas at a very low pressure-
Argon
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 • Electrons are emitted from cathode by photoelectric action and accelerate through gas by the
applied anode voltage

• If energy of electrons exceeds the ionization potential (15.7 V for Argon), the collision of the
electron and gas molecule results in ionization-creation of positive ion and secondary electron

• As voltage increases the current increases

 In applications where linearity of response is unimportant, such as "on" and "off" relay
operation, the gas-filled phototube is preferred over the vacuum type because of its greater
current and sensitivity.

Multiplier Phototubes

• Photomultipliers (photon multipliers) are a type of photo emissive detectors with

high sensitivity due to avalanche multiplication process

• Light is absorbed on a photocathode and generates free photoelectrons

(external photoelectric effect).

• The electrons are subsequently accelerated with a high voltage (100’s of volts) to a
first dynode (an electrode), where they generate several secondary electrons. Those are
accelerated towards further dynodes, where the number of electrons is getting several times
larger each time. Finally, a strongly amplified photocurrent is collected with an anode near
the last dynode.

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