Language of Mathematics

Four Basic Concepts

Elementary Logic

Mathematical Language and Symbols

September 12, 2021

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Outline

1 Language of Mathematics

2 Four Basic Concepts

3 Elementary Logic

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
• discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of
mathematics;
• explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
• acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language; and
• perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Why use language

Ordinary (English/Filipino) language of speech is used for

communication. Similarly, to understand math, we need to
understand the language of mathematics.

Mathematical Language is:

• Precise (able to make very fine distinctions);
• Concise (able to say things briefly);
• Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative
ease).

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Analogies between English and mathematics

• Mathematical language also has “nouns” (used to name

mathematical objects) and “sentences” (which state complete
mathematical thoughts).
• In English, nouns are used to name things. Sentences are
used to state complete thoughts.
A typical English statement has at least one noun and at least
one verb.
Example: Joe is running.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

In Mathematics:
The analogue of “noun” in math is “expression.” So, a
mathematical expression is a name given to a mathematical
object under consideration. The mathematical analogue of
English sentence is also called a sentence.

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• A mathematical expression can have several ”names”.

Example: 5 can be referred to as 2+3, (6-2)+1, etc...
• In English, the analogue is synonyms.
Note that math sentences also has ”verbs.”

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Elementary Logic

• Truth is a property of being true or false. So, mathematical

sentences can be true or false.

EXERCISES.
I. Circle the verbs in the following sentences:
a) The capital of the Philippines is the City of Manila.
b) 3 + 4 = 7
c) 3 + 4 = 8

II. TRUE or FALSE:

a) The capital of the Philippines is the City of Manila.
b) 3 + 4 = 7
c) 3 + 4 = 8

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How to decide whether something is a sentence:

• Does it state a complete thought?
• Does it make sense to ask about the TRUTH about this
object?

Example: Is 1 + 2 true or false?

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Exercises (use THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS by Dr.

Carol JVF Burns)

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

• In order to communicate effectively, people must agree on

the meanings of certain words and phrases. When there is
ambiguity, confusion can result. The primary way that ambiguity
is avoided is by the use of definitions. By defining words and
phrases, it is assured that everyone agrees on their meaning.
• A definition is a concise statement of the basic properties of
an object or concept which unambiguously identify that object
or concept. In order to be complete, a definition must describe
exactly the thing being defined nothing more, and nothing less.

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GOOD DEFINITION: A rectangle is a quadrilateral all four of

whose angles are right angles.

POOR DEFINITION: A rectangle is a parallelogram in which

the diagonals have the same length and all the angles are right
angles. It can be inscribed in a circle and its area is given by
the product of two adjacent sides.

This is not CONCISE. It contains too much information, all of

which is correct but most of which is unnecessary.

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Some guidelines for Definitions to have good form:

1. A definition MUST be written as a complete, grammatically
correct English sentence.
2. A definition MUST be an if and only if statement.
3. The quantifiers in a good definition MUST be explicitly and
clearly stated.

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Symbols and notations play a crucial role in mathematics.

They are used to signify ideas, processes, and objects of
mathematics.
Symbols/Notations Meaning
+ Positive, Plus, Addition
− Negative, Minus, Subtraction
× Multiplication, Times
÷ Division
= Equal
< less than
≤ less than or equal
> greater than
≥ greater than or equal

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Symbols/Notations Meaning
P
sum of
∃ there exists
∀ for all, for every
∈ element of
⊂ subset, is contained in
∪ union

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Aside from symbols and notations, we always encounter and

use variables in mathematics.

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Elementary Logic

Aside from symbols and notations, we always encounter and

use variables in mathematics.
A variable is any letter or symbol used to stand for a
mathematical object.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Aside from symbols and notations, we always encounter and

use variables in mathematics.
A variable is any letter or symbol used to stand for a
mathematical object.
A variable can be used as a placeholder to talk about
something that has one or more values but we don’t know
what they are.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Aside from symbols and notations, we always encounter and

use variables in mathematics.
A variable is any letter or symbol used to stand for a
mathematical object.
A variable can be used as a placeholder to talk about
something that has one or more values but we don’t know
what they are.

Example:

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Aside from symbols and notations, we always encounter and

use variables in mathematics.
A variable is any letter or symbol used to stand for a
mathematical object.
A variable can be used as a placeholder to talk about
something that has one or more values but we don’t know
what they are.

Example:
• Is there a number x with the following property: doubling it
and adding 3 gives the same result as squaring it?

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Aside from symbols and notations, we always encounter and

use variables in mathematics.
A variable is any letter or symbol used to stand for a
mathematical object.
A variable can be used as a placeholder to talk about
something that has one or more values but we don’t know
what they are.

Example:
• Is there a number x with the following property: doubling it
and adding 3 gives the same result as squaring it?
• Rewriting and introducing a variable: Is there a number x
with the property that 2x + 3 = x 2 ?

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A variable can also be used to as a placeholder to talk

about something but you want whatever you say about it to
be equally true for all elements in a given set, and so you
are not restricted to a particular value for it.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

A variable can also be used to as a placeholder to talk

about something but you want whatever you say about it to
be equally true for all elements in a given set, and so you
are not restricted to a particular value for it.

Example:

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

A variable can also be used to as a placeholder to talk

about something but you want whatever you say about it to
be equally true for all elements in a given set, and so you
are not restricted to a particular value for it.

Example:
• No matter what number might be chosen, if it is greater
than 2, then its square is greater than 4.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

A variable can also be used to as a placeholder to talk

about something but you want whatever you say about it to
be equally true for all elements in a given set, and so you
are not restricted to a particular value for it.

Example:
• No matter what number might be chosen, if it is greater
than 2, then its square is greater than 4.
• Rewriting and introducing a variable: No matter what
number n might be chosen, if n > 2, then n2 > 4.

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Elementary Logic

Variable
Example:
1. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their
squares equals the square of their sum?

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Variable
Example:
1. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their
squares equals the square of their sum?

2. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.

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Variable

Example:
Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their
squares equals the square of their sum?
Answer: Are there numbers a and b with the property that
a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 ?

Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.

Answer: Given any real number r , r 2 is nonnegative. (or
r 2 ≥ 0.)

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Three of the most important kinds of sentences in mathematics
are universal statements, conditional statements, and
existential statements.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Three of the most important kinds of sentences in mathematics
are universal statements, conditional statements, and
existential statements.
A universal statement says that a certian property is true
for all elements in a set.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Three of the most important kinds of sentences in mathematics
are universal statements, conditional statements, and
existential statements.
A universal statement says that a certian property is true
for all elements in a set.
Example: All positive numbers are greater than zero.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Three of the most important kinds of sentences in mathematics
are universal statements, conditional statements, and
existential statements.
A universal statement says that a certian property is true
for all elements in a set.
Example: All positive numbers are greater than zero.
A conditional statement says that if one thing is true,
then some other thing also has to be true.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Three of the most important kinds of sentences in mathematics
are universal statements, conditional statements, and
existential statements.
A universal statement says that a certian property is true
for all elements in a set.
Example: All positive numbers are greater than zero.
A conditional statement says that if one thing is true,
then some other thing also has to be true.
Example: If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Three of the most important kinds of sentences in mathematics
are universal statements, conditional statements, and
existential statements.
A universal statement says that a certian property is true
for all elements in a set.
Example: All positive numbers are greater than zero.
A conditional statement says that if one thing is true,
then some other thing also has to be true.
Example: If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.
Given a property that may or may not be true, an
existential statement says that there is at least one thing
for which the property is true.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Three of the most important kinds of sentences in mathematics
are universal statements, conditional statements, and
existential statements.
A universal statement says that a certian property is true
for all elements in a set.
Example: All positive numbers are greater than zero.
A conditional statement says that if one thing is true,
then some other thing also has to be true.
Example: If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.
Given a property that may or may not be true, an
existential statement says that there is at least one thing
for which the property is true.
Example: There is a prime number that is even.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Conditional Statements

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Conditional Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

universal and conditional.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Conditional Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

universal and conditional.
Example:

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Conditional Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

universal and conditional.
Example:
For all animal a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Conditional Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

universal and conditional.
Example:
For all animal a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
or

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Conditional Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

universal and conditional.
Example:
For all animal a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
or
If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Conditional Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

universal and conditional.
Example:
For all animal a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
or
If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.
or

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Conditional Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

universal and conditional.
Example:
For all animal a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
or
If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.
or
All dogs are mammals.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Existential Statements

A universal existential statement is a statement that is

universal because its first part says that a certain property is
true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because
its second part asserts the existence of something.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Existential Statements

A universal existential statement is a statement that is

universal because its first part says that a certain property is
true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because
its second part asserts the existence of something.

Example:

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Existential Statements

A universal existential statement is a statement that is

universal because its first part says that a certain property is
true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because
its second part asserts the existence of something.

Example:
Every real number has an additive inverse.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Universal Existential Statements

A universal existential statement is a statement that is

universal because its first part says that a certain property is
true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because
its second part asserts the existence of something.

Example:
Every real number has an additive inverse.

For all real numbers r , there is an additive inverse for r .

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Mathematical Statements
Existential Universal Statements
An existential universal statement is a statement that is
existential because its first part says that a certain object exists
and is universal because its second part says that the object
satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Existential Universal Statements
An existential universal statement is a statement that is
existential because its first part says that a certain object exists
and is universal because its second part says that the object
satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.

Example:

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Existential Universal Statements
An existential universal statement is a statement that is
existential because its first part says that a certain object exists
and is universal because its second part says that the object
satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.

Example:
There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every
positive integer.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Existential Universal Statements
An existential universal statement is a statement that is
existential because its first part says that a certain object exists
and is universal because its second part says that the object
satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.

Example:
There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every
positive integer.
or

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Existential Universal Statements
An existential universal statement is a statement that is
existential because its first part says that a certain object exists
and is universal because its second part says that the object
satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.

Example:
There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every
positive integer.
or
There is a positive m with the property that for all positive
integers n, m ≤ n.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Existential Universal Statements
An existential universal statement is a statement that is
existential because its first part says that a certain object exists
and is universal because its second part says that the object
satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.

Example:
There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every
positive integer.
or
There is a positive m with the property that for all positive
integers n, m ≤ n.
or

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Mathematical Statements
Existential Universal Statements
An existential universal statement is a statement that is
existential because its first part says that a certain object exists
and is universal because its second part says that the object
satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.

Example:
There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every
positive integer.
or
There is a positive m with the property that for all positive
integers n, m ≤ n.
or
∃m ∈ Z+ s.t.∀n ∈ Z+ , m ≤ n.
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Exercises:
For (a)-(c), write TRUE if the statement below is true, write
FALSE otherwise.
(a) Statement: For all x ∈ R, there exists a real number
y such that x + y = 0.

(b) If x = 2.3, then y = −2.3 so that x + y = 0.

(c) The statement in (a) is a universal conditional

statement.

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Exercises:
Fill in the blanks such that using variables and symbols to
rewrite the given sentence:

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Exercises:
Fill in the blanks such that using variables and symbols to
rewrite the given sentence:
1. Given: Is there a real number whose square is −1?

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Four Basic Concepts
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Exercises:
Fill in the blanks such that using variables and symbols to
rewrite the given sentence:
1. Given: Is there a real number whose square is −1?
Is there a real number such that ?

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Four Basic Concepts
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Exercises:
Fill in the blanks such that using variables and symbols to
rewrite the given sentence:

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Exercises:
Fill in the blanks such that using variables and symbols to
rewrite the given sentence:
2. Given: Given any two real numbers, there is a real number in
between.

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Exercises:
Fill in the blanks such that using variables and symbols to
rewrite the given sentence:
2. Given: Given any two real numbers, there is a real number in
between.
For any two and , such that a < c < b.

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Sets, Functions, Relations, and Binary Operations

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

In elementary geometry, points and lines are undefined and

what is provided is only description of them and what one can
do with them.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

In elementary geometry, points and lines are undefined and

what is provided is only description of them and what one can
do with them. In the discussion that follows, we take the notion
of “sets” and “set membership” as primitive undefined terms
and the axioms that follow prescribe how sets “behave.”
[Freiwald p.2]

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

In elementary geometry, points and lines are undefined and

what is provided is only description of them and what one can
do with them. In the discussion that follows, we take the notion
of “sets” and “set membership” as primitive undefined terms
and the axioms that follow prescribe how sets “behave.”
[Freiwald p.2] We assume here that we have the ordinary and
intuitive understanding of what sets are.

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Elementary Logic

A set is a collection of objects.

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

A set is a collection of objects.

Example:

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

A set is a collection of objects.

Example:
S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

A set is a collection of objects.

Example:
S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
T = {2, 4, 6, ...}

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Elementary Logic

A set is a collection of objects.

Example:
S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
T = {2, 4, 6, ...}
U = {x : x is prime and x < 20}

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Elementary Logic

A set is a collection of objects.

Example:
S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
T = {2, 4, 6, ...}
U = {x : x is prime and x < 20}
We can say 7 ∈ U.

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Sets

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Sets

A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by

writing all of its elements between braces. Sets S and T
are written this way.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Sets

A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by

writing all of its elements between braces. Sets S and T
are written this way.
A set may be specified by set-builder notation.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Sets

A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by

writing all of its elements between braces. Sets S and T
are written this way.
A set may be specified by set-builder notation.
Let X be a set and let P (x) be a property that
elements of X may or may not satisfy. We may define the
set of all elements x ∈ X such that P (x) is true. We may
define this set as follows:

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Sets

A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by

writing all of its elements between braces. Sets S and T
are written this way.
A set may be specified by set-builder notation.
Let X be a set and let P (x) be a property that
elements of X may or may not satisfy. We may define the
set of all elements x ∈ X such that P (x) is true. We may
define this set as follows:

{x ∈ X : P (x)} .

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Sets

A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by

writing all of its elements between braces. Sets S and T
are written this way.
A set may be specified by set-builder notation.
Let X be a set and let P (x) be a property that
elements of X may or may not satisfy. We may define the
set of all elements x ∈ X such that P (x) is true. We may
define this set as follows:

{x ∈ X : P (x)} .

As in set U, our set X is the set of positive integers

and P (x) is the property that: x is prime and x < 20.

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Four Basic Concepts
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Real Number System

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Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Real Number System

R - set of all real numbers. Example: 1, 1/2, 0.7, π

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Real Number System

R - set of all real numbers. Example: 1, 1/2, 0.7, π

Q - set of all rational numbers. Example: 0.777...,3/4, -5.1

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Real Number System

R - set of all real numbers. Example: 1, 1/2, 0.7, π

Q - set of all rational numbers. Example: 0.777...,3/4, -5.1
√ √
Qc - set of all irrational numbers. Example: π, 2, 1 + 3

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Real Number System

R - set of all real numbers. Example: 1, 1/2, 0.7, π

Q - set of all rational numbers. Example: 0.777...,3/4, -5.1
√ √
Qc - set of all irrational numbers. Example: π, 2, 1 + 3
Z - set of all integers. Example: 0,1,-1,2,-2,...

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Real Number System

R - set of all real numbers. Example: 1, 1/2, 0.7, π

Q - set of all rational numbers. Example: 0.777...,3/4, -5.1
√ √
Qc - set of all irrational numbers. Example: π, 2, 1 + 3
Z - set of all integers. Example: 0,1,-1,2,-2,...
N - set of all natural numbers. Example: 1,2,3,...

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Subsets

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Subsets

If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written

A ⊆ B, iff every element of A is also an element of B.

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Subsets

If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written

A ⊆ B, iff every element of A is also an element of B.
Let A and B be sets. Set A is a proper subset of B iff
there is at least one element of B that is not in A. We write
A ⊂ B.

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 Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

Subsets

If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written

A ⊆ B, iff every element of A is also an element of B.
Let A and B be sets. Set A is a proper subset of B iff
there is at least one element of B that is not in A. We write
A ⊂ B.
Example:
A = {a, b, c, d, e} , B = {a, b, c, d, e, f } , C = {a, b, c, d, e}
The following statements are correct:

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Subsets

If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written

A ⊆ B, iff every element of A is also an element of B.
Let A and B be sets. Set A is a proper subset of B iff
there is at least one element of B that is not in A. We write
A ⊂ B.
Example:
A = {a, b, c, d, e} , B = {a, b, c, d, e, f } , C = {a, b, c, d, e}
The following statements are correct:
A ⊂ B, A ⊆ C, C ⊆ A, A = B.

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Exercises:
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .

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Exercises:
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(c), write TRUE if the statement below is true, write
FALSE otherwise.

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Exercises:
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(c), write TRUE if the statement below is true, write
FALSE otherwise.
(a) Statement: 11 ∈ A.

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Exercises:
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(c), write TRUE if the statement below is true, write
FALSE otherwise.
(a) Statement: 11 ∈ A.
(b) Statement: B ⊂ C and B ⊆ C.

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Exercises:
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(c), write TRUE if the statement below is true, write
FALSE otherwise.
(a) Statement: 11 ∈ A.
(b) Statement: B ⊂ C and B ⊆ C.
(c) Statement: D = {−3, 3} .

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Exercises:
Let N be the set of natural numbers,
X = {1, 4, 9, 16, ...} , Y = {n ∈ Z : n ≥ 0, n is even} .

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Exercises:
Let N be the set of natural numbers,
X = {1, 4, 9, 16, ...} , Y = {n ∈ Z : n ≥ 0, n is even} .
(a) State explicitly the elements of the set Y (write set Y in
set-roster notation).

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Exercises:
Let N be the set of natural numbers,
X = {1, 4, 9, 16, ...} , Y = {n ∈ Z : n ≥ 0, n is even} .
(a) State explicitly the elements of the set Y (write set Y in
set-roster notation).

(b) Write set X in set-builder notation (follow the format

X = {a ∈ A : P (a)}).

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Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the

ordered pair consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is
the second element. Also, we say (a, b) = (c, d) iff a = c
and b = d.

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Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the

ordered pair consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is
the second element. Also, we say (a, b) = (c, d) iff a = c
and b = d.
The Cartesian product A × B of two sets A and B is the
set consisting of all ordered pairs whose first coordinate
belongs to A and whose second coordinate belongs to B.

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Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the

ordered pair consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is
the second element. Also, we say (a, b) = (c, d) iff a = c
and b = d.
The Cartesian product A × B of two sets A and B is the
set consisting of all ordered pairs whose first coordinate
belongs to A and whose second coordinate belongs to B.
In other words,

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Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the

ordered pair consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is
the second element. Also, we say (a, b) = (c, d) iff a = c
and b = d.
The Cartesian product A × B of two sets A and B is the
set consisting of all ordered pairs whose first coordinate
belongs to A and whose second coordinate belongs to B.
In other words,

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B} .

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• Relations are structures on a set that pairs any two

elements that satisfy certain properties.

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• Relations are structures on a set that pairs any two

elements that satisfy certain properties.
Examples:

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• Relations are structures on a set that pairs any two

elements that satisfy certain properties.
Examples:
5 is less than 7 or 5 < 7, here < is the relation.

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• Relations are structures on a set that pairs any two

elements that satisfy certain properties.
Examples:
5 is less than 7 or 5 < 7, here < is the relation.
2 + 5 = 7, the equal sign = is the relation.

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• Relations are structures on a set that pairs any two

elements that satisfy certain properties.
Examples:
5 is less than 7 or 5 < 7, here < is the relation.
2 + 5 = 7, the equal sign = is the relation.
The relation ”is an element of,” denoted by ∈, is another
example.

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Relations

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Relations
• Sometimes, relations are defined with reference to two sets
A and B.

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Relations
• Sometimes, relations are defined with reference to two sets
A and B.
• A relation between two sets A and B is a set of ordered
pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Thus, a relation is a subset
of the Cartesian product A × B.

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Relations
• Sometimes, relations are defined with reference to two sets
A and B.
• A relation between two sets A and B is a set of ordered
pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Thus, a relation is a subset
of the Cartesian product A × B.
• Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A × B, the element x is
related to element y by R, written xRy, iff (x, y) is in R. The set
A is called the domain of R and the set B is called its
co-domain.

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Relations
• Sometimes, relations are defined with reference to two sets
A and B.
• A relation between two sets A and B is a set of ordered
pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Thus, a relation is a subset
of the Cartesian product A × B.
• Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A × B, the element x is
related to element y by R, written xRy, iff (x, y) is in R. The set
A is called the domain of R and the set B is called its
co-domain.
• In most books, domain is defined as the

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Relations
• Sometimes, relations are defined with reference to two sets
A and B.
• A relation between two sets A and B is a set of ordered
pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Thus, a relation is a subset
of the Cartesian product A × B.
• Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A × B, the element x is
related to element y by R, written xRy, iff (x, y) is in R. The set
A is called the domain of R and the set B is called its
co-domain.
• In most books, domain is defined as the

{a ∈ A : ∃b ∈ B such that the pair (a, b) is in R} .

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Relations

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Relations

Example:

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Relations

Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} . Let us say that an
element x in A is related to an element y in B iff x < y . Let us
use the notation xR< y as a shorthand for the sentence “x is
related to y .” Then,

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Relations

Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} . Let us say that an
element x in A is related to an element y in B iff x < y . Let us
use the notation xR< y as a shorthand for the sentence “x is
related to y .” Then,

0R< 1 since 0 < 1.

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Relations

Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} . Let us say that an
element x in A is related to an element y in B iff x < y . Let us
use the notation xR< y as a shorthand for the sentence “x is
related to y .” Then,

0R< 1 since 0 < 1.

(a) A × B

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Relations

Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} . Let us say that an
element x in A is related to an element y in B iff x < y . Let us
use the notation xR< y as a shorthand for the sentence “x is
related to y .” Then,

0R< 1 since 0 < 1.

(a) A × B
(b) List all the elements in A × B that are related.

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Example 1 page 40

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Example 1 page 40
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation R from A
to B as follows:

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Example 1 page 40
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation R from A
to B as follows:
Given any (x, y) ∈ A × B,

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Example 1 page 40
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation R from A
to B as follows:
Given any (x, y) ∈ A × B,
x −y
(x, y) ∈ R means that ∈ Z.
2

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Example 1 page 40
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation R from A
to B as follows:
Given any (x, y) ∈ A × B,
x −y
(x, y) ∈ R means that ∈ Z.
2
(a) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A × B and which
are in R.

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Example 1 page 40
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation R from A
to B as follows:
Given any (x, y) ∈ A × B,
x −y
(x, y) ∈ R means that ∈ Z.
2
(a) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A × B and which
are in R.
(b) Is 1R3? 2R3? 2R2?

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Example 1 page 40
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation R from A
to B as follows:
Given any (x, y) ∈ A × B,
x −y
(x, y) ∈ R means that ∈ Z.
2
(a) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A × B and which
are in R.
(b) Is 1R3? 2R3? 2R2?
(c) What are the domain and co-domain of R?

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Functions

• A relation F from A to B is a function iff:

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Functions

• A relation F from A to B is a function iff:

1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered
pair of F .

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Functions

• A relation F from A to B is a function iff:

1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered
pair of F .
2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first
element.

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Functions

• A relation F from A to B is a function iff:

1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered
pair of F .
2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first
element.
• The set {f (x) : x ∈ A} of values actually taken by f is called
the image of f .

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Let A = {x, y, z, w} and B = {1, 2, 3} . Suppose

f = {(x, 1) , (y , 2) , (z, 2) , (w, 3)} .

The relation f is a function.

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Let A = {x, y, z, w} and B = {1, 2, 3} . Suppose

g = {(x, 1) , (y, 2) , (z, 2)} .

The relation g is not a function.

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Let X = {a, b, c, d} and B = {1, 2, 3} . Suppose

F = {(a, 2) , (a, 3) , (b, 1) , (c, 2) , (d, 3)} .

The relation F is not a function.

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Boardwork: Example 4 page 44

Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5} . Which of the relations R

and S defined below are functions from A to B?
(a) R = {(2, 5) , (4, 1) , (4, 3) , (6, 5)}
(b) For all (x, y ) ∈ A × B, (x, y) ∈ S means that y = x + 1.

Answers:
(a) R is not a function since it does not satisfy property (2), the
element 4 is paired with elements 1 and 3.
(b) S is not a function since it does not satisfy property (1),
some elements in set A are not paired with any element in set
B.

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(d), define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given
any (x, y) ∈ A × B,

(x, y ) ∈ R iff y = x + 5.

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(d), define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given
any (x, y) ∈ A × B,

(x, y ) ∈ R iff y = x + 5.

(a) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in Cartesian

Product A × B.

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(d), define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given
any (x, y) ∈ A × B,

(x, y ) ∈ R iff y = x + 5.

(a) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in Cartesian

Product A × B.

(b) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in the relation R.

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(d), define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given
any (x, y) ∈ A × B,

(x, y ) ∈ R iff y = x + 5.

(a) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in Cartesian

Product A × B.

(b) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in the relation R.

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(d), define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given
any (x, y) ∈ A × B,

(x, y ) ∈ R iff y = x + 5.

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(d), define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given
any (x, y) ∈ A × B,

(x, y ) ∈ R iff y = x + 5.

(c) What are the domain and co-domain of R?

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Example
Let A = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , B= {11, 12, 13} , C =
{11, 12, 13, 14, 15} , D = x ∈ R : x 2 = 9 .
For (a)-(d), define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given
any (x, y) ∈ A × B,

(x, y ) ∈ R iff y = x + 5.

(c) What are the domain and co-domain of R?

(d) Is the relation R a function? Why or why not?

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Functions

• If the relation f is a function, then the notation f (x) = y

means that f turns the object/input x into the object/output y .

Example: Let f (x) = x 2 . Suppose x = −2. Evaluating, we have

f (−2) = (−2)2 = 4.

• To specify a function, therefore, one must be careful to

specify two sets as well: the domain, which is the set of
objects/inputs to be transformed, and the range, which is the
set of objects/outputs they are allowed to be transformed into. •
A function f from a set A to a set B is a rule that specifies, for
each element x of A, an element y = f (x) of B. Sometimes,
the notation f : A → B is used.

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Functions

One of the most basic activities of mathematics is to take a

mathematical object and transform it into another one,
sometimes of the same kind and sometimes not.

Example:
(1) f (x) = −x transforms a number to its negative.
(2) f (x, y) = x 2 + 2y transforms pairs of numbers into a single
number.

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Example 4 page 44

Define f : R → R and g : R → R by the following formulas:

√
f (x) = |x| , ∀x ∈ R, and g (x) = x 2 , ∀x ∈ R.
Is f = g?

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Example
Let g : R → R be defined by g(x) = 2x − 5. Evaluate g (0) and
g (m − 1) .
Solution:

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Binary Operations

• A binary operation on a set A is a function that takes pairs of

elements of A and produces further elements of A.
• It is a function with the set of all pairs (x, y) of elements of A
as its domain and with A as its range.
• Examples: +, ×, the binary operation ”followed by” (in our
activity)
• Some properties of binary operation ∗ that are useful:
commutative, associative, identity, inverse.

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Connectives

• A logical connective is the mathematical equivalent of a

conjunction. That is, it is a word (or symbol) that joins two
sentences to produce a new one.
Example:
∧ and
∨ or
⇒ implies

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Quantifiers

• Words like “all,” “some,” “any,” “every,” “for all,” “there exists,”
and “nothing” are called quantifiers.
• The symbols ∀ and ∃ are used to denote “for all” and “there
exists.

Example:
Let P be the set of all prime numbers.
That is, P = {2, 3, 5, 7, ...} .
∀n ∈ N ∃m ∈ P such that m > n.

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Negation

• The symbol ¬ is used to denote “not,” and if P is any

mathematical statement, then ¬P stands for the statement that
is true if and only if P is not true.

Example:
Statement A: Every student in this class is female.
Question: What is the negation of A?
Answer:

Negation of A: There is at least one male student.

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Negation

Example:
• Let A = {k ∈ Z+ : k ≤ 100}.
• Statement P : ∀n ∈ A, n is odd.

• What is the negation of P?

• We write ¬P as:

¬ (∀n ∈ A, n is odd) .

This is equivalent to:

¬P : ∃n ∈ A, n is even.

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Example
Let P = {1, 3, 5, 7} . Given Statement A: ∀n ∈ P, ∃k ∈ Z such
that n = 2k + 1.

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Example
Let P = {1, 3, 5, 7} . Given Statement A: ∀n ∈ P, ∃k ∈ Z such
that n = 2k + 1.
(a) Explain in your words the meaning of Statement A.

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Example
Let P = {1, 3, 5, 7} . Given Statement A: ∀n ∈ P, ∃k ∈ Z such
that n = 2k + 1.
(a) Explain in your words the meaning of Statement A.

(b) Is Statement A TRUE? Why or why not? Give the values of

k that make the statement true/false.

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References:
Aufmann, R. (2006). Mathematical Excursions. Houghton
Mifflin College Div.
Aufmann, R. et al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern
World. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.
Fisher, C.B. The Language of Mathematics (from One
Mathematical Cat, Please! by Carol Burns Fisher).
Gowers, T., Barrow-Green, J. and Leader, I. (2008). The
Princeton companion to mathematics. Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press.

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