SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

4) S&T
➢ Mimas = It is the smallest and innermost of the major regular moons of Saturn + The surface is
icy and heavily cratered + The most striking feature of this small moon is a gigantic crater
known as Herschel. This crater measures 80 miles (130 km) across.
➢ Callisto = An international team of scientists, including from India, has discovered strong
evidence indicating the presence of ozone on Jupiter’s moon, Callisto + Callisto is Jupiter’s
second largest moon after Ganymede + It the third largest moon in our solar system. It’s almost
as big as Mercury + Callisto is on the list of possible places where life could exist in our solar
system beyond Earth.
➢ Cygnus X-1 = black hole system + AstroSat, India’s first, dedicated multi-wavelength
astronomy mission, accomplished the difficult task of measuring the X-ray polarisation of the
Cygnus X-1 black hole system + It is located at a distance that is about 400 times more than the
distance between Earth and Sun.
➢ Tidal Disruption Events (TDEs) = Tidal disruption events (TDEs) are astronomical phenomena
that occur when a star passes close enough to a supermassive black hole and is pulled apart by
the black hole's tidal forces, causing the process of disruption + Such tidally disrupted stellar
debris starts raining down on the black hole and radiation emerges from the innermost region of
accreting debris, which is an indicator of the presence of a TDE + An international team of
astronomers recently conducted multi-wavelength observations of AT 2023clx—the closest to
Earth tidal disruption event (TDE).
➢ eROSITA = eROSITA (extended ROentgen Survey with an Imaging Telescope Array) is a
wide-field X-ray telescope on board the Russian-German "Spectrum-Roentgen-Gamma" (SRG)
observatory + It is a sensitive X-ray telescope capable of delivering deep, sharp images over very
large areas of the sky + Recently, the German eROSITA consortium has released the data for its
share of the first all-sky survey by the soft X-ray imaging telescope.
➢ Iris and Massalia = Asteroids named Iris and Massalia (rich in silicate) were found to emit the
unique wavelength that “unambiguously” indicated the presence of water molecules + Discovery
was made by studying SOFIA's observations. SOFIA was NASA’s airborne astronomical
observatory that was retired in 2022.
➢ PACE Satellite = Plankton, Aerosol, Climate, Ocean Ecosystem (PACE) + by NASA + It was
successfully launched on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rock + placed in sun-synchronous orbit + PACE
aims to study how climate change impacts ocean phytoplankton blooms, which are crucial for
the marine food web. Additionally, it will investigate the influence of airborne particles on cloud
formation and the Earth’s temperature regulation.
➢ UNCOVER Program = part of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) + UNCOVER (Ultra-
deep NIRCam and NIRSpec Observations Before the Epoch of Reionization) aims at addressing

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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

two core JWST science goals: Identifying first-light galaxies during the Dark Ages and Studying
the ultra-low luminosity galaxies that were responsible for reionization.
• James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) = JWST was built in collaboration between NASA,
the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency + 2021 + It is the
largest and most powerful space telescope to date + It orbits around a point in space called
the L2 Lagrange point (a gravitationally stable location in space). It is approximately 1.5
million km beyond Earth’s orbit and is one of the five points in the orbital plane of the Earth-
Sun system + It will focus on four main areas: the first light in the universe, the assembly of
galaxies in the early universe, the birth of stars and protoplanetary systems, and planets
(including the origins of life).
➢ Lunar Surface Electromagnetic Experiment (LuSEE Night) = A NASA-funded experiment
called Lusee-Night (Lunar Surface Electromagnetic Experiment Night) in collaboration with a
few US laboratories is launching an experiment on the far side of the Moon in 2025 + It will
search for ancient radio signals from the cosmic Dark Ages over 14 billion years ago.
➢ TSAT-1A Satellite = India's first private sub-metre resolution earth observation satellite, TSAT-
1A is launched by SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket in the U.S + TSAT-1A is a sub-metre high-
resolution earth observation satellite carried into space as part of the Bandwagon-1 rideshare
mission + Launched by Tata Advanced Systems Ltd (TASL), India, in collaboration with
Satellogic + It will provide high-resolution satellite images, boasting increased collection
capacity, dynamic range, and low-latency delivery through its multispectral and hyperspectral
capabilities + (Bandwagon-1 Mission = It is a rideshare mission organized by SpaceX to launch
multiple small satellites into orbit + The mission is named Bandwagon-1 as it allows smaller
satellite operators to jump on the bandwagon and share a ride to space, reducing costs and
increasing access to space)
➢ PRATUSH Telescope = PRATUSH (Probing ReionizATion of the Universe using Signal from
Hydrogen) is Radio telescope to study the universe from the moon’s far side + PRATUSH is
being built by the Raman Research Institute (RRI) (Bengaluru, Karnataka) in collaboration with
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) + PRATUSH in lunar orbit will have the ideal
observing conditions operating in free space with minimal radio frequency interference (RFI)
and no ionosphere to speak of + It will be able to detect signals from the first stars and galaxies,
reveal the cosmic dawn of the universe + A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio
receiver used to detect radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky. Unlike optical
telescopes, radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night.
➢ Pushpak or RLV LEX 02 = Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully
conducted the Pushpak Reusable Landing Vehicle (RLV) LEX 02 landing experiment +
Reusable Launch Vehicle is essentially a space plane with a low lift to drag ratio requiring an
approach at high glide angles that necessitates a landing at high velocities of 350 kmph + It
utilises several indigenous systems. Localised navigation systems based on pseudolite systems,
instrumentation, and sensor systems, etc were developed by ISRO.
➢ Cartosat-2 = Recently, ISRO confirmed successful de-orbiting and atmospheric re-entry of
Cartosat-2 at its end-of-life + Launched in 2007 + Placed in Sun-synchronous orbit + Advanced
remote sensing satellite capable of providing scene-specific spot imagery.
➢ Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport = New Spaceport @ Tamil Nadu + It will be second after the
space agency’s existing Satish Dhawan Space Centre, founded in Andhra Pradesh’s Sriharikota
in 1971, with two launch pads + It will focus on the launch of Small Satellite Launch Vehicles
(SSLVs) on a commercial basis + It would have the capacity to launch 24 satellites per year
using a mobile launch structure.
➢ Kalam-250 = Recently, Skyroot Aerospace, the leading space-tech company, has successfully
test-fired the Kalam-250 at the propulsion testbed of the Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) + It is a stage-2 of Vikram-1 space launch vehicle + t is a high-strength carbon composite
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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

rocket motor, which uses solid fuel and a high-performance Ethylene-Propylene-Diene

terpolymers (EPDM) thermal protection system (TPS) + The stage includes a carbon ablative
flex nozzle along with high-precision electro-mechanical actuators for thrust vector control of the
vehicle, aiding in achieving the desired trajectory.
• Vikram-1 Rocket = It is named after the father of India’s space programme, Vikram
Sarabhai and is a multi-stage launch vehicle with a capacity to place around 300 kg of
payloads in low-earth orbit + It has been built by Hyderabad-based Skyroot Aerospace + It is
an all-carbon-fibre-bodied rocket that can place multiple satellites into orbit. Being a solid-
fuel rocket and using relatively simpler technologies would mean that launching this vehicle
would require minimal infrastructure and that the rocket could be assembled and launched
within 24 hours from any site.
➢ India’s first Hypervelocity Expansion Tunnel Test Facility = The Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur (IIT-K) has successfully established and tested India’s first Hypervelocity
Expansion Tunnel Test Facility recently + It was indigenously designed and developed over
three years with funding and support from the Aeronautical Research and Development Board
(ARDB), the Department of Science and Technology (DST), and IIT Kanpur + It is capable of
generating flight speeds between 3-10 km/s, simulating the hypersonic conditions encountered
during the atmospheric entry of vehicles, asteroid entry, scramjet flights, and ballistic missiles.
➢ Pars-I Remote Sensing Satellite = Iran + ran announced the successful launch of its
domestically manufactured ‘Pars-I’ remote sensing satellite into orbit using a Russian Soyuz-
2.1b rocket.
➢ Devin AI = It is the world’s first AI software engineer + Launched by US-based company called
Cognition + The AI agent comes with some advanced capabilities in software development,
including coding, debugging, problem-solving, etc. It uses machine learning algorithms to
constantly learn and improve its performance and adapt according to new challenges.
➢ Genie AI Model = Recently, Google DeepMind has just introduced Genie, a new model that can
generate interactive video games from just a text or image prompt + It is a foundation world
model that is trained on videos sourced from the Internet. The model can “generate an endless
variety of playable (action-controllable) worlds from synthetic images, photographs, and even
sketches.”
➢ Garbhini-GA2 = It is the first India-specific artificial intelligence (AI) model to precisely
determine the age of a foetus in a pregnant woman in the second and third trimesters + It has
been designed by researchers at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras and the Translational
Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI), Faridabad + It is part of an interdisciplinary
group for advanced research on birth outcomes – the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) India
initiative (GARBH-Ini) programme.
➢ PQ3 Protocol = by Apple company + a post-quantum cryptographic protocol, to encrypt
conversations in iMessage + The company called it the “first messaging protocol to reach Level
3 security” and claimed it can defend “highly sophisticated quantum attacks.”
➢ Hanooman = BharatGPT group unveils ‘Hanooman’ + It is a series of large language models
(LLMs) that can respond in 11 Indian languages like Hindi, Tamil, and Marathi, with plans to
expand to more than 20 languages + It is a multimodal AI tool, which can generate text, speech,
videos and more in multiple Indian languages + (BharatGPT Ecosystem = It is a research
consortium led by IIT Bombay with seven other IITs. It is backed by the Department of Science
and Technology, SML and Reliance Jio.)
➢ Inflection 2.5 = Recently, Inflection AI company launched its latest LLM, Inflection 2.5, an
upgrade to its model that powers its friendly chatbot Pi personal assistant + It is an “upgraded in-
house model that is competitive with all the world’s leading LLMs + The newly upgraded Large
Language Model comes with its signature personality and uniquely empathetic fine-tuning.

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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

➢ Project GR00T = Recently, AI chip leader Nvidia announced Project GR00T which promises to
revolutionise the evolution of humanoid robots + The project GR00T stands for Generalist Robot
00 Technology + It is a multimodal AI system that acts as the mind for humanoid robots,
allowing them to learn new skills and interact with the real world + The project aims to empower
humanoid robots with human-like understanding and movement using Artificial Intelligence
(AI).
➢ Krutrim = Ola has recently launched the Krutrim, which is a large language model (LLM)
trained specifically for Indian languages + Krutrim can understand 22 Indian languages and
generate content in about 10 + Large Language Model (LLM) are deep learning algorithms that
can recognize, summarize, translate, predict, and generate content using very large datasets.
They are also referred to as neural networks (NNs), which are computing systems inspired by the
human brain. Some of the famous LLMs are Open AI’s ChatGPT, Google’s Gemini, etc.
➢ Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD) = Recently, Department of Telecom has
asked telecom operators to deactivate USSD-based call forwarding with effect from April 15 +
DoT said that it has come to its notice that USSD based call forwarding facility, most commonly
known *401# services for unconditional call forwarding services, is being misused for some
unwarranted activities + USSD is a communications protocol used in Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM) networks for sending short text messages + It is an instant messaging
service and messages are not stored on the operator side or on the subscriber’s device + It is used
to display balance deduction in mobile phones where a message pops-up on the device screen
after a call or outgoing SMS. It is also used for checking IMEI numbers of mobiles.
➢ Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) = It is a system that determines functional intent - the desire
to change, move, control, or interact with something in our environment - directly from brain
activity + BCIs allow controlling an application or a device using only our mind + Neuralink, an
Elon Musk company has successfully installed a wireless brain-computer interface (BCI) implant
in a human patient. In 2023, Neuralink was granted permission by the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) for human trials. It aims to build a next-generation brain implant with at
least 100 times more brain connections than devices currently approved by FDA.
➢ Island On The Air (IOTA) Programme = It is a pioneering programme that connects radio
amateurs worldwide with stations on islands + It was established in 1964 + It is managed by
IOTA Ltd in collaboration with the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), categorising islands
into groups for communication.
• Amateur Radio (HAM Radio) = Amateur radio is a popular hobby involving the use of
radio frequency spectrum for non-commercial purposes + HAM radio operators
communicate using designated radio frequencies, engaging in diverse activities like contests,
emergency communication support etc + In India, as per the Indian Wireless Telegraphs
(Amateur Service) Amendment Rules, 1984, Any citizen of India who is above 12 years of
age can become a ham by qualifying in the Amateurs Station Operators’ examination (ASO)
and obtaining a valid Amateur wireless telegraph station licence.
➢ Wafer or Wafering = Related to Semi-Conductor Industry + Wafer is a circular piece of
semiconductor on which an array (typically 300-400) of chips are printed. This is then diced to
create individual chips. A larger wafer size allows more chips to be printed on a single wafer
which makes chip production faster and cheaper + Wafer sizes used in the industry have
constantly been increasing. The current size if the wafer is 300mm which is approximately 12
inches. Efforts are ongoing to move to a 450mm wafer size + While moving to a larger wafer
size has its technical challenges and capital expenses, it has proven to be economical in the long
run.
➢ Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) = Formulated by Subhash Palekar in India on the basis of
four essential elements namely Beejamrit, Jeevamrit, Acchadana, and Waaphasa + It was first practiced
by a Japanese farmer and philosopher, Masanobu Fukuoka + Other important principles in of ZBNF
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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

include: Intercropping, Contours and bunds, Revival of Local species of earthworms through increased
organic matter, Use of Dung of indigenous cow etc + ZBNF promotes the usage of natural farming
techniques in which farming is done without use of chemicals and without use of credit or spending
any money on purchased inputs + Currently eleven states practice ZBNF. States like Andhra Pradesh
(AP) has adopted ZBNF over 1 lakh hectares of land and aims to convert its entire agriculture land pool
(80 lakh hectares) under ZBNF by 2027.
➢ Punnett Squares = They are commonly used in biology to understand inheritance patterns +
The Punnett Square is named after British geneticist Reginald Punnett + Imagine a grid, usually
with four squares. Along the top and side of the grid, you list the possible genetic traits of one
parent on one side and the other parent on the other side. Then, you fill in the squares by
combining the traits from each parent + Each square effectively represents a possible
combination of traits that their offspring could inherit + A Punnett Square is a useful tool that
helps predict the variations and probabilities resulting from cross-breeding.
➢ Junk DNA = In genetics, the term junk DNA refers to regions of DNA that are noncoding + The
term “junk DNA” was first used in the 1960s, but was formalized by Susumu Ohno in 1972. The
amount of mutation occurring as a result of deleterious mutations set a limit for the amount of
functional loci that could be expected when a normal mutation rate was considered.
➢ Sodium Cyanide (NaCN) = It appears as a white crystalline solid, lump solid or powder + It contains
equal numbers of sodium cations and cyanide anions + It is used as an insecticide, a test reagent for the
function of chemoreceptors, and in many industrial processes + It is also used in the extraction of gold
and silver from their respective ores, in electroplating and the heat treatment of metals, and in
manufacturing insecticides, dyes, pigments, and bulk drugs, etc + Recently, The Directorate General of
Trade Remedies (DGTR) has recommended the imposition of anti-dumping duty on sodium cyanide
(NaCN) imported from China, the European Union, Japan and Korea.
➢ Nano DAP = It is a unique liquid fertilizer product that contains nanoparticles of Diammonium
Phosphate (DAP) + It is a source of nitrogen and phosphorus + Unlike conventional DAP, which
comes in granular form, IFFCO’s Nano DAP is in liquid form + It has an advantage in terms of
surface area to volume, as its particle size is less than 100 Nanometre (nm) + Nano DAP has
advantages like higher crop yield, quality food, reduction in chemical fertiliser usage and is
environment friendly + Please Note: DAP, or di-ammonium phosphate, is the second most
commonly used fertiliser in India after urea. It is high in phosphorus (P) that stimulates root
establishment and development — without which plants cannot grow to their normal size, or will
take too long to mature.
➢ Geroscience = It refers to the interdisciplinary field focused on understanding the biological
mechanisms of aging and age-related diseases + It involves studying various factors, including
DNA methylation, enzyme activity (such as the gerozyme (aging-associated enzyme), socio-
economic influences, and lifestyle interventions like nutrition, exercise, and music therapy +
DNA Methylation is a process in which methyl groups (CH3) are added to the DNA molecule. It
plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression and maintaining genome stability + Recently,
Researchers have developed a blood test to measure ageing pace by studying DNA methylation.
This blood test investigates how an enzyme adds methyl groups to DNA in older adults,
revealing a link between this process and aging.
➢ Parthenogenesis = It is an asexual reproduction in which a female can produce an embryo
without fertilizing an egg with sperm + Recently, Scientists have genetically modified a fruit fly
to reproduce asexually through Parthenogenesis.
➢ Micellar Water = Micellar water products contain something called micelles – clusters of
molecules that are very effective at removing oily substances + The micelles in micellar water
are formed by special molecules known as surfactants + It is a commonly used skin care product
that helps remove impurities and makeup from your skin. It’s a very gentle solution that contains
a very mild detergent.
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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

➢ Gold Nanoparticles = Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are small gold particles with a diameter of 1
to 100 nm + Once dispersed in water, AuNPs are also known as colloidal gold + These are also
called as 'gold bhasma,' + Spherical AuNPs possess useful attributes such as size- and shape-
related optoelectronic properties, large surface-to-volume ratio, excellent biocompatibility, and
low toxicity + Applications: Gold nanoparticles are designed for use as conductors, Near-IR
absorbing gold nanoparticles produce heat when excited by light at wavelengths from 700 to 800
nm, used in a variety of sensors, also used to detect biomarkers in the diagnosis of heart diseases,
cancers, and infectious agents.
➢ Asbestos = Asbestos is a generic term for a group of six silicate minerals with similar but
distinct properties + Properties: These are resistant to heat and corrosion; It is non-flammable
even at very high temperatures; It is extremely flexible and durable; It has good tensile strength;
It has low heat conductivity and high resistance to electricity + It was once widely used in
construction materials, insulation and consumer goods + India's asbestos requirement is met
through imports from Russia, Kazakhstan, Brazil and China + According to the World Health
Organization, all varieties of asbestos are associated with conditions such as lung cancer,
mesothelioma, laryngeal cancer, ovarian cancer and asbestosis, a lung fibrosis + If products
containing asbestos are disturbed, tiny asbestos fibers are released into the air. When asbestos
fibers are breathed in, they may get trapped in the lungs and remain there for a long time + In
India, the mining of asbestos has been stopped, but chrysotile (a type of asbestos) is still
imported and processed in large quantities. Chrysotile is mainly used for asbestos-cement
roofing, and the manufacturers claim its use to be safe. [Chrysotile is Important for Prelims]
➢ Red Mud = byproduct of aluminium production + It contains heavy metals such as arsenic, lead,
cadmium, chromium, vanadium and mercury + It’s high alkalinity makes it extremely corrosive
and damaging to soil and life forms + Recently, Researchers from IIT Madras developed a
method for treating bauxite residue (known as Red Mud) using phosphoric acid to extract
valuable materials from it. Some such materials like ceramic have dielectric and optical
properties, with potential applications in electronic components and energy storage.
➢ Dry Ice = It is common name for solid carbon dioxide (CO2) + It gets this name because it does
not melt into a liquid when heated; instead, it changes directly into a gas (a process known as
sublimation) + It is manufactured by compressing and cooling gaseous CO2 + It is considered
lethal for human health + Applications: Hospitals & Clinics, Food Processing & Distribution,
Industrial Cleaning and Technical Processes and Theatrical and Special Effects.
➢ Forever Chemicals = PFAS (Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances), also known as the
Forever Chemicals, are a large chemical family of over 4,700 highly persistent man-made
chemicals + These were first developed in the 1940s and are now found in a variety of consumer
products, including nonstick pans, water-resistant textiles, and fire suppression foams, due to
their ability to repel both grease and water + PFAS are the most persistent synthetic chemicals to
date. They hardly degrade in the natural environment and have been found in the blood of people
and animals all over the world, and are present at low levels in a variety of food products.
➢ MXenes = MXenes, family of 2D transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides, first
discovered in 2011, are ceramics that comprise one of the largest families of two-dimensional
(2D) materials + Unlike most 2D ceramics, MXenes have inherently good conductivity and
excellent volumetric capacitance because they are molecular sheets made from the carbides and
nitrides of transition metals like titanium + Among various types of MXenes, titanium carbide
(Ti3C2Tx) is the most widely used + Some potential applications of MXenes include energy
storage (such as lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors) due to their high conductivity and
large surface area, electromagnetic interference shielding, catalysis, sensors, and water
purification, among others.
➢ MnBi2S4 = Multiferroic material + Researchers have identified a unique mechanism of electric
polarisation via magnetic ordering in a novel mineral named “MnBi2S4”, which can be useful
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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

for energy-efficient data storage + It is also known as mineral graţianite and belongs to the
ternary manganese chalcogenide family + Magnetoelectric multiferroics are a special class of
materials popular among the research fraternity for their rarity and unique properties.
Interestingly, these materials can exhibit both magnetism and ferroelectricity simultaneously.
➢ Rhodamine-B = It is a water-soluble chemical compound + While it appears green in powder
form, it turns vivid fluorescent pink when it comes in contact with water + It is a chemical
commonly used for dyeing in the textile, paper, leather, and paint industries as a colouring agent
that helps in attaining the red and pink spectrum + As per the Food Safety Standards Act, 2006,
preparation, packaging, importing, selling and serving food items with Rhodamine-B in wedding
ceremonies and other public events is a punishable offence + It is an industrial dye which is not
allowed in food anywhere in the world as it is toxic.
➢ Radon Gas = It is a radioactive gas that forms naturally when uranium, thorium, or radium,
which are radioactive metals, break down in rocks, soil, and groundwater + It is an inert,
colourless, and odourless gas + Radon gas usually exists at very low levels outdoors, but the gas
can accumulate in areas without adequate ventilation, such as underground mines + Radon can
get into homes and buildings through small cracks or holes and build up in the air + As we
breathe, these particles are deposited on the cells lining the airways, where they can damage
DNA and potentially cause lung cancer. It is the second-most important cause of lung cancer
after smoking.
➢ Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) = Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is a clear, colourless, nontoxic
liquid that forms when natural gas is cooled to the liquid state, at about -162 degrees Celsius for
shipping and storage + LNG is a compressed fossil fuel, which is constituted almost wholly of
methane + Recently, NITI Aayog launched LNG as a Transportation Fuel in Medium and Heavy
Commercial Vehicle (M&HCV).
➢ Methane = Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon, consisting of one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms (CH4) + It is flammable and is used as a fuel worldwide + Methane is a
powerful greenhouse gas (GHG), which has an atmospheric lifetime of around a decade and
affects the climate for hundreds of years + The common sources of methane are oil and natural
gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining and wastes + It is the second largest contributor
to climate change after carbon dioxide + The majority of human-driven methane emissions come
from three main sectors: Agriculture (40%), Fossil fuels (35%); Solid waste and wastewater
(20%).
• Methane Emissions Monitoring = Recently, ISRO scientists released a first-of-its-kind
comprehensive analysis paper on the methane emissions over multiple Indian locations using
satellite data + The study employed data from NASA’s Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source
Investigation (EMIT) and European Space Agency’s Sentinel-5P TROPOMI + The EMIT
instrument measures surface mineralogy, targeting the Earth's arid dust source regions + The
TROPOMI instrument is a space-borne, nadir-viewing, imaging spectrometer covering
wavelength bands between the ultraviolet and the shortwave infrared.
➢ Uranium-to-Lead Ratio Analysis = Uranium-lead dating, or U-Pb dating, is a radiometric
technique that uses the ratio of uranium isotopes to lead isotopes to determine the age of earth
materials + The ratio of uranium to lead is used to determine the rate at which uranium decays
into lead, which is then used to determine the age of a rock.
➢ Higgs Boson Particles = Higgs boson is fundamental force-carrying particle of Higgs field,
which is responsible for granting fundamental particles their mass + This field was first proposed
by Peter Higgs, for whom the particle is named + The particle was finally discovered in 2012, by
researchers at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the most powerful particle accelerator in the
world, located at the European particle physics laboratory CERN, Switzerland + It is one of the
17 elementary particles that make up the Standard Model of particle physics + Higgs boson plays
such a fundamental role in subatomic physics that it is sometimes referred to as the "God
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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

particle." + it is 130 times more massive than a proton + It is chargeless with zero spin + It is the
only elementary particle with no spin + Recently, Nobel prize-winning British physicist Peter
Higgs, who proposed the existence of a mass-giving particle, which became known as the Higgs
boson or "God particle", has died aged 94.
• Boson = A boson is a "force carrier" particle that comes into play when particles interact
with each other, with a boson exchanged during this interaction + A boson can also be
described as a wave in a field. So, a photon is a particle and a wave that arises from an
excited electromagnetic field, and the Higgs boson is the particle or "quantized
manifestation" that arises from the Higgs field when excited + That field generates mass via
its interaction with other particles, and the mechanism carried by the Higgs boson called the
Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism.
➢ Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) = QKD is a technique that allows for secure distribution of
keys to be used for encrypting and decrypting messages + It enables two parties to produce a
shared random secret key known only to them, which can be used to encrypt and decrypt
messages. Any intervention or tampering in quantum channel gets detected and key distribution
can be aborted + QKD can be deployed through different mediums viz. optical fibre, free space
as well as satellite to establish secure communication network + Recently, In a first for India, C-
DOT and PRL demonstrated integration of C-DOT’s indigenous Fibre-based Quantum Key
Distribution (QKD) system with PRL’s Free Space QKD + Centre for Development of
Telematics (C-DOT) is telecom Research and Development arm of Department of
Telecommunications + Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) is a research institute under
Department of Space.
➢ Neutrinos = Also known as Ghost Particles + They are fundamental particles (but not part of the
atom), like electrons, so they can’t be broken down into smaller parts + Very tiny mass, has no
charge and half spin + Travel at almost the speed of light and in straight lines from their source +
Rarely interact with other matter (therefore also referred to as ghost particle) + Outnumber all the
atoms in the universe + Only affected by gravity and the weak force + 3 types – electron
neutrino, tau neutrino and muon neutrino. They can change from one type to another as they
travel. This process is called neutrino oscillation + Neutrinos are emitted from our galaxy, stars
like Sun, and on Earth, neutrinos are produced when unstable atoms decay, which happens in the
planet’s core and nuclear reactor + But not all neutrinos are the same. They come in different
types and can be thought of in terms of flavors, masses, and energies + Earloer, For the first
time, scientists have seen neutrinos originating from the central disk of the Milky Way. Data was
collected by the IceCube Neutrino Observatory.
• Ice Cube Observatory = It is a cubic-kilometre neutrino particle detector buried deep
beneath the ice surface (~2500 metres) + Aim is to observe cosmic rays that interact with the
Earth’s atmosphere and study the nature of dark matter and the properties of the neutrino +
Location: Near the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica + Neutrinos are not
observed directly, but through their interaction with the other matter. When neutrinos interact
with molecules in the ice, they produce electrically charged secondary particles traveling at
high speeds (faster than light in the ice). It leads to emission of blue light (Cherenkov light) +
The observatory was built on the South Pole as it needs clear, pure, and stable ice to make its
discoveries and be shielded from radiation at the Earth’s surface + It is the first gigaton
neutrino detector ever built + The astrophysical neutrinos were first detected by the
observatory in 2013.
• Indian Neutrino Observatory (INO) = It is aimed at building underground laboratory for
studying neutrinos + Jointly funded by Department of Atomic Energy and the Department of
Science and Technology + Location: Bodi West hills of Theni District of Tamil Nadu.

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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

• TRIDENT = China’s TRIDENT (Tropical Deep-sea Neutrino Telescope): It is new neutrino

detector being built in the South China Sea, near the equator + It will feature improved
sensitivity and help in clearing the mystery around cosmic rays and their origins.
➢ Anti-hydrogen Experiment: Gravity, Interferometry, Spectroscopy (AEgIS) = It is an
experiment approved by CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) with the goal of
studying antihydrogen physics + The primary goal of AEgIS is the direct measurement of the
Earth's gravitational acceleration, g, on antihydrogen + AEgIS is a collaboration of physicists
from a number of countries in Europe and from India + In a first, an international team of
physicists from the Anti-hydrogen Experiment: Gravity, Interferometry, Spectroscopy (AEgIS)
collaboration has achieved a breakthrough by demonstrating the laser cooling of Positronium.
• Antimatter = Antimatter is the same as ordinary matter except that it has the opposite
electric charge. It is also known as “mirror” matter + The antimatter particles corresponding
to electrons, protons, and neutrons are called positrons, antiprotons, and antineutrons;
collectively they are referred to as antiparticles + Matter and antimatter cannot coexist at
close range for more than a small fraction of a second because they collide with and
annihilate each other + These anti-particles can combine to form anti-atoms and, in principle,
could even form antimatter regions of our universe + Antimatter was created along with
matter after the Big Bang + Humans have created antimatter particles using ultra-high-speed
collisions at huge particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider, which is located
outside Geneva and operated by CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research).
There are also naturally produced antiparticles made sporadically throughout the universe.
• Positronium = Positronium is a short-lived hydrogen-like atom, which consists of an
electron and its antimatter equivalent, a positron (rather than an electron and a proton) + Due
to its very short life, it annihilates with a half-life of 142 nano-seconds + This hydrogen-like
system is a great contender for attempting laser cooling and thereby performing tests of
fundamental theories in physics + Positronium can generate huge amounts of energy + It can
shed light on 'antimatter' which existed at the beginning of the Universe.
➢ Proton Improvement Plan (PIP-II) Project = Fermilab’s Proton Improvement Plan (PIP) is a
project aimed at enhancing the capabilities of Fermilab’s particle accelerators, particularly the
proton beamlines + PIP seeks to improve the intensity, quality, and reliability of the proton
beams produced at Fermilab, enabling a wide range of scientific experiments and research,
including studies on neutrinos and other fundamental particles + The Proton Improvement Plan
II (PIP-II) marks the first particle accelerator in the U.S. constructed with substantial
contributions from global partners + Collaborating institutions from India (through the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)), France, Italy, Poland, and the UK are involved + PIP-II’s
primary purpose is to build a superconducting linear accelerator at Fermilab and generate the
world’s most high-energy neutrino beam for the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment
(DUNE) at the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF).
➢ GRAPES-3 Experiment = Gamma Ray Astronomy PeV EnergieS phase-3 (GRAPES-3) is
designed to study cosmic rays with an array of air shower detectors and a large area muon
detector + It is located in Ooty, India + It aims to probe the acceleration of cosmic rays in
different astrophysical settings.
➢ Stratospheric Aerosol Intervention (SAI) = Stratospheric Aerosol Injection, is a
geoengineering or climate engineering approach that uses tiny reflective particles or aerosols to
reflect sunlight into space in order to cool the planet and reverse or stop global warming + It
aims to mimic the cooling effects of volcanic eruptions by injecting Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
directly into the stratosphere, where it forms sunlight-reflecting sulphate aerosols + It is believed
that as more radiation is scattered in the stratosphere by aerosols, less would be absorbed by the
troposphere, the lower level of the atmosphere where weather primarily occurs + The production

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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

of such an artificial aerosol layer could be accomplished by shooting Sulphur particles into the
stratosphere with cannons or dispersing them from balloons or other aircraft.
➢ Maglev = Maglev is a system in which the vehicle runs levitated from the guideway
(corresponding to the rail tracks of conventional railways) + In Maglev, superconducting
magnets suspend the train above a U-shaped concrete guideway + Like ordinary magnets, these
magnets repel one another when matching poles face each other + Produce no emissions as they
lack engine + No friction between wheels and rail enables higher speeds + Any two trains
travelling the same route cannot catch up and crash into one another.
➢ C- bot = Goa-based National Institute of Oceanography has launched an autonomous underwater
vehicle called Cbot + C- bot is a robot with advanced features for increased surveillance over
coral reefs + It can travel to a depth of 200 metres underwater + It will help Indian Navy perform
bathymetry studies (mapping of sea floor) to help plot navigation channels.
➢ E-Ink Display = E-Ink also known as electrophoretic ink is a specific type of E Paper display +
E Paper is a broad term for any display designed to mimic the appearance of real paper + It
utilizes the same ink used in the printing industry today and mimics the appearance of ordinary
ink on paper + Originally, E-Ink was only available in monochrome, but colour E-Ink became
available in 2010 + The screens work using tiny microcapsules filled with positively charged
white particles and negatively charged black ones suspended in fluid inside the display + It was
originally developed in the 1990s at MIT and is now owned by E Ink Corporation +
Applications: In cell phones, signs, and e-readers like the Amazon Kindle + Working of other
display technologies.
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): An LCD consists of a layer of liquid crystals sandwiched
between two transparent electrodes. When an electric current is applied, the crystals align to
control the amount of light passing through them, creating the image you see on the screen.
• Light-emitting diode (LED): It is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric
current is passed through it.
• Organic LED (OLED): OLED is a flat light emitting technology, made by placing a series
of organic thin films between two conductors. An OLED display follows the same principle
as a LED display, but operates in a slightly different manner + A LED panel requires a
dedicated backlighting setup to produce light. However, an OLED panel can produce its own
light.
➢ Hologram Technology = Holograms are 3D images created by the process of holography using
laser beams, the properties of interference and diffraction, light intensity recording, and
illumination of the recording + A hologram is just a projection that seems realistic. The 3D
hologram can be viewed from all sides + The Hungarian-British physicist Dennis Gabor was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1971 “for his invention and development of the
holographic method”.
➢ Project Extreme Light Infrastructure (ELI) = ELI is an international laser user facility open
to the global scientific community, representing the first ESFRI Landmark in newer EU Member
States + The laser at the centre is operated by French company Thales, using Nobel prize-
winning inventions + Recently, the world’s most powerful laser was activated as part of the
European Union’s Infrastructure ELI project, aiming for significant advances across various
sectors including health and space + France's Gerard Mourou and Donna Strickland of Canada
won the 2018 Nobel Physics Prize for harnessing the power of lasers for advanced precision
instruments + Possible applications: Treating nuclear waste by reducing the duration of its
radioactivity, or cleaning up the debris accumulating out in space.
➢ India's First Under-River Metro Tunnel = Inaugurated in Kolkata + It is a part of Kolkata
Metro Corridor + It passes under the Hooghly River + The stretch also has the deepest metro
station in the country, the Howrah Maidan station, at 32 metres below ground level.

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 SAMADHAAN 2024 (Part-2) | February'24 to April'24

➢ Atmospheric Research Testbed in Central India (ART-CI) = Inaugurated at Madhya

Pradesh(MP) + It is established by Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), MoES for
better understanding on processes governing monsoon convection + Atmospheric Research
Testbed will be setup in 2 phases, in 1st phase ART is set up in Central India, and in 2nd phase
another ART would set up in the northeast/eastern part of the country to study severe
thunderstorm processes + It has nearly 25 high-end instruments like the aethalometer for aerosol
studies, cloud condensation nuclei counter, laser ceilometer to measure cloud sizes, micro rain
radar to calculate raindrop size and its distribution have been installed. A Ka-band cloud radar
and a C-band doppler weather radar will also help track the movement of rain-bearing systems
over this zone.
➢ Homosep Atom = India's first septic tank/manhole cleaning robot + developed by a startup
Solinas.
➢ Ethanol 100 = Ethanol 100 fuel was launched by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas + A
cleaner and greener alternative to gasoline + It is a blend of 92 to 94 percent ethanol, 4 to 5
percent motor spirit to provide colour to flame and 1.5 percent Co-solvent higher saturated
alcohol + It produces lower emissions of greenhouse gases, high octane rating etc.
➢ Kalpakkam Atomic Power Station = Tamil Nadu + nation’s indigenously developed
Demonstration Fast Reactor Fuel Reprocessing Plant (DFRP) + Capacity: 500 MW + It was
designed by the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research and constructed by BHAVINI + The
plant will reprocess spent fuel from the Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) at the Kalpakkam Atomic
power station + A Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) is a type of nuclear reactor that uses fast neutrons
to cause the fission of uranium-238 (unlike conventional nuclear reactors that use slow
neutrons). The term “breeder” refers to the ability of these reactors to produce more fissile
material than they consume + FBR is the key to India’s three-stage nuclear power programme. It
is the only of its kind in the world and is capable of reprocessing both carbide and oxide fuels
discharged from the fast reactors.
• Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) = It is a machine that produces more nuclear fuel than it
consumes + The Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) will initially use the Uranium-Plutonium Mixed
Oxide (MOX) fuel + The Uranium-238 “blanket” surrounding the fuel core will undergo
nuclear transmutation to produce more fuel, thus earning the name ‘Breeder’ + The use of
Throium-232, which in itself is not a fissile material, as a blanket is also envisaged in this
stage + By transmutation, Thorium will create fissile Uranium-233 which will be used as fuel
in the third stage.
• Core Loading = Recently commenced at country’s first indigenous Fast Breeder Reactor
(FBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu + core loading is the process of loading nuclear fuel
assemblies into the reactor core + The core loading of PFBR is developed by BHAVINI
(Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited) + The core consists of control sub-assemblies,
blanket sub-assemblies and fuel sub-assemblies. Loading of the core with its components
would generate nuclear power + Once it becomes operational, India will be only the second
country after Russia to have a commercial operating fast breeder reactor.
• BHAVINI = Short for Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited, BHAVINI was
established in 2003 to build and operate the PFBR.

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