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19 viewsPrincipal of Electrical and Electronics Communication Engineering
Communication systems in the document
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 28
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Communication is a process of transfer of information bearing signals from one
place to another. The equipment that transmits the information is the transmitter and
the equipment that receives the information is the receiver. Channel is the medium
through which the signal travels from the transmitter to the receiver. Telegraphy,
telephony, facsimile, radio broadcast, TV transmission and computer communicatior
are a few examples of communication services.
16.1 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The basic function of a communication system is to communicate a message. The
block diagram of a communication system is shown in Fig. 16.1
Modulation Demodulation
Mal ~| aan =| Channel |=! Receiver +, ont
source
Noise source
[Fig. 16.1 Block Diagram of Communication System |
[Fig..1 om |
The information to be transmitted is given by the information source. In most
of the cases, the information will be non-electrical in nature. For e:
signals in speech transmission and picture signals in televis r
information in the original form is converted into a corresponding electrical vari
tion known as the message signal by using a transmitter, This message signal cannot
be directly transmitted due to various reasons discussed in section 16.5. Hence this
message signal is superimposed on a high frequency carrier signal before transmis-
sion. This process is referred to as modulation. After modulation, the modulated
carrier is amplified by using power amplifiers in the transmitter and fed to the trans-
mitting antenna.
Channel is a medium through which the signal travels from the transmitter to
the receiver. There are various types of channels, such as the atmosphere for radio — G—5__——_—_
Cammunicaim Sytens 559
broadcasting Wit’s for Line telegraphy andl telephony and ptical fibres for optical
communication, As the signal pots propagated Ve h the Thannel, it i attenuated
by various mechanisms and affected by noise from ike external source. Noise is. an
unwanted signal that interferes with the reception, of wanted signal. Noise 18 Ut
ally of random nature and in the design of e mmmunicaion oan careful attention
shoul! be patd (© minimise the effect of noise on the reception of wanted signals
Atihe receiving end. a weak modulated carrier that is transmitted from the trans
miter 1s received. As the received signal power will he very sinall, it is first of all
amplified {© increase the power level and the process of demodulation is done 10
recover the original message signal from the modulated carrier. The recovered mes
sage ere is further amplified to drive the output transducer such as a loud speaker
ora TV receiver. ‘
Table 16.1 gives the electromagnetic spectrum used for various communication
Table 16.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum for Various Communication Services
Classification Frequency Wavelengih~S*S*« Ses~=SS
Range
Very Low 10-30 KHz 30-10 km Long distance point to point communications |
Frequencies |
(VLE)
Low 30-300 Hy 10-1 km Long distance point to point communication,
Frequencies Marine, Navigation, Power Line Carrier
(LF) communication and Broadcast
Medium 300-3000 1000-100 Power Line Carrier communication, Broadcast,
Frequencies kHz metres Marine communications, Navigation and
(ME) harbour telephone
High 3-30 MHz 100-10 Moderate and long range communication of
Frequencies metres all types, Broadcast
LHR) -
Very High 30-300 MHz 10-1 Shor distance communications, TV and
| Frequencies metres FM broadcast, Data communication,
| (WHE) Mobile and Navigation systems
[Tita High 300-3000 (10.1 Short distance communications, TV broadcast
| Frequencies MHz metres Radar, Mobile, Navigation and Microwave
(UH) a eeyays
eee rca TO cas Har Meron ay and eign pce
Frequencies |
(SHF) 3, _ eS a }
Exiremely High 30-300 1-0-1 Radia, Satelite, Mobile, Mierowave relay and
Frequencies GHz cm navigations
Le HF.) _ os - |
16.2. TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES
Telegraphy This telecommunication service is used for transmission and recep-
tion of written texts, Teleprinters normally transmit signal at a speed of 50 bauds 560 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
which occupies a bandwidth of 120 Hz. However recent teleprinters can operate upto,
200 bauds. Teleprinter I special exchanges called telex
(Telegraph Exchange):
Telephony — This isa communication service for the transmission of speech signal
between two points. ‘The speech signal is converted into the corresponding electri.
cal signal by using a microphone and it is transmitted through a telephone line to a
distant receiver where the original speech signal is reproduced by using a speaker
Human voice produces signals in the band of 300 Hz.to 3.4 kHz. Hence a bandwidth
of 4 KHZ is allocated for a telephone channel, A human ear is highly sensitive to
sound between 3 KHz and 4 KHz. As the female voice contains more energy in this
requeney range, they are preferred as telephone operators and announcers.
Facsimile (FAX) This is a telecommunication service for the transmission and
reception of picture information like photographs, drawing, weather maps, etc. The
picture or any document to be transmitted is mounted on a cylinder and it is scanned
hy a photocell linked to the cylinder. The photocell produces an electrical analog
signal as a voltage variation depending upon the intensity of the light and dark spots
on the document. The electrical signal thus produced is converted into frequency
variation and transmitted through a telephone line. At the receiving end, the fre-
quency variations are converted back into corresponding voltage variations is given
to a plotter for reconstructing the original picture or document. Thus a photocopy of
the original picture is obtained at a distance. Similar to a telephone signal, the FAX
message also occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz.
The other communication services like radio broadcast, TV transmission and
computer communication are discussed in the later sections of this chapter.
interconnected throu
16.2.1 Transmission Paths
Transmission of messages can be either through bound media such as a pair of wires,
coaxial cables, optical fibre cables, waveguides, etc. or through unbound media such
as free space or atmosphere.
Line Communication Line communication refers to communication through
pair of wires, coaxial cable and waveguides.
The pair of wires or parallel-wire is normally carried out using overhead lines
on poles and the cables are normally buried under the ground. Buried cables have
twisted pairs upto 4000 in numbers. The pairs are twisted to avoid crosstalk between
subscribers. Such cables are used upto 500 kHz.
‘A coaxial line consists of a pair of concentric conductors with some dielectric
filling the middle space, where the outer conductor is invariably grounded to act as
an electrical shield. There may be a sheath around the outer conductor to prevent
corrosion. A number of such coaxial lines are usually bunched inside a protective
sleeve. A single coaxial line can be used to carry thousands of telephone channels.
Coaxial lines are employed for higher frequencies upto 18 GHz.
‘A waveguide is used for signal transmission in the UHF range, and the SHF
range, ie. above 1 GHz. Here the signal gets propagated as an electromagnetic wave
through a hollow pipe of rectangular or circular cross section. A waveguide acts
as a high-pass filter which does not pass the signal below is cut-off frequency. A EEE
Communication Systems 50!
auide has a bandwidth which is
ample, a waveguide emeeeaee of 20% of its operating frequency: 6°
modate 2,50,000 telephone links. 3H7 offers a bandwidth of | GHz which ca?
som
ace ws
An optical fibre is a waveguide
us
ene) Pinge from 10" to 10 Hy. for transmitting signals in the optical fre
quer . Signal transmission through an optical Fre I
sed ON total internal reflect
pased flection. Optical fibres are dealt with in detail in Section
16.16.
adio Communication In radio communi
rough Sere fhe space. Radio broadcasting, ground ba’
a eo ite communication are a few examples of th
i] in the later sections of this chapter.
> waves in the frequency (LF) region and medium
They are reflected
th tion, propagation of signals |
commun} sed microwave
are discusses is type. which
adio waves of electromagnet
frequency (MF) region are normally used for radio broadcasting.
by the different layers such as D, E, F of the ionosphere at a height of 50 km to 400
e reflections from
km above the ground in the earth's atmosphere. Due to successiv
the ionosphere and the earth's surface, the Fadio waves travel for a long distance and
ree the area of coverage of the broadcasting station.
ion above 1 GI
flect the signals toward
Hz will penetrate the
incre’
js the earth
Radio waves in the microwave frequency regi
re and hence a satellite is required to re
satellite communication.
IGITAL SIGNALS
Signals are broadly classified into two types, viz. analog signal and digital si
Analog Signal The amplitude of an analog signal, i.e. voltage oF current varies
continuously with time, as shown 1% Fig, 16.2(a). The output signal from micro-
phone is an example for an analog signal.
Digital Signal A signal defined at discrete instants of
time signal. Discre' sented
ionosphel
‘which forms the basis for
16.3 ANALOG AND D
ignal.
time is called a discrete
te time signals are repre by sequences of samples. Each
‘Amplitude
7 t
|
Amplitude
1.0 9-4 °
a
)
(a) Analog Signe! and (b) Digital Sgnal|
[Fig.,16? ee |
562 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
sample of this discrete time signal is quantized, a process of taking round-off valyes
and then coding, resulting in digital signals as shown in Fig."16.2(b).
16.4 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MODULATION
Modulation is the process of changing some parameter of a high frequency carrier
Signal in accordance with the instantaneous variations of the message signal
The carrier signal has a constant amplitude and frequency. ‘The function of a
cartier signal is to carry the message signal and hence the name.
The message or modulating signals are low frequency audio signals which contain
the information to be transmitted. Generally message signal ranges from 20 Hz to 20
kHz
16.4.1 Need for Modulation
Modulation is an essential process in communication system to overcome the follow-
ing difficulties in transmitting an unmodalated message signal.
Antenna Dimension When free space is used as communication media,
messages are transmitted and received with the help of antennas. For effective trans-
mission and reception, the dimension of the antenna should be of the order of quarter
wavelength of the signal that is transmitted. If an audio frequency signal is directly
transmitted, the required dimension of the antenna will be quite large so that it can-
not be implemented in practice. For example, an audio frequency signal at 5 kHz
requires a vertical antenna of height 4
A_c__3x10°
4 4f 4xsx1
Hence modulation on a high frequency carrier should be done which transforms
the frequency of the transmitted signal to the carrier frequency range thereby reduc-
ing the required dimension of the transmitting and receiving antennas.
Interference _ In the audio frequency range of 20 Hz-20 kHz, the programmes of
different stations will get mixed up and will be inseparable in the common commu-
nication channel. Hence to reduce the interference, modulation of message signals
from different stations are done on different carrier frequencies which transforms
the modulated signal into different frequency slots.
Channel Characteristics Different communication channels will sustain
signals over the different frequency ranges, A waveguide will sustain signals only in
the microwave frequency range. An optical fibre will sustain signals only in the opti-
cal frequency range. Hence the low frequency message signal should be transformed
into this desired frequency range for communication through the respective channel
which requires modulation to be carried out on a carrier in the desired frequency
range.
Ease of Radiation Since modulation translates the signals to higher frequen
cies, it becomes relatively easy to design and implement amplifiers and antenna
systems.
where = 15,000 m. Adjustment of Bandwidth ;
‘re banwidth of the modulated
sy process festilting in the
@ 6)
Signal to noise rat
lanai Ho in the receiver is a function of
lwidth can be adjusted
Signal to noise ratio
igned Value
a desired frequency by
spectrum
Hs ; improveme:
shifting ignal Frequency to an Assi
nits changing the signal frequeney to :
five unilization of the electromagnetic
y the modhita
Modulation process per
and. This helps in effec
16.4.2 Types of Analog Modul.
The 00 types of analog modulation a
Modulation. Angle modulation ¢
and phase modulation
lation
re (1) Amplitude Modulation and (i) Angle
an be further classified as frequency modulation
c(t)
(a) Carrier wave
(b) Modulating wave
“ i iN nn. . “|
I. ie
(c) AM wave
AANA AAI
e(t) os V Y I
Ss
—
—<
=
=
(4) PM wave
WA
. wy WV
(e) FM wave /
.s (a) Carrier Wave, (D) Sinusoidal Modulating Wave,
= Frequency-
Fig.16.3 AM,PM end al (d) Phase-modulated Wave and (e)
() Amplitude Modulate modulated Wave 564 @ Basic Ei
16.4.3, Amplitude Modulation
In amplitude modutation, the amplitude of the high frequency CATE aaa
in accordance with the instantancous value of the nvextuatings SIBNAT 8 nin
Fig. 16.3 (0).
In AM the amplitude of the cartier wave
same.
‘The envelope of the modulated carrier isan exaet replica of the
signal wave
Let the carrier signal be represented by
ctrical and Electronics Engmeering
ix changed! but its frequency remains the
audio frequency
©) = V, cos Of
where V, is the constant amplitude of the carrier signal and the modulating signal js
represented by
ie. 1m (1) = Vy COS Opt
where V,, is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude modulated wave is repre-
sented by
(1) =A cos wt
The amplitude of the amplitude modulated wave, ie.
ABV, +m (1)= Vi +V,,COS Ont
Hence €(0) = (Ve + Vp, COS @pf) COS @,t
Von
=V, [! tyres on] cos @.t
=V, [1 +m, cos @,f] cos @,t (16.1)
7 is the modulation index (depth of modulation or percentage of modu-
lation) for amplitude modulation.
V,
V,
From Fig. 16.3(0), V, 7 =
Ve = Vix Vn = Vax
Vega * Vey
=e
Vn Veax~ Vain
Therefore mv
So, the value of m, should lie between 0 and 1.
€(t) = V, cos ®t +m, V, COS @,f COS Opt
mV.
= Vec0s wet + 5 [C08 (, + @,)t + C08 (0, ~ p)t] (16.2)
Hence the AM wave consists of three frequency components,
(Wf, the carrier frequency component, Communication Systems @ 565
Gif. + tus the sum frequene
component,
(ii) f. - f,,, the difference frequency component called as lower side band
frequency component
Power Relation in the AM Wave
equal to the sum of the
'¥ Component called as upper side band frequency
The total power in the modulated wave is
unmodulated carrier power and two side hand powers.
t= PL=Po+ Ph sn + Pus
use
RR er
where all these voltages are rms values and R is the antenna resistance.
(VN2)? _ v2
ROR
Vise Vi
aes
The unmodulated power is, P.
2
Similarly, Py sp = rma Ve
8R
(16.3)
2 ye 2
Therefore = Map, Me
m
Therefore +3 (16.4)
The maximum power in the AM wave is P, = 1.5 P,, when m, = 1.
Current Calculations Let the rms value of the unmodulated current and the
total modulated current of an AM transmitter be /. and J, respectively, then
1,
Therefore he 1+
Hence
(16.5)
Modulation by Several Sine Waves Let V,, V>, V; etc. be the simultaneous
modulating voltages. Then the total modulating voltage V, is equal to the square root
of the sum of the squares of the individual voltages, i.e.
——
V,=\W24Vz4V3 4...
Dividing throughout by V,, we obtain
V, [is vieV+
w\
2
vy, [Mi
v7 V2 566 @__ Baste Elecmical and Electonics Engineering
55k (16,
Hence the total modulation index ism, = Ym 4 My ta ® 6)
16.4.4 Angle Modulation
ier a dina
In angle modulation, the instantaneous angle of the carrier sign al is varied in accor.
ing. signal and its amplitude is
ency modulation and (i)
dance with the instantaneous va
Kept constant. Two forms of angle modulation ate (i) F
Phase modulation
16.4.5 Frequency Modulation (FM)
t : carrier is varied linearly
An frequency modulation, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied linearly
inplitude of the modulated car
with the variations of the message signal while the
rier remains constant as shown in Fig. 16.3 (¢)
The instantaneous frequency of the frequency modulated carrier is
LO =f, + kpm()
where f.(1) varies linearly with the base band signal, ky is the frequency sensitivity
constant (Hz/V) and f, is the unmodulated carrier frequency.
Therefore (1) = Af, + 2kym (1)
Then, (1) =] @, (1) dt
= nf, J dt+ 2k, Jm (0 dt
O.(t) = 2nf.t + 2k, | mdr
So, the frequency modulated wave is represented by
e (1) =V, cos [2nf, + 2k, fm () at]
When the modulating signal is m (1) = Vj, COs @,,t, then
mk; Vy sin 0 d|
c= Vcos [at 1+
=V, cos |2mf,.1+
ky Vp Sin 4
Sn
~,, Ssin @ yf
= V, cos |2.nf,t+ ———™ (16.7)
where 6 (= k, V,,) is defined as the peak (maximum frequency) deviation,
e(1) = V, cos |,1+ mpsin @, t]
Hence the modulation index for FM, my, is defined as
6 _ maximum frequency deviation
m
In modulating frequency
(16.8)
‘The maximum value of frequency deviation (5) is fixed at 75 kHz for commercial
FM broadcasting. For normal band, the value of modulation index (my) is less than 1.
For wide-band FM, myis greater than 1, Eee eee
Inlike AM, ; .
Unlike where there Communication Systems E507
a are
ve FM wave con: only the
nm : Of a signal oe atier and
de fi the
per of side frequency compo Tier freque two side-hand components.
PM signal is larger than for noes Hence the he ‘NY Component and an infinite num
kept constant. FM sing 4M signal te andwidlth required for transmission of
Mal is les: dby sii as the amplitude of the carrier
hy noise than the AM signal
HON
In phase modulation, the phase ofth PM)
taneous value of the mod he can
lulatin
carrier is Kept constant, ay shee ent Where: :
ious affecting the ae shown in ib. 16.30, " amplitude . the modulated
: IeNCY. So, hace 1¢ phase angle cannot change
innerrelated with each other. So, phase modulation and ey modulation are
Tier is v,
accordance with the instar
In phase modulation,
, the inst;
: lantaneous angle of the phase modulated carrier 4,(1)
9) = 0,4
: M(t) = @,1+ k
where @,1is the angle ofthe unmet
varies linearly with the " lated carrier and k, is the phase sensitivity. 8,(0)
band signal. pl y. 8,
Hence the phase modulated wave is represented
as
e(0) = V. cos [6, (1)
7 = Vos [@, 1 +k, m(t)]
Substituting M(2) = Vp, COS @p(t)
€ (0) = V, C08 [0,1 + k, Vp, COS yf]
= V, cos [@,t + m, COs @,f] (16.9)
where m, =k, V» is the modulation index for phase modulation, which is the maxi-
mum phase deviation of the phase modulated carrier.
Advantages of FM over AM
(i) The amplitude of the frequency modulated wave in FM is independent of the
depth of modulation, whereas in AM, itis dependent on this parameter.
In AM, when the modulation index increases, the total transmitted power is
increased. In FM, the total transmitted power is always same but the band-
width is increased with the increased modulation index.
FM is much more immune to noise than AM and hence there isan increase
in the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) in FM. This is because the FM receivers
use amplitude limiters to remove amplitude variations.
(iv) By increasing frequency deviation, the noise can further be reduced in FM.
whereas AM does not have this feature,
(¥) As there is a guard band between FM stations, there is les
interference in FM than in AM.
: VHF and UHE ranges, the
a jitter operates in the upper ie
(vi) Since the FM transite rer ena the radius of reception is imited
space wave is
ropagal
ears meee itn possible (0 operate several independent
to Line of oe A a 1 with considerably less interference that
transmitters on the
ime frequen’
would be possible with AM-
Gi)
djacent channel 568 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engmeerme
Disadvantages of FM over AM :
(i) FM requires a much wider channel, perhaps 7 to 15 times as large as that
needed by AM i
(i) FM transmitting and receiving equipments are more complex and
expensive
(iii) Since reception is limited to line o
much smaller than for AM.
Comparison of FM and PM
(i) In PM, the modulation index is proportional to the modulating voltage only.
In FM. the modulation index is proportional to the modulating voltage and
inverbely proportional to the modulating frequency.
(ii) FM is more immune to noise than FM.
(iii) PM and FM are indistinguishable for a single modulating frequency.
f sight, the area of reception for FM is 572 B_ Basic Electneal and Electronics Engmeering
16.7.3 Phase Shift Keying
In PSK, binary 1 is transmitted as a carrier of particula
transmitted as a carrier of the same frequency but with a 180° phase shift
1 frequency and binary 0 i,
sin=A-sinat st
=A sintart m= A,sinas 20
16.8 DATA TRANSMISSION
The importance of data transmission has come into existence due to the development
of computers. For the interconnection between a computer and other peripherals, a
standard was made involving connection, signalling formats and signal levels, This
became more useful when computer facilities began to use telephony for transmis.
sion requirements. Since the telephone was designed for voice communication, it was
necessary to design a transmission circuit to send the digital data in the telephone
lines.
16.8.1 Characteristics of Data Transmission
The telephone channel occupies a frequency range of 300 to 3400 Hz. When data is
sent over telephone channels, the speed must be limited to ensure that the bandwidth
required by data transmission will not exceed the telephone channel bandwidth.
Faster the data transmitted, greater the bandwidth needed to accommodate it.
Data consists of pulse type energy represented by square wave signals. The rep-
etition rate of rapid transition from one voltage level to another voltage level depends
on binary representation of data word. For example, a 8-bit word 10101010 has the
waveform as shown in Fig. 16.7.
1 0 41°04 0 1° 0
5Vv
ov. ~
[Fig. 16.7 Signal Level Representation for 10101010}
Fa. 7
16.8.2 Serial and Parallel Data Transmission
Data is commonly transferred between computers, and other peripherals. Such trans
fers are called parallel data transmission if a group of bits more over several lines al
the same time, or several data transmission if the bits move one-by-one over a single
line. Figure 16.8 illustrates parallel and serial data transmission
In parallel transmission, each bit of a character travels on its own wire, A sig-
nal, called the strobe or clock, on an additional wire indicates the receiver whet
all the bits are present on their respective wires so that the values can be sampled.
Computers and other digital system that are located near one another (within a few NO
‘
fy 4
Wire t mintet
eI winged
4 nit a~0
A AIT Aet
All the bits of a character
are transmitted at one 5 HI <0
time, each over different
wires 6 BIT6=0
7 BIT 7 =
8 BITB=0
Timing - l Clock
(a) Parallel data transter
Mark - Start Stop
Transmitted Draw ls |
over same wire Space oOo ifo}1[o o}1
(b) Serial data transfer
Fig. 16.8 Serial and Parallel Data Transfer |
Fig." :
feet) usually use parallel transmission because it is much faster. As the distance
between equipment increases, the multiple wires become more costly.
Serial transmission is used for long distances communications by single wire.
The conversion from parallel to serial and vice-versa is accomplished with shift
registers.
16.8.3 Modes of Transmission
Simplex Simplex is a data set which provides transmission in only one direction
Here the data set uses only one transmission channel so that no singnalling is avail-
able in the direction from the receiver to the transmitter. Though it is an economical
method of data transfer, it has very limited applications and does not accommodate
error correction and request for retransmission.
Half Duplex In half duplex, data transfer takes place in both directions by mak-
ing flow in one direction at a particular time and data flow in opposite direction
at another time, It requires only one transmission channel, the channel being bi
directional. Though it is economical, the speed of transmission is reduced because
of necessity of sharing the source circuit for both directions. 574 Basic Electrical and Electromies Eraneer™§
c fansini
Full Duplex. In full duplex, operation permits crs
the same time. Two circuit are required, one for eacl
the same channel,
16.8.4 Speed of Transmission
‘on channels is called aud rate and is measured in hin
y the maximum rate at which signal pulses are
rate which gives an idea of the
ion in both directions ,
tion of transmission
n
Signalling speed in transmi
per second (bps). Baud rate is equal to
transmitted. It is different from the information bit
encoding number of data bits in a single clock cycle :
Maximum signalling speed in bands is equal to twice the bandwidth of the chan.
nel. The Fig, 16.9 shows the different baud rates, i.e. variation in number of bits
transmitted per second.
Bitvaue 0 | 1 | 0 1 | 0 ‘One bit/signalling
E unit (codes 0,1)
BadNo. 1| 2/3) 4/5] 6/718
ue
One signal unit
ai oO 1 0 0 | 1 | 0 Two bit/signalling
1 unit (codes 00,01,
10,11)
Baud No. 1 2 3 4
One signal unit
o}1{o] 1] 0 0] 1 | 0 Twobivsignatiing
1 unit (codes 000, 001,
010, 011, 100, 101,
110, 111)
BaudNo. 1
‘One signal unit
Fig. 16.9 Relationship of Bit Rate Baud and the Number of Bits per Signalling
Unit
L_,
16.8.5 Effect of Noise
Noise is an unwanted signal. Noise corrupts the desired signal and makes it difficult
to determine the signal value. There are many types of noise described as follows:
(i) Impulse noise is caused by a sudden change in electrical activity such
as an electric motor starting-up. During this starting-up period, the noise
overwhelms the data signal and makes many data bits in a row useless.
(ii) Frequency specific noise This is caused by power line signals radiating
energy. Any power lines, circuits to lamps and test equipment, and alter
hating current power wiring can act as antennas to transmit this noise.
This noise affects the received data voltages and makes the communication s F, Ci a (1 @ 575
system malfunction ‘ommunication Systems
tion equipments Tom power line:
n ts from power li
nes.
(iii) Wide band nois, .
values. It is ae Contains many frequency components and amplitude
a wide range of fre ie ae having the energy component extending over
frequencies within prea If the amplitude of the noise components at all
fe bandwidth is equal, it is called as white noise.
The effect of nois:
e on the
noise represented as data channel can be reduced by increasing the signal to
This cz
is can be reduced by moving away the commumica-
SIN = 27% 1. wh
channel bandwidth,” ere S/N = Signal to noise ratio, NR = Nyquist rate and 6f =
Crosstalk — Cro: i
ssi . ;
another channel in ‘alk s the reception of a portion of a signal from one channel to
between adjacent nultiplexed systems. It occurs due to electromagnetic interaction
4 wires. The crosstalk can be reduced by using twisted-pair cables.
16.8.6 Asynchronous Data Transmission
In asynchronous data transmission, communication takes place between two devices
of different speeds. Here the start bit and stop bit are introduced and the message is
in between them. The transmitter transmits a start bit and sends the message block
and ends with stop bit.
The receiver tries to recognize the start bit and accepts all the data until the stop
bit, The message block with one start bit and one stop bit is known as a frame. Both
transmitter and receiver are operated by a digital clock. If the speed of the clock
varies, then bit timing drifts with each successive bit until the sampling of the last
received in the character will be incorrect as shown in Fig. 16.10(a).
Figure 16.10(b) shows the error occurring when the received clock is slightly
faster than transmission clock. Figure 16.10(c) shows the occurrence of error when
the received clock is slower ul
16.8.7 Synchronous Dati
han the transmission clock.
a Transmission
the start and stop bits are used. Characters are
cial synchronization characters placed at the
hin il that enough 0 to I/I to 0 transitions
ae within it, to ensure AU
beginning of the eee to remain accurate, aS ee in Fig, 16.11. The control
O e recelv d information.
oe ur for th rt the block Jength and other related ir ; hem it pes
characters represe! ized by the synchronization pu's then it gets
The receiver gets sy’ d then it receives the actual data bits or characters and
the Tength of the block art smission. This forms a total frame. Error check-
i d of tran rors occur, the entire block is
special characters for the en" the entire block. If e
ing is done automatically O°
retransmitted.
us data transmission,
In synchronot i
: s called block with spe
sent in group: TELE VIOLUIN
es man has dreamt of viewing th
fe itting the icture d he scene a
fi ziti te Pe and sound f and hearing the :
saan nce sound at a distance
Y agthe Yor .L. Baird in] Jace to another. It was mad
pte ing er endani 4 fas made tre
ing independently. The nana by .
wor ps ly. They used mechanical ie Jenks a
al system of scanning. AS elec
t
by e year
hi
pel ycucum tubes were developed us
¢ OF the cathode ray tube for electronic scan
sr electronic sca
were intro
ya
tie iting
writing Purposes Wa
“ie ae Th as thought of Regular television b
“din the © es. The intet ; lar television broa f
dure ras introduced to en: ee rier sound system, eee |
ow ale ca inking sound and picture
he able casy tuning prciaie Ui : nd pi =
arly on UHF channels which
ll
J for TV broadcasting in 1952
Corporation of America ae
a i ce (RCA) developed a colour TY transmission
ae aarti ia USA rome system. Systems like NTSC (National
. Sequential Colour and Memory (SECAM) IP
Jour TY
qereniso" si
cance and Phase ‘Alternate Line (PAL) in Germany were the diffe
le. All the three colour TV systems have aed ae pee
ochrome system
ystems availal
gieremt countries. The choice has been often affected b) the mont
gandard prevalent in the particular country. :
wing to the use of VHF-UHF frequencie
reception TV signals is limited to Jine of sight distances usa
roadcast service, relay stations that rec
of
75-150 km. For extending the bi
nal Via microwave cable and rebroadcast it (0 the extended reg!
ite communication, TV has become
links or coaxial
are used. Due (© the rapi
jon in this ever shrinkins
id strides made in satell
ing and powerful medium of mass communicat!
w become th global cover
world. It has 10 possible to have international programs wil
age through geostationary satellites.
Since late seventies considerable research interest has been created in develop-
ing a television gystem that ould have high definition and hence high quality of
images. HDTV (High Definiti i i
asthe standard TV an i
1988, the Seoul Olympic games were broades
INTELSAT-II and the direct broa casting satellite (DBs). Atten
t been success -2
nd the desire 10 provid
tional HDTV standards have ™
ence in US, Japanese ‘and European standart ) 3
Paes, s1ereoscoP~ 3-D TV using holographic techniques ¢
with existing system
be areality in the coming decade.
16.11.1 Elements of TV System
i ta distance: A television SY
cs seer rightness NOLO mera aa colour of
i nor 4: wath eight whict iS
sion Pi
allotted
¢ Radio
yste™ compall
pted in
oadcasting. direct
Ily ranging from
ive the si-
ions
for television br
fe compatibility
an also
stern nUust taichtully
Television me
reproduce the struct
scene, The standard telev!
called as the aspect ratio.
icture has #
ae om Basic Elecincal and Electronics Engmecring,
a n)
=)
| 7 4
==) G
\e i \
field. —— (b) Path of spot during vertical
a Pau (echomat)
[Fig. 16.24 Interiaced Scanning]
The picture signal is generated by a TV camera and the sound signal by a micro.
Phone. The electron beam of the camera scans the image sequentially from left to
Tight and from top to bottom. The supply frequency in India is 50 Hz and hence the
Scanning rate is kept 25 photo frames per second. The entire frame is scanned by
horizontal scanning lines numbering 625. Interlaced scanning is employed where
cach frame is divided into two fields, ie., odd field and field as shown in Fig. 16.24,
Number of lines per field is 312.5. Therefore, horizontal scanning frequency ig
625 x 25 = 15625 Hz. Vertical scanning frequency is 50 Hz. Interlaced scann
makes the human eye view the continuous motion pictures without flicker,
In order that the horizontal and vertical scanning circuits of the receiver are kept
in synchronism, synchronizing pulses and blanking pulses are combined with the
Video signal. This signal is known as composite video signal. Composite video sig.
nals are amplitude modulated (AM) and sound signals are trequency modulated
(FM).
TV Transmitter Television broadcasting station in India is assigned a band-
Width of 7 MHz for each channel, as shown in Fig, 16.25. Vestigial Sideband (VSB
= Single Sideband + Trace(vestige) of
other side band + Carrier) transmission is
employed with the picture carrier 1.25 MHz above the low frequency end of the
jing
&
Picture carrier
Sound carrier
Guard band
05-7
Relative radiated field strength
005 11.25
z
6.25 6.757
Frequency in MHz —>
Fig. 16.25 TV Transmitter Channel
cs, —=——_—St—t=ts
Commumication Systems @ 587
band. The sound carrier frequency is $5 MH, treater than the picture carrier. The
nominal video bandwidth is S MHz, The television station are asigned channels i
the frequency range from $4 t0 216 MHz in the VE hand andl 470 to 800 MHZ in
the UHF band. The colour system in India and several Fue spean countries is PAL
The basic block diagram of a monochrome TV transmitter is shown in Fig. 16.26
Ascene is focussed to the camera tube by optical means. The popularly used camera
tubes are Image Orthicon, Vidicon and Phumbicon, They are scanned by an elec
tronic beam, where the intensity is modulated by the brightness of the scene. A
varying voltage is thus obtained. The camera tube that has photosensitive elements
converts the optical image into the equivalent clectrical signal. Fach picture element
is scanned in succession to convey the total information in the scene
= | AM picture
i
coat || re |! power [Lo
‘oscillator amplifier amplifier
- Transmitter
antenna
| Composite ‘
Video signal
|
Light
> ]
aM
ey | | modulating >| Comtining es
ce ‘ampliter | _|networking
5
| Microphone
ay FM
‘Audio FM sound
[>| Modulating ->}
on ampliior || "Smpttier’| | tansmiter oad
Sound signal
16.26 Block Diagram of Monochrome TV Transmitter
Ee ter]
‘The synchronizing or sync information is transmitted in addition to the picture
information. The Black-and-White TV requires only the brightness or luminance
whereas colour TV requires luminance and chrominance signals. The chrominance
signal is assigned in the portions of total frequency spectrum where luminance sig-
nal does not use. Colour TV system and monochrome TV must be compatible, ie.,
the chrominance signals must be coded in such a way that a satisfactory picture will
be produced by a monochrome receiver and vice versa, Sound signals are transmit-
ted along with picture signals.
Scanning and synchronizing circuits produce synchronizing and blanking pulses.
Video signal, sync and blank pulses are combined in the AM modulating amplitier.
‘The composite video signals is amplified by video amplifiers. Microphone picks
up the sound signals. The sound signals are amplified by audio amplifiers and fre-
quency modulated by the modulating amplifier. Then sound signals and the video @ Basie Electrical and Electronics Engineers
@ Basic Blectical and Elect rt —
Lor
amplifie
FM sound Sound
| demodulator
Receiver Sound IF
antenna amplifier
Y Picture tube
|
[pF | ,[ common || video || Mase. [| :
*) tuner | *|IF ampiiter! "| detector d } -
(Light
Scanning | |
| and synchro:
nizing circuits
[Fig Block Diagram of Black and White TV Receiver
e a en transmit
signals are combined with the help of a combining network and then transmitted by
the omnidirectional antenna, preferably Turnstile antenna.
TV Receiver — The basic block diagram of a black and white TV receiver system
is shown in Fig. 16.27.
The UHF antenna, e.g. Yagi-Uda, picks up the si F
the desired carrier frequency. The received signal is converted into
amplified using IF amplifiers. The Video IF frequency is 38.9 MHz. and Sound IF
frequency is 33.4 MHz.
The video detector separates video, sync, blanking and sound signals. Video sig
nals are amplified by the video amplifiers and given to the picture tube. The sync
and blanking signals are also applied as control signals to the picture tube. Sound
signals are separated and amplified by sound IF amplifiers. Then the sound demodu-
Jator demodulates the sound signais which are then amplified by the audio amplifier.
The loudspeaker converts the output of the audio amplifier into sound signals.
Colour TV System A colour TV system is essentially the same as the mono-
chrome TV system except that the additional chrominance information is also be
sent along with the luminance signal. Red, green and blue (RGB) are the primary
colours. The colour picture can be obtained by appropriately combining these pri-
mary colours. The luminance Y of a picture element is equal to 59% of green (G),
30% of red (R) and 11% of blue (B). The colour camera outputs are modified to
obtain B- Y and R - Y (chrominance) signals.
jgnal. The RF Tuner circuit selects
IF frequency and
16.12 MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION
Electromagnetic waves is the frequency range of 1 GHz to 30 GHz are referred to as
microwaves. As microwaves travel only on line-of-sight paths, the transmitter and
. receiver should be visible to each other. Hence, it is necessary to provide repeater
stations in between the terminal stations at about 50 km intervals, As microwave
communication offers a large transmission bandwidth, many thousands of telephone
channels along with a few TV channels can be transmitted over the same route using er ett rs cs
Communication Systems, 589
ae jain, Noval. ca id Frequencies in the 440 12. GH range are used
we sicrowve ae oat Ne (ransmitter output powers can he low hecause
Hy net ctional high gain antennas are weed Figine tt 9% sho , ;
pith o provide one channel of a ground hased mictowary ca Mae lat
eo two terminal stations and one oe syne
we sists 0!
wwe col OF more repeater stations Ar the
We erminal several thousand telephone channels and W twe television
a and one or two felevist
ng
eT are frequency multiplexed to
cls) a ae ee plexed to form the base hand signal. The hase band
is allowed to frequency modulate an Intermediate Frequency (IF) carrier 17
gwel ee which is then up converted to the microwave output fre
iy of 4 GHz. This signal is amplified and fed through a directional antenna
wea repeater Station ata distance of about 50 kM
‘che repeater Station, the signal js received on one antenna directed towards the
nating station. The received signal is down converted to IF, amplified and p
sanerted (0 ANEW frequency of 6 GHz, The frequency conversion is done so that
cet utgoing and incoming signals do not interfere with each other in the repeater
ations: This signal is retransmitted towards the receiving terminal stations where
“sdown converted to the IF and demodulated o recover the base band signal. This
jase band signal is then demultiplexed to recover the individual telephone or televi-
gjon channel signals.
presently, microwave communications are widely used for telephone networks. in
proadcast and television systems and in several other communication applications by
ices, railways, etc,
serv
z
Telephone = wy
channels z
a 2 » <
Hed 3 z 3
+ 3 | 2 3
3 2 8
| Frequency al | ai £ .
a em |tE| Microwave jcrowave
| ison T+) ognater || Fanamiter —f\\ —|reeler
|_ terminal
TV channel
| 2
| rf = Telephone
zg & channels
lx ks 2 3
2 8 2 Mees
@——__ & 2 3 t
Microwave & Microwave || FM | @/ FOM
tranomitter |X H+1 receiver [>| demodul- |—*' demutiplex
F2 Fe L ator | terminal
LU —— Z
TV channel
ig. 16.28 A Microwave Relay System | 590
@ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
16.13 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
A satellite is radio repeater, also called transponder,
System, as shown in Fig, 16.29 consists of a transponder
tations, one for transmission and another for —
‘sception. The transponder receives the signal (transponder)
trom the frequency _
Converts, amplifies and retransmits the signal .
towards the receiving earth station,
The satellites are generally classified as
assive and active types. A passive satelite
Simply reflects a signal back to earth and there
jaced in the Sky. A satelite
«da minimum of two earth
" Earth Earth
sau Etin devices on-board to amplify the | G2" station-2
Signal. On the other hand, an active satelite
Teceives, amy
plifies and retransmits the signal
back towards earth,
16.29 Satellite System
: Cc,
Orbital Pattems Once launched, a satel-
lite remains in orbit because the centrifugal force caused by its rotation around the
carth is counter-balanced by the earth's gravitational pull. The closer to earth the
satellite rotates, the greater the gravitational pull, and greater the velocity required
to keep it from being pulled to earth,
Low altitude satellites that orbit close to the earth (150 to 500 km in height) travel
at approximately 28,500 km/hr. At this speed, it takes approximately 90 minutes to
Of Sickest emtte earth. Consequently, the time thatthe satellite is inthe Line
of Sight (LOS) of a particular earth station is 15 minutes or lese per orbit.
High altitude, geosynchronous satellite is a
of 35.786 km from the earth's surface and has
is called an inclined orbit. 100% of the earth’ s surface o
satellite in a polar orbit. The satellite is rotating a fe earth in a longitudinal
orbit while the earth is rotating on a latitudinal axis, As q Tesult, every location on
earth lies within the radiation pattern ofthe satelite twi
ice each day,
16.13.1 ‘Satellite System
A satellite system, consists of three basic sections;
Station), the satellite transponder and the down link (
‘an be covered with a single
ound the
the uplink (transmitting earth
Teceiving earth station). Typical Communication Systems 59!
To satellite
tranaponder
Upconvatr a
sand _| Modulator
pase ty, | (FM PSK. f
om OM F |
—_ sal > |
Fig. 16.30 Block Diagram of Earth Station ‘Transmitter |
m are 6/4 GHz and
frequencies for telecommunication services in a satellite syste!
\d 4 GHz and
14/12 GHz, where 6 GHz and 14 GHz represent uplink frequencies an
12.GHz, the downlink frequencies.
uplink Model Theprimary component of the uplink section ofa satellite system
js the earth station transmitter. Figure 16.30 is the block diagram representation
the earth station transmitter.
‘Atypical earth station transmitter consists of an FF modulator IF-to-RF micro-
wave upconverter, ahigh power amplifier (HPA) and a Band Pass Filter (BPF). The
IF modulator converts the input base band signals to either an FM, or 2 PSK modu-
iated intermediate frequency: “The upconverter translates the IF to an appropriate RF
carrier frequency. The HPA provides adequate output power to propagate the signal
nsponder. More Wi As are Klystrons and Travelling
to the satellite tra
Wave Tube Amplifiers (TWTAS)-
idely used HI
4
‘4 or 12 GHZ
From earth
station 6 of 14 GHz
lock Diagram Of the Satellite sransponder|
[Fig. 16.31
[Fig ,
"592 (© ha Ble and Hemi ON
592 Basic Fleemeul and Flec ones Pnvgncer
pwn in Fig. 16.31 consists ¢
Satelite Transponder satetite transponder shown Fin comity
' Piles vIn noise amplifier (LNA), freq ANshatop
Band Pass Filter (RPP), an input low r Se ei pale
sponder is
hy station receiver ineludes an input Rp
An earth station
and a high power amplifier. The t
Satellite Downlink Model Tipe 11 shows the lock digg
erred tnd aa RFFIo To The inp RPT reatirs the input noise prver toy
a teri earth ae a eae eee een pis
f \n ™ eat converter ica mixer BPE combination which convert the
er. The RE to TE down converter isa
eney
oe ee ee
With cach other, any of the three methods of multiple accessing called Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) ang
Coste Diviston Multiple Access (CDMA) are required
From satelite
transponder
ter
Demodulator roan)
(FM, PSK, or |-» Om
om FOM
or POM)
ae i Weed
mw :
generator i
40112 GHz i
[Fig. 16.32 Block Diagram of a Typical Earth Station Receiver
Communication Satellites USA based International Telecommunication
Satellite Organisation has been launching INTELSATs (International Satellites)
that provide telecommunication services to its 119 member countries throughout
the world, Similarly, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) of India has been
launching INSATs (Indian Satellites) which provide Communication services to the
Indian region. The telecommunication includes not only telephone but also TV, digi-
tal transmission services, telegraphy, telex, video Conferencing, video text, ete.
Advantages Satellite communication offers a number of
sight coverage tor a
fo multipoint com-
clecommunication links which include telephone,
video text, digital transmission
unities in sparsely populated areas like north eastern
states and hilly terrain like Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, etc Finally, the satellite Ce ‘
ee mmmunication Systems B59
” i |, Tescue, o
pases ie, mobile, meteorological, and navig;
With the advent of the g i
COSI
radium and Global Positi 8g stationary satellites and low altitud
= al Positioning System (GPS), th altitude satellites like
village. ), the world has been reduced to globa
Paseicalia oe When communication is done through geostationary satellites.
tue i i maya
“ 0 the large istance involved (approximately 75000 km), there is a lar.
lay of 250 milliseconds between the transmission and reception of a si
satellite once Jaunched and placed in its orbit, the malfunctions in the sai
highly difficult to correct. The initial cost involved is quite large.
16.14 RADAR SYSTEM
Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging.
tem for the detection and location of object The rad
vines, a radar can perform much better
Sensi S i i ent. Sometimes, @ Ta :
oe ov obroueh fog, mist, darkness and is capable of mes
ql 3
Han human eyes. Radar ¢a% see from the poinl arvation, Which human eyes
t from
Suri A tof obse
is) Ci c ic Ss are
ine the distance of the objec rom tne een tremend appli ee
ational
Ibis an electromagnetic sys-
jar helps in extending one's
Jous and its
a oo eh Gee f aircraft or spac’ Sue testitinaisilas sss tess fos tenes SaueEss
eiection. location and tracing of ater! a or ships. .
Seay icine ate chips arn £0 TOcate BUOYS: shorelines and other ships. They are
ee eee The airborne radars are used to detect land vehicles,
also used to Cote ation of airborne radars is for
: ipal applic
ships and other aircraft. 1 the princip .
ae f land storm avoidanc 1. In space, radar is used for remote
mapping of land storm avoidane
reratt
Joweve
and navigatio
sensing purposes.
16.15 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION
The principal motivations behind new communication systems are (i) to improve
transmission fidelity, (ii) to increase the data rate (more information transmitted)
and (iii) to increase the transmission distance between relay stations. Optical fre-
quencies lie in the range 10'* Hz to 10° Hz. The laser information carrying capacity
is greater than the microwave system by a factor of 10°. A fibre can carry approxi-
mately 10 million TV channels.
In optical fibre communication, electromagnetic waves in the optical frequency
region is used as the carrier. The schematic block diagram of an optical fibre Co
mimnication Systems &) 597
1} aes
nation | Electrical
{ioe fi transmit >| Optica
30 ;Lu Source »| Optical titre
‘ cable
: ot
: [
t | Optical ]
: detector | >) Electrical
: receive | Deatination
Optical
_OPlical fibre communication system
<=, 16.34 Schematic Bi m Fi munication System
ig, 16.3 lock Diagr s
fe am Of Optical Fibre Communication Syst
jmamunication system is shown in Fig fe
su inoa suitable lectrcal fom re
or allwed to modulate the light output from nae ee ec
“Sr alightemittng diode (LED) oran injection aa ai
jens launched int the optical fibre which et ciiee (LD ihe eas
fer with the reel ich is the communication channel linking
uae “ iver. At the receiving end, the input optical signal is
fomerted into suitable electrical variations by the optical detector, which may be
either a PIN photodiode or Avalanche photodiode. These electrical variations are
converted to the original message form in the electrical receive section and given to
the destination.
Optical Fibre An optical fibre is a piece of very thin (hair-thin), highly pure
chs, with an outside cladding of glass that is similar, but because of a slightly dit-
ferent chemical composition, has a diferent refractive index. As shown in Fig. 16
the simplest optical fibre consists of a central cylindrical core of constant refractive
index n, and a concentric cladding surrounding the core of slightly lower refractive
index n,.An optic fibre cable is quite similar in appearance the coaxial cable sys-
tem. This type of fibre is called step index fibre, whose core diameter isin the range
of 2 to 200 pm, as the refractive index makes a step change at the core-cladding
imerface, The refractive index profile which gives the variation of refractive index
with distance along the cross section of the fibre may be defined as
m/ m
