BIOLOGY-MDCAT-2024

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• Cell wall
• Cytoplasm and cell organelles
o Nucleus
o Endoplasmic reticulum
o Mitochondria
o Golgi apparatus/Golgi complex/ Golgi bodies
o Lysosomes
o Plastids/Chloroplasts
o Vacuoles
• Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
• Fluid mosaic model
Learning Objectives
• Compare the structure of typical animal and plant cell
• Compare and contrast the structure of prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells
• Outline the structure and function of the following organelles; nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum,
golgi apparatus, mitochondria
• Discuss fluid mosaic model of cell membranes

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• Protoplasm (Cytoplasm + Nucleus)

• Protoplast/cell (Cytoplasm + Nucleus + Cell membrane)
• Ovum (Largest cell of human 0.1 mm in diameter)
• Sperm without tail (Smallest cell of human 0.05 mm in diameter)

PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Charles Ernest Overton-1899 first proposed the concept of a lipid plasma membrane
• Plasma membrane is also known as
o Cell membrane
o Cytomembrane
o Plasmalemma
• It is the outermost boundary of the cell
• The membrane is about 7 nm thick
• However, in most plant cells, is covered by a cell wall
• It is chemically composed of
o Lipids (20-40 %)
o Proteins (60-80%)
o Small quantity of carbohydrate
• Many biologists contributed to establish the structure of cell membrane
• The membrane of muscle cell is Sarcolemma
• The membrane of axon is Axolemma
• The membrane of neuron is Neurilemma
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UNIT MEMBRANE MODEL
• It was presented by Robertson in 1959
• According to this model, cell membrane is composed of lipid bilayer sandwiched between inner
and outer layers f proteins
• It is present in all the cellular organelles
• The modern technology has revealed that lipid bilayers are not sandwiched between two protein
layers

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

• It was presented by Singer and Nicolson in 1972
• The protein layers are not continuous and are not confined to the surface of the membrane but are
embedded in lipid layers in a mosaic manner
• This discovery led to the proposal of Fluid Mosaic Model
• This model at present is the most accepted one

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• In a cell membrane
o Phospholipid heads are away from each other
o Phospholipid tails are towards each other
o Phospholipid tail contains cholesterol
• The phospholipid part act as differentially permeable, while protein part act as selectively
permeable
• There are two kinds of membrane proteins
o Extrinsic or surface proteins
o Intrinsic or embedded proteins
• Integral proteins also called as ‘permease’ regulate diffusion, osmosis and active transport of ionic
materials
• The bilayer is arranged so that the phospholipid heads face outwards and the fatty acid chains
face inwards, with cholesterol and proteins scattered throughout the membrane.
• Cell membrane also contains charged pores through which movement of materials takes place,
both by active and passive transport
• Transport of materials is one of the vital roles it plays for the cell
• It offers a barrier between the cell contents and their environment, allowing only selective
substances to pass through it, thus it is known as differentially permeable or selectively
permeable membrane

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• The substances which are lipid soluble cross it more easily than others, therefore, it regulates the
flow of materials and ions to maintain a definite gradient
• Many small gas molecules, water, glucose etc. being neutral can easily cross while ions, being
charged particles have some difficulty in crossing
• Many substances which are not needed, constantly enter the cell by passive transport, others are
taken up against the concentration gradient (they move from the area of low concentration to the
area of high concentration).
• This uphill movement of materials requires energy and is termed as active transport.
• The energy used for this movement is provided by ATP
• In many animal cells, the cell membrane helps to take in material by infolding in the form of
vacuoles
• This is type of intake is termed as endocytosis which can which can be either phagocytosis (to
engulf solid particles) or pinocytosis (to take in liquid material)
• In neurons (nerve cells) the cell membrane transmits nerve impulses form one part of the body to
the other to keep coordination
• Some plasma membrane proteins have enzymatic functions e.g., adenylate cyclase which converts
ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP)
• Some proteins are antigens which enable the cell to recognize other cells for example the foreign
antigens can be recognized and attacked by immune system
• Mostly glycolipids and glycoproteins act as cell surface markers
• The fluidity of membrane is dependent on its lipid components including
o Phospholipids
o Glycolipids
o Cholesterols
• Cholesterol helps to stabilize the liquid bilayer

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Industrial use of cell wall component i.e., cellulose

1) Nitrocellulose (Explosive)
2) Rayan (Textile fiber)
3) Cellophane (Partially permeable membrane)
4) Plastics including celluloid’s and cinematography
5) Paper making

Passive mechanisms do not require energy Active mechanisms require cell energy
Diffusion Active transport
Facilitated diffusion Endocytosis
Osmosis Exocytosis
Filtration

CELL WALL
• Robert Hook in 1665 first observed cell wall
• The outer most boundary in most of the plant cells is cell wall
• The cell wall of plant cell is different from that of prokaryotes, both in structure and chemical
composition
• It is secreted by the protoplasm of the cell
• Its thickness varies in different cells of the plant
• Meristems lack cell wall
• Only sclerenchyma cell has secondary wall
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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• Cellulose the main constituent of cell wall is used in the manufacturing of
o Paper
o Cotton goods
o Sellotape
o Ropes etc.

Structure and Composition of Plant cell wall

• It is composed of three layers

1. Primary wall
• Is composed of
o Cellulose (upto 25 %)
o Hemicellulose (upto 50 %)
o Pectin
• Cellulose molecules are arranged in a crisscross arrangement
• It is a true wall and develops in newly growing cells
• It is thin and slightly flexible
• It is first to be formed
• It is formed during phase of extension of the cell and passes though a period of growth in length
• In many cells the wall is only primary wall
2. Middle lamella
• It is first to be formed in between primary walls of neighbouring cells
• It is composed of
o Calcium salts
o Magnesium salts and
o Pectate
3. Secondary wall
• It is formed on its inner surface and is comparatively thick and rigid
• Found in dead cells only
• It provides definite shape and mechanical support to the cell
• Chemically it is composed of
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o Inorganic salts
o Silica
o Salts
o Waxes
o Cutin
o Lignin etc.

Composition of other cell walls

• The cell wall of fungi is composed of chitin

• The cell wall of algae is composed of cellulose
• The cell wall of a prokaryotic cell (bacteria) is composed of peptidoglycan
o The cell walls of all living organisms are composed of polysaccharides

Role/Function

• It provides a definite shape to the cell

• It provides rigidity to the cell
• It does not act as a barrier to the materials passing through it
• It acts as permeable structure (not membrane)

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Plasmodesmata

• It is the cytoplasmic connection between the two cells from where exchange of materials takes
place between the cytoplasm of two adjacent cells

CYTOPLASM
• Rudolf von Kolliker coined the word cytoplasm in 1863
• The living contents of the eukaryotic cell are divided into nucleus and the cytoplasm, the two
collectively form protoplasm
• The word cytoplasm literally means ‘living gel of cell’
• Cytoplasm consists of an aqueous ground substance containing a variety of cell organelles and
other inclusions such as
o Insoluble wastes
o Storage products
• The soluble part of the cytoplasm is called cytosol
o It forms the ground substance of the cytoplasm
o Chemically it is 90 % water
o It forms a solution containing all the fundamental molecules of life
o In the cytosol, small molecules and ions may form true solutions, and some large molecules
form colloidal solutions
o Colloidal solutions may be
▪ (Cytosol)- A sol (non-viscous)-central part
▪ (Cytogel)- A gel (viscous)-peripheral part
• The most important function of the cytoplasm is to act as a store house of vital chemicals

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• It is also a site for certain metabolic processes such as glycolysis and translation
• In living cell, the cytoplasm contains several cell organelles such as

Non-Membrane Organelles Single Membrane Organelles Double Membrane Organelles

Ribosomes Endoplasmic Reticulum Nucleus
Centrioles Golgi Complex Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton Lysosomes Chloroplast
Peroxisomes
Glyoxisomes
Vacuoles
• The free-floating cell organelles e.g., mitochondria move about in cytoplasm due to cytoplasmic
streaming movements (cyclosis). This is an active mass movement of cytoplasm
• Self-autonomous/self-replicating organelles/Semi-autonomous organelles (Have own DNA
and Ribosomes)
1. Mitochondria
2. Chloroplasts (Plastids)
• Organelles with different morphological forms
1. Endoplasmic reticulum
i. RER
ii. SER
2. Lysosomes
i. Primary lysosomes
ii. Secondary lysosomes
iii. Tertiary lysosomes
3. Vacuoles
i. Food vacuoles
ii. Contractile vacuoles
• Structures which maintain shape of a cell
1. Cell Wall (in plants only)
2. Cell membrane

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3. Vacuoles (in plants only)
4. Endoplasmic reticulum
5. Cytogel of cytoplasm
6. Intermediate filaments of cytoskeleton

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Porter and Thompson in 1945
• Under an electron microscope a network of channels is seen extending throughout the cytoplasm
• These channels are often continuous with plasma membrane and also appear to be in contact with
the nuclear membrane
• This entire system of channels is the Endoplasmic Reticulum
• These membranes vary widely in appearance form cell to cell
• The material present in these channels is separated from the cytoplasmic materials by the
spherical or tubular membranes called cisternae
• There are two morphological forms of endoplasmic reticulum
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
i. Involved in the synthesis of proteins
ii. After synthesis the proteins are either stored in the cytoplasm or exported out of the
cell through these channels
iii. They synthesize enzymes for other organelles, like lysosomes, microbodies etc.

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
i. Helps in metabolism of a number of different types of molecules particularly lipids
ii. They also help to detoxify the harmful drugs
iii. They store calcium ions in muscle cells
iv. They make lipids from fatty acid and glycerol absorbed in the gut and passes them
to the golgi bodies for export
Hormone corticosteroid made in adrenal cortex and sex hormones testosterone,
estrogen is also initiated by them
v. In some cells SER is responsible for transmission of impulses e.g., muscle cells, nerve
cells
vi. Cholesterol and phospholipids are synthesized by them
vii. In addition, SER also plays an important role in the transport of materials from one
part of the cell to the other
viii. Endoplasmic reticulum also provides mechanical support to the cell
ix. Endoplasmic reticulum maintains the shape of a cell
x. In skin, they convert cholesterol into vitamin D in the presence of sunlight

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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. They are directly attached with the nucleus 1. They are not directly attached with the
nucleus
2. They are involved in protein synthesis 2. They are involved in lipid synthesis
3. They contain ribosomes on them 3. They lack ribosomes
4. It is mainly formed of vesicles and tubules 4. It contains flattened sacs called cisternae
5. Abundantly found in liver cells, pancreas 5. Abundantly found in adipose tissues, liver
cells and goblet cells cells and muscle cells

RIBOSOMES
• Cell contains many tiny granular structures known as ribosomes
• They are also known as “Engine of a cell or Factory for protein synthesis)
• Also known as ‘organelle within organelle’
• Palade (1955) was the first person to study them
• Eukaryotic ribosomes are composed of an almost equal amount of RNA and protein, hence they
are ribonucleo-proteins particles
• They are absent is RBC’s
• The RNA present in ribosome is called ribosomal RNA

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• Ribosomes exist in two forms

o Either freely dispersed in cytoplasm or
o Attached with RER as tiny granules
• Each eukaryotic ribosome consists of two sub-units
• The larger sub-unit sediments at 60 S (S=Svedberg unit used in ultra configuration), while smaller
sub-unit sediments at 40 S
• Two sub-units on attachment with each other from 80 S particle
• This attachment is controlled by the presence of Mg2+ ions
• The ribosomes are attached to messenger RNA through small ribosomal sub-unit

Location of Ribosome Size Larger sub-unit Smaller sub-unit

Prokaryote 70 S 50 S 30 S

Mitochondria 70 S 50 S 30 S

Chloroplast 70 S 50 S 30 S

Eukaryote 80 S 60 S 40 S

• A group of ribosomes attached to mRNA is known as polysome or polyribosome

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• New ribosomes are assembled in the nucleolus of the nucleus from where they are transported to
the cytoplasm via the pores in nuclear membrane
• The factory of ribosome is the nucleolus, while that of protein synthesis is the ribosome

GOLGI APPARATUS
• Golgi apparatus was discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898
• They are also known as ‘Dictyosomes’ in plants

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• The figure shows relationship of endoplasmic reticulum with Golgi Apparatus, lysosome and
plasma membrane.
o Golgi Apparatus has two ends, Forming Face and Maturation Face.
o Blebs from tips of SER fuse with Golgi Apparatus cisternae at Forming Face, whereas
secretory granules.
• This apparatus, which was found virtually in all eukaryotic cells, consists of stacks of flattened,
membrane bounded sacs called cisternae
• These cisternae together with associated vesicles are called Golgi complex
• It is a complex system of interconnected tubules around the central stacks
• Cisternae stacks are continuously formed by fusion of vesicles, which are probably derived by the
budding of SER

Outer face of Golgi complex Inner face of Golgi complex

Cis face Trans face
Forming face Maturing face
Convex face Concave face
• The cisternae break up into vesicles from the latter
• The whole stack consists of a number of cisternae thought to be moving from the outer to the
inner face

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• The number of cisternae ranges between 3-7 in most of animals but in lower organisms may have
up to 30 flattened sacs
• Golgi complex is concerned with cell secretions
• Secretions are products formed within the cell on ribosomes and then passed to the outside
though endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi Apparatus
• The secretions are converted into finished product and are packed inside membrane, before
export
• For example, in mammals, the pancreas secretes granules containing enzymes that help in
digestion
• The Golgi complex has a role in formation of these granules
• The proteins or enzymes which have to be transported out of the cell pass through the Golgi
Apparatus
• Formation of acrosome during spermiogenesis
• Formation of vitelline membrane of egg is also secreted by Golgi bodies
• Formation of phragmoplast during cell division in plants

Formation:
Golgi bodies are formed from SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum)
SER→(budding)→Vesicles→(fusion)→Golgi bodies→(budding)→Lysosomes

Conjugated Molecules
Complex molecules formed by the combination of smaller molecules
e.g.,
Glucose + Lipids → Glycolipids (Conjugated molecule)
Glucose + Proteins → Glycoproteins (Conjugated molecule)
Lipids + Proteins → Lipoproteins (Conjugated molecule)

LYSOSOMES
• Lysosomes are cytoplasmic organelles and are different from other due to their morphology
• These were isolated as a separate component for the first time by De Duve (1949)

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• Lysosomes are cytoplasmic organelles and are different from others due to their morphology.
• Lysosomes (Lyso = splitting; soma = body) are found in most eukaryotic cells.
• Any foreign object that gains entry into the cell is immediately engulfed by the lysosome and is
completely broken into simple digestible pieces.
• The process is known as phagocytosis (eating process of a cell).
• They are most abundant in those animal cells which exhibit phagocytic activity.
• They are bounded by a single membrane and are simple sacs rich in acid phosphatase and several
other hydrolytic enzymes.
• These enzymes are synthesized on RER and are further processed in the Golgi apparatus.
• The processed enzymes are budded of as Golgi vesicles and are called as primary lysosome.
• Lysosomes contain those enzymes which can digest the phagocytosed food particles.
• They are also involved in the autophagy (self-eating).
• During this process some old, worn-out parts of cell, such as old mitochondria are digested.

• In this way, materials of cell may be recycled and cell may be renewed.
• Their enzymes can also result in degeneration of cell, as may occur during some developmental
processes.
• Lysosomes also release enzymes for extra cellular digestion.
• Lysosomes protect the cells from invading organisms or any other foreign object (food), which are
engulfed in the cell as phagocytic vacuoles
• These fuse with primary lysosomes to form digestive vacuole (secondary lysosome) in which
various lysosomal enzymes digest various components of vacuoles.

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• Sometimes, under abnormal circumstances e.g., starvation or as a normal physiological process
the parts of the cells are engulfed by primary lysosomes and digested to generate energy
• The lysosome which eats parts of their own cell are known as autophagosomes
• The digestive vacuole and autophagosomes are known as secondary lysosomes
• They are also involved in autolysis, during this function they are also called ‘suicidal bags’
• Metamorphosis of animals (removal of tadpole tail) is an example of lysosomal activity
• The excess hormones of endocrine gland may be digested by lysosomes. This process is known as
‘Crinophagy’
• They are active during replacement of cartilage by bone during development
Storage or Congenital diseases
• Several congenital diseases (not inherited by birth) have been found to be due to accumulation
within the cell of substances such as glycogen or various glycolipids.
• There are around 20 such diseases have been discovered so far
• These are also called storage diseases and are produced by a mutation that effect one of the
lysosomal enzymes involved in the catabolism of a certain substance.
• For example, in glycogenosis type II disease, the liver and muscle appear filled with glycogen
within membrane bound organelles.
• In this disease, an enzyme that degrades glycogen to glucose, is absent.
• About twenty such diseases are known these days, which are because of absence of a particular
enzyme.
• For example, Tay-Sach’s disease is because of absence of an enzyme that is involved in the
catabolism of lipids.
• Accumulation of lipids in brain cells lead to mental retardation and even death
• Crinophagy is a process in which excess secretory granules containing insulin are disposed of by
function with lysosomes

PEROXISOMES
• De-Duve and co-workers isolated in 1965 particles from liver cells and other tissues which are
enriched with some oxidative enzymes, such as
o Peroxidase,
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o Catalase,
o Glycolic acid oxidase and some other enzymes
• The name peroxisome was applied because this organelle is specifically involved in the formation
and decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in the cell
• These are single membrane enclosed cytoplasmic organelle found both in animal and plant cells
• These are characterized by containing H2O2-producing oxidases and catalase
• They are approximately 0.5 µm in diameter
• They have also been found in protozoa, yeast and many cell types of higher plants
• In plants, Peroxisomes play important role in both catabolic and anabolic pathways
• In plants they are involved in photorespiration
• Collectively peroxisomes and glyoxysomes are known as ‘microbodies’

GLYOXYSOMES
• Harry Beevers in 1961
• Plants contain an organelle, which in addition to glycolic acid oxidase and Catalase also possess a
number of enzymes that are not found in animal cells

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• This organelle called glyoxysomes are most abundant in plant seedlings, which rely upon stored
fatty acids to provide them with the energy and material to begin the formation of a new plant
• One of the primary activities in these germinating seedlings is the conversion of stored fatty acids
to carbohydrates
• This is achieved through a cycle, glyoxylate cycle, the enzymes of which are located in the
glyoxysomes
• In seeds rich in lipids such as castor bean and soybeans, glyoxysomes are the sites for breakdown
of fatty acids to succinate
• This organelle is present only during a short period in the germination of the lipid-rich seed and is
absent in lipid-poor seed such as the pea

VACUOLES
• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676
• They are found in both animal and plant cells
• In animal cells, they are smaller in size
• In plant cells, they are larger in size, due to which the remaining intracellular structures are forced
into the thin peripheral layer
• They are formed from cell membrane, ER and Golgi bodies

Structure:

• These are single membrane organelle formed by the coalescence of smaller vacuoles during the
plant, growth and development
• Membrane is known is “Tonoplast”- a selectively permeable membrane

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Morphological forms of Vacuole:

• Food vacuole: Stored food and water

• Contractile vacuole: Stored waste and water

Function:

• They are involved in the storage of

o Water
o Cell products or metabolic intermediates
o Waste
• They maintain the shape of a cell
• They provide rigidity
• They maintain turgor pressure

CYTOSKELETON
• Nikolai K. Koltsov in 1903
• Cytosol contains cytoskeleton fabric formed of
o Microtubules
o Microfilaments
o Intermediate filaments
• The main proteins that are present in cytoskeleton of muscle are
o Actin
o Myosin
o Tropomyosin
• These are non-membrane organelle
• There are three parts of cytoskeleton

Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate Filaments

Composed of “Tubulin” protein Composed of “Actin” proteins Composed of “Vimentin” proteins
Involved in the assembling and Involved in cyclosis-cytoplasmic Maintain shape of a cell
dissembling of spindle fibres streaming

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during cell division (mitosis)
Are involved in the formation of Involved in amoeboid movement Involved in integration of cellular
cilia, flagella, basal bodies, compartments
centrioles etc.

CENTRIOLES
• Edouard Van Beneden in 1883
• Animal cells, and cells of some microorganisms and lower plants contain two centrioles located
near the exterior surface of the nucleus

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• In cross section each centriole consists of a cylindrical array of nine microtubules
• However, each of the nine microtubules is further composed of three tubules

Centrioles Microtubules
1 27
2 54
3 81
4 108
• The two centrioles are usually placed at right angle to each other
• Just before a cell divides, its centrioles duplicate and one pair migrates to the opposite side of the
nucleus
• The spindle then forms between them
• They are absent in higher plants
• Centrioles play important role in the location of furrowing during cell division and in the
formation of cilia

MITOCHONDRIA
• Albert von Kolliker in 1857
• They are found in all eukaryotes
• They are abundant in muscles cells
• They are absent in red blood cells
• They are also known as “Chondriosomes”

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• They are also called
o Power house of the cell
o ATP mill in cell
o Cell within cell
o Cell furnace of a cell
o Storage batteries
• They are the most busy and active organelle in cell
• They are evolved from purple sulphur bacteria

Composition:

• They are composed of lipoproteins

Structure:

• They are double membrane organelle

• Outer membrane is smooth
• Inner membrane are infoldings known as “Cristae”
• Denser region is known as “Matrix”
• There are F1 particles attached with the inner membrane which are involved in ATP synthesis

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• Mitochondria are very important organelles of eukaryotic cells, because they are involved in the
manufacture and supply of energy to the cell.
• They are also known as powerhouses of the cell.
Structure
• Under compound microscope they appear to be vesicles, rods or filaments.
• Under an electron microscope, they show complex morphology.
• Although their number, shape and internal structure vary widely, a mitochondrion is bound by
two membranes, the outer membrane is smooth and contain porins, while the inner membrane
forms infoldings into the inner chamber called mitochondrial matrix.
• The outer-membrane act as freely permeable membrane
• The inner-membrane act as selectively permeable membrane
• These infoldings are called cristae.
• The mitochondrial membranes are similar in structure to other cell membranes.
• Detailed studies have shown that mitochondria also contain DNA (1% of total DNA of a cell) as
well as ribosomes.
• The presence of ribosomes and DNA indicates that some proteins are synthesized in them.
• It is a self-replicating organelle/semi-autonomous organelle
• The inner surface of cristae in the mitochondrial matrix has small knob-like structures known as
o F0-F1 particles or
o Oxysomes or
o Elementary particles
o ATP synthase
• If the outer membrane of mitochondria is removed then it is called mitoplast
• Mitochondrial matrix contains in it a large number of enzymes, coenzymes and organic and
inorganic salts which help in several vital metabolic processes like Kreb’s cycle, aerobic
respiration, fatty acid metabolism etc.
• As a result of these metabolic processes the energy extracted from the organic food is transformed
into energy rich compound ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and the ATP then provides energy to
the cell on demand.

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• The size and number of mitochondria varies and depends on the physiological activity of the cell.
• Mitochondria extract energy from different components of food and convert it in the form of ATP.
ATP is used for various cellular activities.
• Mitochondria are inherited from mother (in egg) only
• The spent energy, which is in the form of ADP is regenerated by the mitochondria into ATP.
• Mitochondria is therefore described as power house of the cell.
• They are also involved in
o Aerobic respiration
o Fatty acid metabolism
o Kreb’s cycle
o Synthesis of urea
o Oxidative phosphorylation (Formation of ATP in the presence of oxygen)
o Electron transport chain
o Formation of yolk (vitellogenesis) in oocyte

They are involved in the formation of ATP therefore they are known as “Power House of a Cell”

PLASTIDS
PROPLASTIDS
• They are young, immature and developing plastids
• They are self-replicating/semi-autonomous organelles
• They divide and re-divide in meristematic cells and are distributed to different cell types

CHROMOPLAST
• They give other than green color to the plants
• They are found in petals of the flower and in the ripened fruits
• They help in pollination and dispersal of seeds

LEUCOPLAST
• They are colorless
• They are triangular, tubular or of some other shape
• They are found in the underground parts of the plant

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• They store food in plants
o Amyloplasts: Stores starch
o Proteinoplasts: Stores proteins
o Elaioplasts: Stores fats and oils

CHLOROPLAST
• Hugo von Mohl in 1837
• They are found in plant cells only
• They are evolved from cyanobacteria
• Commonly known as ‘sugar factory of a cell’
• They are energy converting organelles
• Angiosperms inherit chloroplast from female gamete, while Gymnosperms inherit chloroplast
from male gamete

Structure:

• They are double membrane bounded organelles

• Their inner membrane is known as “Thylakoid”
• Thylakoids contain photosynthetic pigments like chlorophylls
• Their outer membrane is smooth (freely permeable)
• Their inner-membrane acts as differentially permeable membrane
• Their denser part is known as “Stroma”
• The stroma of chloroplast contains their own DNA and Ribosomes (70S)
• The most abundant protein on Earth (RUBISCO) is found in stroma of chloroplast
• 16 % of chloroplast consists of Rubisco
• Many thylakoids are present in the form of granum
• Each granum consists of 25-50 thylakoids and there are about 40-60 grana found in each
chloroplast

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 BIOLOGY-MDCAT-2024
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Self-Replicating organelle:

• As chloroplast have their own DNA and Ribosomes, they are known as self-replicating organelles

Function:

• They are involved in photosynthesis

• Thylakoid of chloroplast is involved in
o Light reaction
o Photolysis (breakdown of water in the presence of light)
o Photophosphorylation (formation of ATP in the presence of light)
• Stroma of chloroplast is involved in
o Dark reaction/Calvin cycle
o Reduction of carbon dioxide into sugar

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 BIOLOGY-MDCAT-2024
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Haemoglobin Chlorophyll
1. Found in animals 1. Found in plants
2. It gives red color to the blood 2. It gives green color to the leaves
3. Iron is a central atom 3. Magnesium is a central atom
4. It carries oxygen in blood 4. It carries photosynthesis

COMPARISON BETWEEN MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLAST

Similarity between Mitochondria and Chloroplast

i. Both are double membrane organelles

ii. Both have their own DNA and Ribosomes
iii. Both have ribosomes of size 70 S
iv. Both are self-replicating organelles
v. Both have a prokaryotic origin
vi. Both are involved in the formation of ATP
vii. Both are involved in metabolism

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 BIOLOGY-MDCAT-2024
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Difference between Mitochondria and Chloroplast

Mitochondria Chloroplast
i. Found in both animal and plant cells i. Found in plant cells only
ii. Inner membrane is known as “Cristae” ii. Inner membrane is known as
“Thylakoid”
iii. Denser region is known as “Matrix” iii. Denser region is known as “Stroma”
iv. Contain F1 particles iv. Lack F1 particles
v. Lack photosynthetic pigments v. Have photosynthetic pigments
vi. Involved in respiration vi. Involved in photosynthesis
vii. Involved in Kreb’s cycle vii. Involved in Calvin cycle
viii. Involved in oxidative phosphorylation viii. Involved in photophosphorylation

NUCLEUS
“A HEART/BRAIN OF A CELL”

• Robert Brown in 1831

• They are found in eukaryotes
• They are also known as ‘commander of a cell’
• Each nucleus is covered by two parallel membranes with a space between (10-50 nm) called
perinuclear space

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• It is composed of protein and lipid bilayer, like plasma membrane
• Anucleate
o A cell without nucleus e.g., Bacteria, Sieve tube cells
• Enucleate
o A cell with a nucleus during early life only e.g., RBC’s
• Mononucleate
o A cell with a single nucleus e.g., WBC, amoeba, non-dividing cells etc.
• Binucleate
o A cell with two nuclei e.g., Paramecium, dividing cells
• Multinucleate
o A cell with many nuclei e.g., Muscle cell

Structure:

• Double membrane
• It consists of three distinct regions
1. Nuclear membrane/envelope
2. Nucleolus
3. Nucleoplasm
1. Nuclear Membrane
• It is also known as nuclear envelope
• It separates the nuclear material from the cytoplasm
• It is attached with RER
• It consists of nuclear pores
• The number of nuclear pores vary cell to cell e.g.,
o 3-4 nuclear pores/nucleus of erythrocyte
o 30,000 nuclear pores/nucleus of undifferentiated cells like eggs
• Nuclear pores allow the exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm
2. Nucleolus
• It is also known as “Factory of ribosomes”
• It is the central part of a nucleus
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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• It lacks any membrane
• There may be one or more nucleoli in a nucleus
• A nucleolus consists of two regions
o A central denser region
o A peripheral lighter region
▪ It is a granular part where ribosomal sub-units are assembled
• It is a nucleolus where ribosomes are assembled and are then exported to the cytoplasm via
nuclear pore
• These nuclear pores act as nucleocytoplasmic traffic between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
• Nucleolus is usually attached to chromatin at specific site called nuclear organizer region
(NOR)
3. Nucleoplasm
• It is also known as karyoplasm or nuclear matrix or karyolymph
• It is region between nuclear membrane and nucleolus
• It contains chromatin material known as chromosomes

Chromosomes:

• They are found in nucleoplasm

• They are composed of
o DNA
o Proteins (Histones)
• A chromosome consists of two distinct regions
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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
1. A centromere
2. Two chromatids
• All the information necessary to control the activities of the cell is located on the chromosomes in
the form of genes.
• These genes are transferred from parents to offspring
• The number of chromosomes vary specie to specie e.g.,

Specie Diploid (2n) Chromosomes Haploid (n) Chromosomes

Penicillium 2 1
Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) 8 4
Garden pea 14 7
Onion 16 8
Corn 20 10
Frog 26 13
Honeybee 32 16
Mouse 40 20
Man 46 23
Chimpanzee 48 24
Potato 48 24
Sugarcane 80 40
Pigeon 80 40
• The number of chromosomes in normal body cells is diploid (2n)
• Haploid number (n) is present in germ cells e.g., human sperms and eggs have 23 number of
chromosomes, while drosophila have 4 number of chromosomes.
• By adding 2 chromosomes in man, we get chromosomes of potato
• By collecting chromosomes in man and penicillium, we get chromosomes of chimpanzee
• Haploid cells are found only in cell sperm and eggs
• In human, there are 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
o 22 pairs of autosomes
o 1 pair of sex chromosomes
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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
▪ XX in female and XY in male
o 45 chromosomes are similar in both human males and females

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Lack definite nucleus Have definite nucleus
Lack membrane bounded organelles Have membrane bounded organelles
Lack cytoskeleton in their cytoplasm Have cytoplasm in their cytoplasm
Lack cholesterol in their cell membrane Have cholesterol in their cell membrane
Cell wall composed of peptidoglycans or murein Cell wall composed of chitin or cellulose
Chromatin material consist of DNA only Chromatin material consists of DNA and proteins
Flagella is composed of Flagellin Flagella is composed of Tubulin
Respiratory enzymes found in mesosomes Respiratory enzymes found in mitochondria
Photosynthetic pigments are bacteriochlorophylls Photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a, b, c,
carotenoids, xanthophylls etc.
Photosynthetic enzymes found in cytoplasm Photosynthetic enzymes found in chloroplast
Have more complex cell wall Have less complex cell wall
The size of ribosome 70 S The size of ribosomes are 70 S and 80 S
Ribosomes are found in cytoplasm Ribosomes are found in cytoplasm, nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplast and on RER
Reproduces asexually by binary fission Reproduces asexually by mitosis
Short life span Long life span
Origin of life 3.5 billion year ago Origin of life 1.5 billion year ago
Haploid chromosome Diploid chromosomes
Examples include Examples include
a) Bacteria a) Plants
b) Cyanobacteria b) Animals
c) Archaeobacteria c) Protozoa etc.
• The entire cell wall is often regarded as a single huge molecule or molecular complex called
sacculus
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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL

Animal Cell Plant Cell
1. They lack chloroplast 1. They have chloroplast
2. They lack cell wall 2. They have cell wall
3. They lack glyoxysomes 3. They have glyoxysomes
4. They have lysosomes 4. They lack lysosomes
5. They have centrioles 5. They lack centrioles
6. Nucleus is in the center 6. Nucleus is towards cell membrane
7. Smaller size vacuole 7. Larger size vacuole
8. Cannot synthesize nutrients 8. Can synthesize nutrients

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By: Faisal Zada Khan (Lecturer-PGC, Lahore)
 BIOLOGY-MDCAT-2024
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL

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By: Faisal Zada Khan (Lecturer-PGC, Lahore)