RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR (22RMI16)

(Common for all M. Tech., programs of VTU)

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MODULE-3 (08 Hours)
Design of Sampling: Introduction, Sample Design, Sampling and Non-sampling Errors,
Sample Survey V/s Census Survey, Types of Sampling Designs.
Measurement and Scaling: Qualitative and Quantitative Data, Classification of Measurement
Scales, Goodness of Measurement Scales, Sources of Error in Measurement Tools, Scaling,
Scale Classification Bases, Scaling Techniques, Multidimensional Scaling, Deciding the Scale.
Data Collection: Experimental and Survey, Collection of Primary Data, Collection of
Secondary Data, Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection, Case Study Method.
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Design of Sampling:
Introduction:
When we decide to study a population, most often we are unable to look at all the individuals
in the population. Real life issues like the lack of time, limited amount of money and
inconvenience to the individuals under study disallow us to include the entire population in our
study. Instead, we choose a sample from the population, which reflects its structure and nature.
We want our results to be reliable and dependable, and for those reasons our sample must
represent the entire population. Choosing a right sample is a critical matter.
A sampling design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers
to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the
size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many
sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise
and easier to apply than others.

The sampling design is a fundamental part of data collection for scientifically based decision
making. A well-developed sampling design plays a critical role in ensuring that data are
sufficient to draw the conclusions needed.
Sampling error:
Sampling error means the difference between the mean values of the sample and the mean
values of the entire population, so it only happens when you’re working with representative
samples. It’s the inevitable gap between your sample and the true population value.
the whole population will never be perfectly represented by a sample because the population
is larger and more complete. In this sense, sampling error occurs whenever you’re sampling.
It’s not a human error, and it can’t be completely avoided.

Non-sampling error:
Non-sampling errors can happen even when you are not sampling. i.e. they need to be avoided
whether you are working with a representative sample (such as with a national survey) or doing
total enumeration of your entire population (such as when you are carrying out employee
experience surveys with your workforce).
Non-sampling errors occur when there are problems with the sampling method, or the way the
survey is designed or carried out.
Reasons for Sampling Errors:
 Faulty selection of sampling method.
 Faulty demarcation of sampling units.
 Variability of the population which has different characteristics.
 Substituting one sample for other sample due to difficulties in collecting the sample.

Steps to minimize sampling errors:

 Increase sample size.
 Dividing the population into groups.
 Random selection results in the elimination of bias.
 Performing an external record check.

Reason for non-sampling errors:

 Lack of trained and qualified investigator.
 Due to wrong answers to the questions.
 Due to incomplete coverage.
 Biasness of the investigation.
 Vague questionnaire.
 Wrong method of asking questions.
 Wrong calculations while processing the data.

Steps to minimize non-sampling errors:

 Trained and qualified investigator

 Collecting correct answers to the questions
 Preparing clear and understandable questionnaire
 Selecting appropriate method of asking the questions
 Making correct calculations
Comparison of Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors:

Basis of Comparison Sampling Error Non-Sampling Error

This error occurs due to sample
This error occurs due to sources
selected, does not perfectly
Meaning other than sampling such as
represent the population of
human errors.
interest
Cause of this error is the
Cause of this error is the
Cause deviation between sample mean
deficiency and analysis of data
and the population mean.
Occurs only when sample is Occurs both in sample and
Occurs
selected census (population)
Possibility of error reduced with It has nothing to do with sample
Sample size
increase in sample size size
It can be zero if sample is
complete population or census.
But in case, if we are using Error can not be zero, but can be
Can it be zero
sample, it cannot be zero, reduced
however the error can be
minimized.
High skill of investigator is High skill of investigator is
Skill of investigator
required required
Type of error Random Random and Non-random

SAMPLE SURVEY V/S CENSUS SURVEY

Census is the process of collecting data from every member of a population, while sampling is
the process of collecting data from a subset of a population. In a census, every member of a
population is included, while in sampling, a smaller group of individuals is selected to represent
the population as a whole. The concepts of census and sample are shown in the following
figure.

Figure 3.1 Census and Sample

Comparison of Census survey and Sample survey:

Basis of Comparison Census Survey Sample Survey

A systematic method that Sample survey refers to a
collects and records the data portion of the population
Meaning
about the members of the selected to represent the entire
population. group in all its characteristics.
In the sample survey,
In the census survey,
information is collected by the
information is collected by the
Coverage investigator by taking some of
investigator related to all the
the items representing the whole
items of the population.
population.
Census survey is suitable where Sample survey is suitable when
Suitability the field of investigation is the field of investigation is
relatively small. large.
Census survey is expensive and Sample survey is less expensive
Time and Cost
time consuming. and less time consuming.
Accuracy and Census survey is more accurate Sample Census survey is less
reliability and more reliable. accurate and less reliable.
When the items in the When the items in the
population taken for study have population taken for study or
Nature of items
diverse characteristics, then survey are homogeneous, then
census survey is preferred. sample survey is preferred.
It is easy to verify the statistical
Not possible to verify the
Verification information gathered through
statistical information
sample.
Each and every unit of Only a handful of units of
Study
population is studied. population is studies

Types of Sampling Design:

Sampling is an essential part of any research project. The right sampling method can make or
break the validity of any research, and it is essential to choose the right method for the specific
question/field of investigation. In this section, we will take a closer look at some of the most
popular sampling methods.
The sampling design methods may be broadly divided into two:

 Probability Sampling Methods

 Non-probability Sampling Methods
In each of the category there are different types of sampling methods and the same is shown in
the following chart.
 Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling
Methods Methods

Simple or unrestricted
Judgement sampling
random sampling

Stratified random
Quota sampling
sampling

Systematic sampling Convenience sampling

Cluster sampling Snowball sampling

Figure 3.2 Types of sampling methods

1. Probability Sampling Method:

Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher selects a few criteria and
chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to
participate in the sample with this selection parameter.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of
being selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates sampling bias in the
population and allows all members to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling methods/types:
a) Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps
in saving time and resources is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable
method of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen
randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen
to be a part of a sample. To conduct this type of sampling, one can use tools like random
number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on
conducting team-building activities, they would likely prefer picking chits out of a
bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
b) Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the
researcher divides the population into smaller groups that do not overlap but represent
the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then draw a
sample from each group separately.

Example: The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want
to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each
group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of
100 people.

c) Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the
sample members of a population at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting
point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular
intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, this sampling
technique is the least time-consuming.

Example: All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first
10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards,
every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with
a sample of 100 people.

d) Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters representing a population. Clusters are identified
and included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.
This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inferences from the
feedback.
For example, suppose the Indian government wishes to evaluate the number of
immigrants living in India. In that case, they can divide it into clusters based on states
such as West Bengal, Bihar, Odissa, Punjab etc. This way of conducting a survey will
be more effective as the results will be organized into states and provide insightful
immigration data.

2. Non-probability Sampling Methods:

Non-probability sampling is a sampling method where the selection of individuals or
items from a population is not based on random chance. Unlike probability sampling,
it does not ensure that each member of the population has an equal or known chance of
being included. Instead, non-probability sampling relies on the researcher’s judgment
or convenience. This approach can introduce bias into the sample and limit the
generalizability of findings.
There are four types of non-probability sampling methods and discussed in the
following paragraphs.
a) Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling, also known as purposive sampling, is a non-probability

sampling method where researchers select specific individuals or items deliberately
based on their expertise or judgment. Unlike random sampling, judgmental
sampling relies on the researcher’s subjective decision-making, making it a
convenient choice when certain expertise or characteristics are required for the
study.
For instance, if a market researcher wants to understand consumer preferences for
luxury watches, they may specifically choose to interview high-income individuals
who are known luxury watch enthusiasts. This approach is practical when specific
knowledge or expertise is necessary.
b) Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method where researchers
select participants based on their ease of access or availability rather than using
random or structured methods. This approach is often used for its simplicity and
cost-effectiveness but may lead to biased results since it doesn’t ensure a
representative sample.
For example, if a researcher surveys by approaching people in a shopping mall to
gather opinions on a new product, this is convenience sampling. It’s convenient
because participants are easily accessible in that location. However, it may not
accurately represent the broader population’s opinions, as mall-goers might have
different preferences than the general population.
c) Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling method where researchers divide a
population into subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics (e.g., age,
gender, income) and then randomly select participants from each subgroup until
predetermined quotas are met. This method aims to ensure that the final sample
reflects the composition of the population in terms of these characteristics, but it
does not involve random selection.
For example, in a political poll, if a research team aims to survey 500 individuals
and they know that the population consists of 60% females and 40% males, they
might use quota sampling to select 300 females and 200 males from various
locations until each subgroup’s quota is filled. While it achieves demographic
balance, it lacks the randomness of probability sampling and may introduce bias.
d) Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique used when it’s difficult
to locate and access members of a specific population, such as rare or hidden
groups. In this method, an initial participant is chosen, interviewed, and then asked
to refer or “snowball” the researcher to other individuals who fit the study’s criteria.
 The process continues, with each new participant suggesting additional potential
participants. This approach is often employed in studies involving hard-to-reach
populations, like drug users, undocumented immigrants, or individuals with rare
diseases.

Figure 3.3 Snowball sampling

DATA COLLECTION:
Data collection is the process of collecting and evaluating information or data from multiple
sources to find answers to research problems, answer questions, evaluate outcomes, and
forecast trends and probabilities.
Types of Data Collection Methods: Primary and Secondary methods of data collection are
two approaches used to gather information for research or analysis purposes.
1. Primary data collection
Primary data collection involves the collection of original data directly from the source or
through direct interaction with the respondents. This method allows researchers to obtain
firsthand information specifically tailored to their research objectives.
Sources of primary data are Surveys and Experiments. The survey data mainly provides
information regarding attitude, opinions, and perceptions of respondents. Experimental data is
obtained by conducting experiments in a controlled environment.
Following are the other techniques for primary data collection.
a. Surveys and Questionnaires: Researchers design structured questionnaires or surveys to
collect data from individuals or groups. These can be conducted through face-to-face
interviews, telephone calls, mail, or online platforms.

b. Interviews: Interviews involve direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent.
They can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. Interviews
can be structured (with predefined questions), semi-structured (allowing flexibility), or
unstructured (more conversational).
c. Observations: Researchers observe and record behaviors, actions, or events in their natural
setting. This method is useful for gathering data on human behavior, interactions, or
phenomena without direct intervention.

d. Experiments: Experimental studies involve the manipulation of variables to observe their

impact on the outcome. Researchers control the conditions and collect data to draw conclusions
about cause-and-effect relationships.

e. Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small group of individuals who discuss
specific topics in a moderated setting. This method helps in understanding opinions,
perceptions, and experiences shared by the participants.

Comparison of data collected from Surveys and Experiments:

Survey Experiment
Surveys are descriptive Experimental
Require larger samples Need smaller samples
Systematic and logical method of answering
Describe a phenomenon or state of affairs
the question
Experiment data is related to laboratory
Survey is field research
research
Hypothesis can be built from survey Hypothesis testing is done
Survey is on census or sample Experiment is on a sample
Purpose of survey is for correlational Purpose of experiment data is to establish
analysis causal relationship between variables

2. Secondary Data Collection:

Secondary data collection involves using existing data collected by someone else for a purpose
different from the original intent. Researchers analyze and interpret this data to extract relevant
information. Secondary data can be obtained from the following sources.

a. Published Sources: Researchers refer to books, academic journals, magazines,

newspapers, government reports, and other published materials that contain relevant data.

b. Online Databases: Numerous online databases provide access to a wide range of secondary
data, such as research articles, statistical information, economic data, and social surveys.

c. Government and Institutional Records: Government agencies, research institutions, and

organizations often maintain databases or records that can be used for research purposes.
d. Publicly Available Data: Data shared by individuals, organizations, or communities on
public platforms, websites, or social media can be accessed and utilized for research.

e. Past Research Studies: Previous research studies and their findings can serve as valuable
secondary data sources. Researchers can review and analyze the data to gain insights or build
upon existing knowledge.

Case Study Method of Data Collection:

A case study is a detailed study (research) of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place,
event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational,
clinical, and business research.

For example, a case study of labors may be taken up to study the impact of noise and vibration
on their physical and mental health.

Sources of data in case study method: Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using
methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources
(e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also
collect quantitative data.

Comparison of Primary data and Secondary data

Criteria Primary data Secondary data

Nature Finished product of someone

Original, firsthand, raw
else

Collecting agency Investigator, Agents/Assistants/ Other researcher or research

Representatives agency

Planning Collected fresh according to specific No planning.

needs Search for published data
Post-collection
processing Always required Not necessarily required

Resources Time, Money, Effort Not too many are required

Choice between primary and secondary data depends on the following:

 Object and scope of enquiry

 Availability of finance
 Availability of time
 Desired level of accuracy
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

In our daily life we come across many situations where in we witness measurement of some
quantity (volume of petrol or edible oil, weight of rice, sugar, area of a space etc.,) or sometimes
we are part of measurement process. Measurement can be qualitative such as the quality of a
painting, quality of a song or the personality of people or it can be quantitative where we
quantify the properties of physical objects by its mass, volume, density etc. Thus, by
measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects or observations, the level
of measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned.
It is easy to measure in respect of objects or concepts that are quantifiable, because
measurement tools are standardized. The measurement obtained is highly accurate. However,
if the concept of abstract are qualitative form, the measurement becomes quite difficult because
the measurement tools are not standardized and the results are relatively less accurate.

Measurement Scale and Types:

A scale is a device or an object used to measure or quantify any event or another object.

In Statistics, the variables or numbers are defined and categorized using different scales of
measurements. Each level of measurement scale has specific properties that determine the
various use of statistical analysis. The most widely used classification of measurement scales
are:
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale

1. Nominal Scale:
A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags” or
“labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the non-numeric
variables or the numbers that do not have any value. Following are the characteristics of
nominal scale.

 A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this measurement
mechanism, the answer should fall into either of the classes.
 It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
 The numbers do not define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect of
numbers in the nominal scale is “counting.”
Example:

Gender, marital status, religion, race, hair color, country, etc are examples of Nominal Scale.
2. Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of data
without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the “order.”
Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped, named and also
ranked. The characteristics of Ordinal Scale are:

 The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

 It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
 Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the
rankings of those variables
 The interval properties are not known
 The surveyors can quickly analyze the degree of agreement concerning the identified
order of variables
Example:
Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.
Ratings in restaurants: 2 star, 3 star, 4 star, 5 star
Evaluating the frequency of occurrences: Very often, Often, Not often, Not at all
Assessing the degree of agreement: Totally agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Totally disagree
Levels of satisfaction: Extremely satisfied, Satisfied, Neutral, Unsatisfied, Extremely
unsatisfied.
3. Interval Scale
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative
measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In other
words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in which the
presence of zero is arbitrary.
The intervals between data on an interval scale are equal and constant, but there is no genuine
zero point. The value zero has no meaningful significance.
Characteristics of Interval Scale:

 The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values.
 It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables.
 To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values between
the variables.
 The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical
values to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
Examples of Interval Scale:
Time: When measured throughout the day, time passes is an excellent example of interval data.
Because they are equidistant and quantifiable, the numerals on a clock are on an interval scale.
For example, the difference between 3 and 4 o’clock is the same as the difference between 4
and 5 o’clock.
Likert Scale: A Likert scale is a rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or
behaviors. It is made up of 4 or more questions that measure a single attitude or trait when
response scores are combined

Net Promoter Score(NPS): A net promoter score is a method of using a single survey question
to gauge customer satisfaction with a product. Businesses can send out this question— “On a
scale of 0 to 10, how likely are you to recommend [our product or company]?”—at various
stages of the customer’s journey.
Suppose the question is “How likely are you to recommend us?”
Customers can respond with a score of 0 to 10.
Based on their scores, you’ll place users in one of the three following categories:

 Promoters (scores of 9 or 10)

These are your enthusiastic and loyal customers.

 Passives (scores of 7 or 8)
These users are satisfied with your product but not enthusiastic enough to promote it.

 Detractors (scores of 0 to 6)
These are unhappy customers unlikely to buy from you again. They may even discourage others
from your product.
4. Ratio Scale:
The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of
variable measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals. The
ratio scale has a unique feature i.e. it possesses the character of the origin or zero points.
A ratio scale is the most informative scale as it tends to tell about the order and number of the
object between the values of the scale. The most common examples of this scale are height,
money, age, weight etc. With respect to market research, the common examples that are
observed are sales, price, number of customers, market share etc.
Ratio scales encompass four distinct levels of measurement:

 Labels and categorizes variables (nominal)

 Ranks categories available (ordinal)
 Encompasses equal, known intervals (interval)
 Has a true or meaningful zero (ratio)
Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

 Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero.

 It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature.
 It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly
added, subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using
the ratio scale.
 Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit
conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.

Example:
An example of a ratio scale is:
What is your weight in Kgs?

 Less than 55 kgs

 55 – 75 kgs
 76 – 85 kgs
 86 – 95 kgs
 More than 95 kgs

Comparison of Interval Scale and Ratio Scale

Features Interval Scale Ratio Scale

In addition to all the

All variables can be added, subtracted,
Variable characteristics of an interval
and multiplied. But you cannot calculate
characteristics scale, you can also calculate the
the ratio between them.
ratio between variables.
Absolute Point
Is an arbitrary concept. Absolute Point Zero exists.
Zero

The geometric or harmonic mean

Calculation The arithmetic mean is calculated
is calculated.

You can measure the size and magnitude You can measure the size and
Measurement of values using a consistent unit of magnitude of values with a
measurement. defined unit of measurement.

Using °C to measure the temperature.

Any variable that has an absolute
The difference in temperature between
Example zero point, like age, weight,
50°C and 60°C is the same as the
height, or sales figures.
difference between 70°C and 80°C.