COMPUTER NETWORKS

COMPUTER NETWORK
SUBJECT CODE: SZ24A, SU26A, TAG6C

SYLLABUS
UNIT – I

Introduction – Network Hardware – Software – Reference Models – OSI and TCP/IP Models – Example Networks:
Internet, ATM, Ethernet and Wireless LANs – Physical Layer – Theoretical Basis for Data Communication – Guided
Transmission Media.

UNIT – II

Wireless Transmission – Communication Satellites – Telephone System: Structure, Local Loop, Trunks and
Multiplexing and Switching. Data Link Layer: Design Issues – Error Detection and Correction.

UNIT – III

Elementary Data Link Protocols – Sliding Window Protocols – Data Link Layer in the Internet – Medium Access
Layer – Channel Allocation Problem – Multiple Access Protocols – Bluetooth.

UNIT – IV

Network Layer – Design Issues – Routing Algorithms – Congestion Control Algorithms – IP Protocol – IP Addresses
– Internet Control Protocols.

UNIT – V

Transport Layer – Services – Connection Management – Addressing, Establishing and Releasing a Connection –
Simple Transport Protocol – Internet Transport Protocols (ITP) – Network Security: Cryptography.
 UNIT – 1

Introduction – Network Hardware - Software - Reference Models - OSI and TCP/IP Models – Example Networks:
Internet, ATM, Ethernet and Wireless LANs - Physical Layer - Theoretical Basis for Data Communication - Guided
Transmission Media.

INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS A COMPUTER NETWORK?

A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that exchange data and resources with
each other. A network connection between these devices can be established using cable or wireless media. Once a
connection is established, communication protocols -- such as TCP/IP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Hypertext
Transfer Protocol -- are used to exchange data between the networked devices.

The first example of a computer network was the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. This packet-switched
network was created in the late 1960s by ARPA, a U.S. Department of Defense agency.

A computer network can be as small as two laptops connected through an Ethernet cable or as complex as the internet,
which is a global system of computer networks.

Devices attached to a computer network use IP address that are resolved into hostnames through a domain name
system server to communicate with each other over the internet and on other computer networks. A variety of
protocols and algorithms are also used to specify the transmission of data among endpoints.

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORK:

(1) Business Applications:
(a) Resource Sharing: Enables sharing of programs, equipment (e.g., printers), and data among networked
users, reducing costs and improving efficiency.
(b) Client-Server Model: Utilizes powerful servers to store data and simpler client machines for accessing
data remotely.

A network with two clients and one server

The client-server model involves requests and replies

(c) Electronic Business: Streamlines interactions with suppliers and customers, enabling real-time order
placements and reducing inventory needs.
(d) E-Commerce: Expands business opportunities by allowing companies to sell products and services
online, catering to consumer preferences for home shopping.
(2) Home Applications:
(a) Remote Information Access: Includes browsing the web, accessing online newspapers, and digital
libraries.
(b) Person-to-Person Communication: E-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, and newsgroups enable
communication with others globally.
(c) Peer-to-Peer Communication: Allows direct file sharing among users, exemplified by services like
Napster, and legal applications such as sharing public domain content.

In a peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers

(d) E-Commerce: Home shopping, online banking, and auctions (e.g., eBay) provide convenience and new
ways for consumers to interact with businesses.

Some forms of e-commerce

(e) Interactive Entertainment: Involves video on demand, online gaming, and interactive TV, enhancing
home entertainment experiences.

(3) Mobile Users:

(a) Portable Office: Allows users to send/receive calls, faxes, and e-mails, surf the web, and access remote
files from anywhere.
(b) Military Applications: Provides reliable communication in diverse and often hostile environments.
(c) Fixed Wireless Networks: Used in situations where installing cabling is impractical, such as in older
buildings.
(d) Mobile Wireless Applications: Ranges from portable offices to inventory management and real-time
billing in car rentals.

(4) Social Issues:

(a) Newsgroups and Bulletin Boards: Facilitates exchange of messages on various topics, including
sensitive subjects like politics, religion, and sex.
(b) Content Concerns: Potential for offensive or politically incorrect content being shared.
(c) Privacy and Security: The rise of networking introduces concerns about data privacy, unauthorized
access, and cybercrime.
(d) Impact on Society: Networking technologies can influence social interactions, work habits, and access to
information, necessitating discussions on their broader societal implications.
 NETWORK HARDWARE

NETWORK HARDWARE:

Network hardware is a set of physical or network devices that are essential for interaction and communication
between hardware units operational on a computer network. These are dedicated hardware components that connect to
each other and enable a network to function effectively and efficiently.

Network hardware is a crucial aspect of network design, focusing on the physical devices that facilitate the transfer of
data between different computers and devices within a network. Two main dimensions of network hardware are
transmission technology and scale. Here’s a closer look at the types of transmission technology:

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY:

1. Broadcast Links:
 Description: Broadcast networks use a single communication channel that all machines on the network share.
Any message sent by a machine is received by all other machines. Each machine checks if the message is
intended for it and either processes it or ignores it accordingly.
 Broadcasting: Sending a message to all machines using a special code.
 Multicasting: Sending a message to a subset of machines using a group number.

2. Point-to-Point Links:
 Description: Point-to-point networks have direct connections between pairs of machines. Data may pass
through one or more intermediate machines to reach its destination, and finding efficient routes is crucial.
 Unicasting: A point-to-point transmission with one sender and one receiver.
 Characteristics: Generally used for larger, geographically dispersed networks.

NETWORK HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

(1) Network Interface Cards (NICs):

 Provide the hardware interface between a computer and a network.
 Essential for both broadcast and point-to-point networks.
(2) Switches:
 Used in point-to-point networks to connect multiple devices and manage data traffic efficiently.
 Operate at the data link layer of the OSI model.
(3) Routers:
 Direct data packets between different networks.
 Essential for point-to-point networks to find optimal paths for data transmission.
(4) Hubs:
 Used in smaller, local broadcast networks.
 Broadcast data to all devices in the network.
(5) Access Points:
 Provide wireless connectivity to devices in a network.
 Used in both broadcast and point-to-point networks for wireless communication.
(6) Modems:
 Convert digital data into a format suitable for transmission over various media, such as telephone
lines or cable systems.

NETWORK SCALE:

An alternative criterion for classifying networks is their scale. We classify multiple processor systems by their
physical size. At the top are the personal area networks, networks that are meant for one person. For example, a
wireless network connecting a computer with its mouse, keyboard, and printer is a personal area network. Also, a
PDA that controls the user's hearing aid or pacemaker fits in this category. Beyond the personal area networks come
longer-range networks. These can be divided into local, metropolitan, and wide area networks. Finally, the connection
of two or more networks is called an internetwork. The worldwide Internet is a well-known example of an
internetwork. Distance is important as a classification metric because different techniques are used at different scales.

Classification of interconnected processors by scale

(A) LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN):

Local Area Networks, commonly referred to as LANs, are privately owned networks that span a relatively small
geographic area, such as within a single building or a campus, typically up to a few kilometres in size. They are
primarily used to connect personal computers, workstations, and other devices within company offices, factories, or
academic institutions to facilitate resource sharing (e.g., printers) and information exchange.

Characteristics of LANs:

1. Size:

LANs are restricted to a limited geographical area. This restriction means the worst-case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance, allowing for the use of specific network designs and simplifying network
management.

2. Transmission Technology:

 Traditional LANs: These often use a shared cable to which all machines are connected, reminiscent
of old telephone party lines used in rural areas. They typically operate at speeds ranging from 10
Mbps to 100 Mbps, with low delay and minimal errors.
 Modern LANs: Newer LANs can operate at speeds up to 10 Gbps, enhancing their performance and
capacity.

3. Topology:

 Bus Topology: In this configuration, a single cable (bus) connects all machines. Only one machine
can transmit at any time to avoid collisions. IEEE 802.3, also known as Ethernet, is an example of a
bus-based network, operating at speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps. In Ethernet, machines can transmit
whenever they want; if collisions occur, they wait a random time before trying again.

 Ring Topology: In a ring network, each bit of data circulates around the ring independently.
Machines take turns transmitting data to avoid collisions. IEEE 802.5 (IBM token ring) and FDDI are
examples of ring-based LANs, operating at 4 and 16 Mbps, respectively.
Broadcast Networks:

LANs often use broadcast networks where a single communication channel is shared by all machines on the network.
Broadcast networks can be classified based on how the communication channel is allocated:

1. Static Allocation:

Time is divided into discrete intervals, and each machine gets a turn to transmit data during its allocated time
slot. This can lead to wasted channel capacity if a machine has nothing to send during its slot.

2. Dynamic Allocation:

 Channels are allocated on demand, which is more efficient. Dynamic allocation can be:
(a) Centralized: A single entity (e.g., a bus arbitration unit) decides which machine can transmit next
based on requests.
(b) Decentralized: Each machine independently decides whether to transmit, following specific
algorithms to avoid chaos and ensure orderly communication.

(B) METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS:

A Metropolitan Area Network, or MAN, spans a city or a large campus, providing network coverage and connectivity
over a metropolitan area. The most well-known example of a MAN is the cable television network, which has evolved
significantly over the years.

Evolution of MANs:

1. Early Systems:

 Initially, community antenna systems were used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. A
large antenna was placed on a nearby hill to receive signals, which were then distributed to
subscribers' homes via cables.
 These early systems were locally designed and ad hoc, created to address specific local needs.

2. Commercialization:

 Companies began entering the cable television business, obtaining contracts from city governments to
wire entire cities. This led to the development of more standardized and extensive cable TV networks.
 These networks started offering specialized television channels, such as all news, all sports, and other
niche programming.

3. Introduction of Internet Services:

 With the rise of the Internet in the late 1990s, cable TV network operators recognized the potential to
provide two-way Internet services using the existing cable infrastructure.
 By making changes to the system, they began offering high-speed Internet access alongside traditional
television services. This transformation turned the cable TV network into a true metropolitan area
network.

4. Current MANs:

 A typical MAN might look like the system in the below diagram, where both television signals and
Internet services are fed into a centralized head end and then distributed to individual homes.
 A metropolitan area network based on cable TV

 The MAN structure supports various services, ensuring wide and efficient coverage across a
metropolitan area.

Modern Developments in MANs:

 High-Speed Wireless Internet Access:

 Recent advancements have led to the development of high-speed wireless Internet MANs. These
networks provide an alternative to traditional wired MANs, offering flexibility and ease of
deployment.
 One notable standard for wireless MANs is IEEE 802.16, also known as WiMAX, which provides
broadband wireless access over metropolitan areas.

MANs play a crucial role in connecting users within a city, offering both traditional television services and modern
high-speed Internet access. They bridge the gap between local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks
(WANs), providing a scalable and efficient solution for urban connectivity.

(C) WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WANS):

A Wide Area Network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, such as a country or continent. WANs connect
multiple smaller networks, such as Local Area Networks (LANs), to allow communication and resource sharing over
long distances.

Components of WANs:

1. Hosts:

 These are the machines intended for running user applications, such as personal computers and
servers. Hosts are owned by the customers who use the network.

2. Communication Subnet:

 The subnet is responsible for carrying messages from host to host. It is typically owned and operated
by a telecommunications company or Internet service provider.
 The subnet is composed of two main components:
(a) Transmission Lines: These move data between machines and can be made of copper wire,
optical fiber, or radio links.
(b) Switching Elements (Routers): Specialized computers that connect multiple transmission lines
and forward data packets from one line to another. When data arrive on an incoming line, the
router selects an outgoing line to forward the data.
 Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet

Structure and Operation of WANs:

1. Separation of Concerns:

 WAN design separates the communication aspects (handled by the subnet) from the application
aspects (handled by the hosts). This separation simplifies the overall network design and management.

2. Packet-Switched Networks:

 Most WANs are based on a packet-switched subnet, also known as a store-and-forward network. In
this model, data is divided into small packets that are sent individually over the network. Each packet
is stored temporarily at intermediate routers until it can be forwarded to the next router or the final
destination.
 Example: A message from a process on one host is divided into packets, each with a sequence
number. These packets are sent one by one, routed through the network, and reassembled at the
destination host.

3. Routing:

 Routers make local decisions on how to forward packets based on routing algorithms. These decisions
determine the path a packet takes through the network.
 Some networks require all packets from a given message to follow the same route, while others allow
packets to be routed independently.

Example of a WAN:

 Satellite Systems:

Some WANs use satellite systems where each router has an antenna for sending and receiving data via
satellites. These systems are inherently broadcast, meaning all routers can receive data from the satellite, and
sometimes they can also hear the transmissions of other routers. Satellite networks are useful for broadcasting
data to multiple locations simultaneously.

 Packet-Switched Subnet:

The below diagram illustrates a stream of packets traveling from a sender to a receiver. In this example, all
packets follow the route ACE instead of ABDE or ACDE. Routing decisions are made by each router (e.g., A
decides whether to send a packet to B or C).
 Stream of packets from sender to receive
WANs enable the connection of disparate networks over vast distances, supporting a wide range of communication
needs for businesses, governments, and individuals. They are essential for the functioning of the global Internet and
other large-scale network services.

(D) WIRELESS NETWORKS:

Digital wireless communication has evolved significantly since its early days, with applications now ranging from
personal device interconnections to extensive wide area networks. Wireless networks can be broadly categorized into
three main types: system interconnection, wireless LANs, and wireless WANs.

1. System Interconnection:

System interconnection involves using short-range radio to connect various components of a computer system. This
eliminates the need for cables and simplifies the setup process.

 Bluetooth:

(a) Bluetooth is a short-range wireless network designed to connect devices such as monitors, keyboards,
mice, and printers to the main computer unit without cables.
(b) It also supports the connection of digital cameras, headsets, scanners, and other devices by simply
bringing them within range, allowing for easy setup without driver installation.
(c) The Bluetooth network typically follows a master-slave configuration, where the main computer (master)
communicates with peripheral devices (slaves). The master manages communication by assigning
addresses, controlling transmission timing, and managing frequencies.

2. Wireless Local Area Networks (LANs):

Wireless LANs provide network connectivity within a limited area such as a home, office, or campus, without the
need for extensive cabling.

 Wireless LANs:

(a) Each computer in a wireless LAN is equipped with a radio modem and antenna to communicate with
other systems.
(b) Communication can be either through a central antenna or directly between devices if they are close
enough, forming a peer-to-peer network.
(c) Wireless LANs are commonly used in environments where installing Ethernet cables is impractical or in
places like company cafeterias and conference rooms.
(d) The IEEE 802.11 standard, also known as Wi-Fi, is widely implemented for wireless LANs, supporting
speeds up to about 50 Mbps over tens of meters.

3. Wireless Wide Area Networks (WANs):

Wireless WANs cover much larger areas than LANs, such as entire cities or even countries, providing connectivity
over long distances.

 Cellular Networks:

(a) Cellular networks are a common type of wireless WAN, originally designed for voice communication and
now supporting data as well.
(b) These networks have evolved through three generations:
 1G: Analog and voice-only.
 2G: Digital and voice-only.
 3G: Digital for both voice and data.
(c) Cellular systems typically operate at lower speeds than wireless LANs, around 1 Mbps, but cover much
larger distances, measured in kilometers.

 High-Bandwidth Wireless WANs:

 (a) Newer high-bandwidth wireless WANs focus on providing high-speed Internet access, bypassing
traditional telephone systems.
(b) These systems, often referred to as Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS), aim to offer
broadband wireless access.
(c) The IEEE 802.16 standard, also known as WiMAX, is a notable example, providing high-speed wireless
connectivity over wide areas.

Integration with Wired Networks:

Wireless networks often interface with wired networks to access files, databases, and the Internet. Various methods
exist for these connections, depending on the context.

 Example: Airplane Network:

(a) Traditional setup: Passengers use modems and seat-back telephones to connect independently.
(b) Efficient setup: A "flying LAN" where each seat has an Ethernet connector, and a single router on the
aircraft maintains a radio link with ground routers, providing a more efficient network configuration.

(E) HOME NETWORKS:

Home networking is poised to revolutionize how devices in the home interact and communicate. The concept
envisions a future where every device in a home is networked, allowing seamless communication and Internet access
across all devices. While this idea may seem forward-thinking, it is likely to become as indispensable as TV remote
controls and mobile phones have become.

Categories of Networkable Devices:

Various types of devices can be networked in a home environment, including:

1. Computers: Desktop PCs, notebook PCs, PDAs, and shared peripherals.

2. Entertainment: TVs, DVD players, VCRs, camcorders, cameras, stereos, and MP3 players.
3. Telecommunications: Telephones, mobile phones, intercoms, and fax machines.
4. Appliances: Microwaves, refrigerators, clocks, furnaces, air conditioners, and lights.
5. Telemetry: Utility meters, smoke/burglar alarms, thermostats, and babycams.

Unique Characteristics of Home Networks:

Home networks differ fundamentally from other network types in several key ways:

1. Ease of Installation: The installation process for network devices in homes needs to be straightforward.
Unlike computer users, the average consumer is not accustomed to troubleshooting hardware and software
issues.
2. Foolproof Operation: Devices must be easy to operate. Complex manuals and security settings are not user-
friendly for the average household.
3. Affordability: Devices must be reasonably priced to gain widespread acceptance. A small premium for added
connectivity features may be acceptable, but high costs will deter adoption.
4. Sufficient Capacity: Home networks must support multimedia applications, which require high performance.
Networks need to handle high-resolution video and audio streaming without compromising quality.
5. Scalability: Home networks should allow for gradual expansion. Consumers should be able to add new
devices over time without compatibility issues.
6. Security and Reliability: Security is crucial, as breaches can have severe consequences, such as burglars
hacking into security systems. Reliability is also paramount to ensure consistent operation.

Wired vs. Wireless Networks:

An important consideration for home networks is whether to use wired or wireless connections. While adding new
wiring during home construction is relatively easy, retrofitting existing homes is costly. Wireless networks offer cost
advantages but pose security challenges, as radio waves can penetrate walls and potentially expose networks to
neighbors. Ensuring foolproof security for wireless networks, even for non-technical users, is essential but
challenging.
Home networking presents numerous opportunities and challenges. The primary concerns revolve around making the
networks easy to manage, reliable, and secure for non-technical users while maintaining high performance at an
affordable cost. As technology advances, home networks are likely to become an integral part of daily life, providing
enhanced convenience and functionality for a wide range of devices and applications.

(F) INTERNETWORKS:

Internetworks, or internets, are collections of interconnected networks that allow communication across different,
often incompatible networks. This interconnection is facilitated by machines known as gateways, which handle the
necessary translations in both hardware and software. While the term "internetwork" refers to any such network
collection, the "Internet" specifically denotes the global system of interconnected networks, always capitalized to
differentiate it.

Structure of Internetworks:

A typical internetwork might consist of multiple Local Area Networks (LANs) connected by a Wide Area Network
(WAN). This structure can be visualized similarly to a subnet configuration, where the WAN effectively replaces the
subnet label. The distinction between a subnet and a WAN in this context hinges on the presence of hosts. A system
containing only routers is a subnet, while one containing both routers and hosts is a WAN. The key differences here
relate to ownership and usage.

For instance, in a wide area network, the subnet refers to the collection of routers and communication lines managed
by the network operator. This can be likened to the telephone system, where switching offices and high-speed lines
form the subnet, excluding the telephones (analogous to hosts).

Networks, Subnets, and Internetworks:

Understanding the difference between subnets, networks, and internetworks is crucial:

(a) Subnet: In the context of a WAN, a subnet includes the routers and communication lines owned by the
network operator. It does not include hosts.
(b) Network: A network combines a subnet and its hosts. In a LAN, the network consists of the cable and the
connected hosts, with no distinct subnet.
(c) Internetwork: An internetwork is created when different networks are interconnected. This could involve
connecting a LAN to a WAN or linking two LANs.

The terminology can be nuanced, with little consensus in the industry. However, a practical guideline is to consider
ownership and technology differences. If different parts of the network are constructed and maintained by separate
organizations or if the underlying technologies vary significantly, it is typically considered an internetwork rather than
a single network.

Example:

Consider a university campus network (LAN) connected to an Internet Service Provider's (ISP) backbone (WAN). The
campus network may use Ethernet for internal connections (broadcast technology), while the ISP backbone might use
fiber optics (point-to-point technology). This setup constitutes an internetwork due to the different technologies and
the separate management by the university and the ISP.

Internetworks enable communication across diverse and often incompatible networks through gateways.
Understanding the distinctions between subnets, networks, and internetworks is essential for grasping how complex,
multi-organizational networks are constructed and managed. This interconnectedness is foundational to the
functioning of the global Internet, facilitating seamless communication and data exchange across the world.

NETWORK SOFTWARE

NETWORK SOFTWARE:

In the early days of computer networks, the primary focus was on hardware, with software considerations often
coming later. However, this approach has become obsolete. Modern network software is highly structured and
essential to the functioning and efficiency of networks.

The following sections delve into the software structuring techniques that are now foundational to network design and
management.
(1) PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES:

To manage design complexity, networks are often structured into a series of layers, each building on the one below it.
These layers, their names, contents, and functions can vary across different networks. The primary purpose of each
layer is to provide specific services to the layer above it while hiding the details of how these services are
implemented. Each layer essentially acts as a virtual machine to the layer above.

Key Concepts:

 Information Hiding: This principle, used throughout computer science, involves providing a service while
concealing internal details and algorithms. It's known by various names such as abstract data types, data
encapsulation, and object-oriented programming.
 Layer n Protocol: The rules and conventions governing the interaction between layer n on one machine and
layer n on another machine. A protocol is essentially an agreement on how communication should proceed.

Layer Communication:

In a layered network, no data is directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on another. Instead, each
layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it, down to the physical medium. This is
depicted in a diagram where virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication by solid
lines.

Interfaces and Protocols:

 Interfaces: These define the operations and services that a lower layer offers to an upper one. Clear interfaces
are crucial for modularity, allowing layers to be replaced without affecting others. This requires each layer to
perform specific, well-understood functions.
 Network Architecture: A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture. The architecture
specification should provide enough information for implementers to build software or hardware for each
layer that correctly follows the protocols. The details of implementation and interfaces are not part of the
architecture and are hidden inside the machines.
 Protocol Stack: A list of protocols used by a system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.

Layers, protocols, and interfaces

Example: Layered Communication

Consider a five-layer network:

i A message from an application process in layer 5 is passed down to layer 4.

ii Layer 4 adds a header and passes it to layer 3.
iii If layer 3 has size limitations, it breaks the message into smaller packets, adds headers, and passes them to
layer 2.
iv Layer 2 adds headers and trailers before passing them to layer 1 for physical transmission.
v On the receiving machine, the message is reassembled, and headers are stripped off as it moves up the layers.

This structure allows network designers to break down the task of network design into smaller, manageable problems,
focusing on the design of individual layers. The abstraction of peer processes is crucial, as it simplifies the complex
task of network design by treating each layer's communication as horizontal, despite the actual vertical data transfer.

In summary, protocol hierarchies organize networks into manageable layers, each providing specific services to the
layer above, with clear interfaces and protocols ensuring modularity, scalability, and ease of management. This
structured approach is fundamental to network design.

(2) DESIGN ISSUES FOR THE LAYERS:

Designing the layers in a computer network involves addressing several key issues that recur across multiple layers.
Below are some of the most important considerations:
(a) Addressing:
Every layer needs mechanisms to identify senders and receivers. Given the multiple computers and processes
in a network, a process must specify its communication partner. This requires some form of addressing to
identify specific destinations.
(b) Data Transfer Rules:
The rules for data transfer can vary. Data might travel unidirectionally or bidirectionally. The protocol must
decide the number of logical channels for each connection and their priorities. Many networks provide at least
two logical channels per connection, one for normal data and one for urgent data.
(c) Error Control:
Error control is crucial because physical communication circuits can be imperfect. Protocols must agree on
error-detecting and error-correcting codes. Additionally, the receiver must inform the sender about correctly
and incorrectly received messages.
(d) Message Sequencing:
Not all channels preserve message order. Protocols must address sequencing to reassemble messages
correctly. Numbering messages is a common solution, but handling out-of-order pieces remains a challenge.
(e) Flow Control:
Flow control prevents fast senders from overwhelming slow receivers. Solutions include feedback
mechanisms from the receiver to the sender or limiting the sender to an agreed transmission rate.
(f) Message Size Management:
Processes cannot always handle arbitrarily long messages, necessitating mechanisms for disassembling,
transmitting, and reassembling messages. Conversely, sending numerous small messages can be inefficient, so
protocols often gather small messages into larger ones and disassemble them at the destination.
(g) Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:
When setting up separate connections for each pair of communicating processes is inconvenient or costly,
multiplexing allows the use of a single connection for multiple conversations. This is done transparently and
is especially useful in the physical layer, where all traffic for all connections must be sent over a few physical
circuits.
(h) Routing:
Routing decisions are essential when multiple paths exist between source and destination. High-level routing
 decisions might involve considerations like privacy laws, while low-level decisions might focus on current
traffic loads. This can involve multiple layers making coordinated decisions to choose the optimal path.

In summary, these design issues—addressing, data transfer rules, error control, message sequencing, flow control,
message size management, multiplexing, and routing—are fundamental considerations for the structured design of
network layers. Each layer must address these issues to ensure effective and efficient network communication.

(3) CONNECTION-ORIENTED AND CONNECTIONLESS SERVICES:

Network layers can offer two types of service to the layers above them: connection-oriented and connectionless. Each
type has distinct characteristics and use cases.

CONNECTION-ORIENTED SERVICE:

Connection-oriented service resembles the telephone system. To communicate, you establish a connection, use it, and
then release it. This service acts like a tube, where the sender pushes data in at one end, and the receiver takes it out at
the other end, usually in the order sent.

Key characteristics:

 Connection Establishment: The sender, receiver, and subnet may negotiate parameters like maximum
message size and quality of service.
 Reliability: Typically ensures data is delivered without loss or errors. Often includes an acknowledgment
process, adding overhead and delays.

A common example of connection-oriented service is file transfer, where accuracy and order of data delivery are
crucial.

Variations:

1. Message Sequences: Message boundaries are preserved. Two 1024-byte messages remain distinct.
2. Byte Streams: No message boundaries. Data is a continuous stream of bytes, making it impossible to
distinguish the original message sizes.

For instance, file transfer would benefit from message sequences, while a user login would use byte streams.

CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE:

Connectionless service is akin to the postal system. Each message carries the destination address and is routed
independently. Messages might arrive out of order.

Key characteristics:

 No Connection Establishment: Each message is independent.

 Potential Unreliability: Some services may lose messages or deliver them out of order.

Types:

1. Unreliable Datagram Service: Similar to sending a telegram; no acknowledgment is received.

2. Acknowledged Datagram Service: Similar to a registered letter with a return receipt, ensuring delivery
confirmation.
3. Request-Reply Service: Involves sending a request and receiving a reply, typical in client-server models.

Use Cases:

 Unreliable Datagram Service: Suitable for electronic junk mail, where high probability of delivery is
sufficient.
  Acknowledged Datagram Service: Useful when reliability is essential but establishing a connection is
inconvenient.
 Request-Reply Service: Common in client-server interactions, such as querying a library database.

Reliability Considerations:

Unreliable communication might seem counterintuitive. However, reliable communication may:

(i) Not Be Available: Some networks, like Ethernet, do not inherently provide reliable communication.
(j) Introduce Unacceptable Delays: Real-time applications, such as multimedia, may prefer slight errors over
delays.

Thus, both reliable and unreliable communication coexist, serving different needs based on the application's
requirements.

Six different types of service

(4) SERVICE PRIMITIVES:

A service is defined by a set of primitives (operations) that a user process can use to access the service. These
primitives instruct the service to perform an action or report an action taken by a peer entity. When the protocol stack
is part of the operating system, these primitives are typically system calls that cause a trap to kernel mode, transferring
control to the operating system to send the necessary packets.

Connection-Oriented Service Primitives:

Five service primitives for implementing a simple connection-oriented service

The primitives for connection-oriented services are different from those for connectionless services. Here's a minimal
example of the service primitives for implementing a reliable byte stream in a client-server environment:

1. LISTEN: Server indicates readiness to accept connections.

2. CONNECT: Client establishes a connection with the server.
3. RECEIVE: Server prepares to accept a request.
4. SEND: Client sends a request or data.
5. DISCONNECT: Client or server terminates the connection.
 Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a connection-oriented network
These primitives can be used as follows:

1. Server Executes LISTEN:

Server prepares to accept incoming connections and typically gets blocked until a connection request appears.

2. Client Executes CONNECT:

 Client specifies the server's address and tries to establish a connection. The operating system sends a
connection request packet to the server.
 The server, upon receiving this packet, unblocks the listener and sends back an acknowledgment. The
connection is established once the client receives the acknowledgment.

3. Server Executes RECEIVE:

Server prepares to accept the client's request, usually executed immediately upon being released from
LISTEN.

4. Client Executes SEND:

 Client sends its request to the server.

 Upon receiving the request, the server processes it and uses SEND to return the response to the client.
The client, upon receiving the response, can inspect the answer or send additional requests.

5. Client Executes DISCONNECT:

 Client sends a packet to the server indicating the termination of the connection.
 The server responds with its own DISCONNECT, acknowledging the termination and releasing the
connection.

Why Not Use Connectionless Protocols?

In a perfect world, a connectionless protocol might suffice, requiring only two packets (one for the request and one for
the reply). However, in real-world scenarios with potential transmission errors and lost packets, connection-oriented
protocols are often necessary to ensure reliable and ordered data delivery, especially for large messages or files.

Connection-oriented protocols help manage issues such as:

 Identifying and recovering from lost packets.

 Ensuring all pieces of a message arrive and in the correct order.
 Differentiating between multiple requests and replies, preventing confusion from delayed or duplicated
packets.

Thus, while connectionless protocols are simpler and involve fewer packet exchanges, connection-oriented protocols
provide the reliability and order essential for many applications, such as file transfers and real-time communication.

(5) THE RELATIONSHIP OF SERVICES TO PROTOCOLS:

Services and protocols are distinct yet often confused concepts in networking. This distinction is critical for
understanding network architecture, so it's worth emphasizing.

SERVICES:

A service is a set of primitives (operations) provided by a layer to the layer above it. The service defines what
operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users, but it says nothing about how these operations are
implemented. A service is about the interface between two layers, with the lower layer acting as the service provider
and the upper layer as the service user.

Example: The transport layer offers a service to the application layer, such as reliable data transfer. The
application layer can use primitives like ‘CONNECT’, ‘SEND’, ‘RECEIVE’, and ‘DISCONNECT’ to interact
with this service.
PROTOCOLS:

A protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets or messages exchanged between peer
entities within a layer. Protocols implement the service definitions. They can change independently of the service, as
long as the service interface remains the same.

 Example: The transport layer uses protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) to provide its service.
TCP defines how packets are structured, how connections are established and terminated, and how data
integrity is ensured.

The relationship between a service and a protocol

Decoupling Services and Protocols:

Services and protocols are decoupled to allow flexibility in implementation. This decoupling means:

 Services define what a layer offers to the layer above.

 Protocols define how these services are implemented and how communication happens between peer entities.

ISO-OSI REFERENCE MODEL

ISO-OSI Reference Model:

The OSI model is based on a proposed developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) towards
international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers. The model is called ISO -OSI (Open Systems
Interconnected) reference model because it deals with connecting open system.

The principles of seven layers are:

i A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
ii Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
iii The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye.
iv The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
v The number of layers should be large enough.

The OSI model has seven layers:

 The seven Layers of OSI Model

The OSI Model

1) Physical Layer:
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. When one side
sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
 Physical Layer
2) Data link Layer:
The data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that appears free undetected
transmission errors to the network layer. Senders break up the input data into data frames and transmit the
frame sequentially.

Data link Layer

3) Network Layer:
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining how packets are
routed from source to destination. When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its
destination, many problems can arise. In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple.

Network Layer
4) Transport Layer:
The transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up into smaller units pass these to the network layer
and all arrive correctly at the other end. Transport connection is an error- free point-to-point channel that
delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent. The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer,
all the way from source to destination.
 Transport Layer
5) Session Layer:
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish session between them sessions offer various
services, including dialog control, token management and synchronization.
(a) Dialog-control – keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
(b) Token management – preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation at the same time
(c) Synchronization – checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from where there were
after a crash.

Session Layer
6) Presentation Layer:
The Presentation Layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. They
manage these abstract data structures and allow higher-level data structures to be defined and exchanged.

Presentation Layer
7) Application Layer:
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. Application protocol
is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a
web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server using HTTP. The server then sends the page
back. Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail and network news.
 Application Layer

The critique of the OSI Reference model:

i Bad timing: The amount of activity surrounding new subjects. When the subject is first discovered, there is a
burst of research activity in the form of discussion, papers and meetings. The subject was poorly understood,
the result is bad standards are effectively ignored.
ii Bad Technology: The seven layers was more political than technical and two of the layers (session and
presentation) are nearly empty, whereas other ones (data link and network) are overfull. OSI has some
functions such as addressing, flow control and error control, reappear again and again in each layer.
iii Bad Implementation: The complexity of the model and the protocols it will come as no surprise that the
initial implementation was huge un widely and slow.
iv Bad Politics: The poor researches and programmers down in the trenches actually developing computer
network did not help much.

THE TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

The TCP/IP Reference Model:

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the current
Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible communication over a network.
These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or the internet. They also offer
simple naming and addressing schemes.

The four layers of TCP/IP Reference Model are as follows:

Applictaion Layer

Transport Layer

Internet Layer

Network Access Layer

 The TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department of Defence's
Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network interconnection to connect
remote machines.

The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model were:
a. Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
b. The network was robust, and connections remained intact until the source and destination machines were
functioning.
c. The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to (send data packets) another
application running on different computer.
Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer:

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer:

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is called an
internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
(a) Delivering IP packets
(b) Performing routing
(c) Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer:

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently by the
network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer:

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some of them were
TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine and
run applications on it.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users connected
over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail between
a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected over a
network. It allows peer entities to carry conversation. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP.
(i) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol which
handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
(ii) UDP (User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not want
TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model:

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP:

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TCP/IP AND OSI MODELS

TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems
Protocol. Interconnection.
TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
TCP/IP does not have very strict
OSI has strict boundaries
boundaries.
TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.
TCP/IP uses both session and presentation OSI uses different session and
layer in the application layer itself. presentation layers.
TCP/IP developed protocols then model. OSI developed model then protocol.
Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In OSI model, transport layer provides
assurance delivery of packets. assurance delivery of packets.
Connection less and connection oriented
TCP/IP model network layer only provides
both services are provided by network
connection less services.
layer in OSI model.
While in OSI model, Protocols are better
Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
covered and is easy to replace with the
TCP/IP model.
change in technology.

EXAMPLE NETWORKS

(1) INTERNET

THE INTERNET:
The internet is a global network of interconnected computers, servers, phones, and smart appliances that communicate
with each other using the transmission control protocol (TCP) standard to enable a fast exchange of information and
files, along with other types of services.

The internet is a global hub of computer networks — a network of connections wherein users at any workstation may,
with authorization, receive data from every other system (and often interact with users working on other computers).

Internet infrastructure comprises optical fibre data transmission cables or copper wires, as well as numerous additional
networking infrastructures, such as local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN), metropolitan area
networks (MAN), etc. Sometimes wireless services such as 4G and 5G or Wi-Fi necessitate similar physical cable
installations for internet access.

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) in the United States controls the internet and its
associated technologies, such as IP addresses.

Key features of the internet:

The internet is a vast, interconnected network of computers and other network-enabled devices, which is:

 Globally available: The internet is an international service with universal access. People living in isolated
areas of an archipelago or even in the depths of Africa can now access the internet.

 Easy to use: The software used to connect to the internet (web browser) is user-friendly and easy to
understand. It’s also relatively easy to create.

 Compatible with other types of media: The internet provides a high level of engagement with photos and
videos, among other media.

 Affordable: Internet service development, as well as maintenance costs, are modest.

 Flexible: Internet-based communication is highly adaptable. It supports text, audio, and video communication.
These services are available at both individual and organizational levels.

Types of Internet Services

(2) ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

It is an International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications Standards Section (ITU-T) efficient for call
relay and it transmits all information including multiple service types such as data, video, or voice which is conveyed
in small fixed-size packets called cells. Cells are transmitted asynchronously and the network is connection-oriented.
ATM is a technology that has some event in the development of broadband ISDN in the 1970s and 1980s, which can
be considered an evolution of packet switching. Each cell is 53 bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload.
Making an ATM call requires first sending a message to set up a connection. Subsequently, all cells follow the same
path to the destination. It can handle both constant rate traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus, it can carry multiple
types of traffic with end-to-end quality of service. ATM is independent of a transmission medium; they may be sent
on a wire or fibre by themselves or they may also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier systems. ATM
networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching with virtual circuits. Its design helps in the implementation of high-
performance multimedia networking.

ATM Cell Format:

As information is transmitted in ATM in the form of fixed-size units called cells. As known already each cell is 53
bytes long which consists of a 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload.

ATM Cell Format

Asynchronous Transfer Mode can be of two format types which are as follows:

1. UNI Header: This is used within private networks of ATMs for communication between ATM endpoints and
ATM It includes the Generic Flow Control (GFC) field.

2. NNI Header: is used for communication between ATM switches, and it does not include the Generic Flow
Control (GFC) instead it includes a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) which occupies the first 12 bits.

Working of ATM:

ATM standard uses two types of connections. i.e., Virtual path connections (VPCs) which consist of Virtual channel
connections (VCCs) bundled together which is a basic unit carrying a single stream of cells from user to user. A
virtual path can be created end-to-end across an ATM network, as it does not rout the cells to a particular virtual
circuit. In case of major failure, all cells belonging to a particular virtual path are routed the same way through the
ATM network, thus helping in faster recovery.

Switches connected to subscribers use both VPIs and VCIs to switch the cells which are Virtual Path and Virtual
Connection switches that can have different virtual channel connections between them, serving the purpose of creating
a virtual trunk between the switches which can be handled as a single entity. Its basic operation is straightforward by
looking up the connection value in the local translation table determining the outgoing port of the connection and the
new VPI/VCI value of connection on that link.

ATM vs DATA Networks (Internet):

ATM is a “virtual circuit” based: the path is reserved before transmission. While Internet Protocol (IP) is
connectionless and end-to-end resource reservations are not possible. RSVP is a new signaling protocol on the
internet.

ATM Cells: Fixed or small size and Tradeoff is between voice or data. While IP packets are of variable size.

Addressing: ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and 32-bit locally assigned labels in cells. While
IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all packets.

ATM Layers:
 ATM Layers

1. ATM Adaption Layer (AAL):

It is meant for isolating higher-layer protocols from details of ATM processes and prepares for conversion of
user data into cells and segments it into 48-byte cell payloads. AAL protocol excepts transmission from
upper-layer services and helps them in mapping applications, e.g., voice, data to ATM cells.
2. Physical Layer:
It manages the medium-dependent transmission and is divided into two parts physical medium-dependent
sublayer and transmission convergence sublayer. The main functions are as follows:
(a) It converts cells into a bitstream.
(b) It controls the transmission and receipt of bits in the physical medium.
(c) It can track the ATM cell boundaries.
(d) Look for the packaging of cells into the appropriate type of frames.
3. ATM Layer:
It handles transmission, switching, congestion control, cell header processing, sequential delivery, etc., and is
responsible for simultaneously sharing the virtual circuits over the physical link known as cell multiplexing
and passing cells through an ATM network known as cell relay making use of the VPI and VCI information in
the cell header.

ATM Applications:

1. ATM WANs:
It can be used as a WAN to send cells over long distances, a router serving as an end-point between ATM
network and other networks, which has two stacks of the protocol.
2. Multimedia virtual private networks and managed services:
It helps in managing ATM, LAN, voice, and video services and is capable of full-service virtual private
networking, which includes integrated access to multimedia.
3. Frame relay backbone:
Frame relay services are used as a networking infrastructure for a range of data services and enabling frame-
relay ATM service to Internetworking services.
4. Residential broadband networks:
ATM is by choice provides the networking infrastructure for the establishment of residential broadband
services in the search of highly scalable solutions.
5. Carrier infrastructure for telephone and private line networks:
 To make more effective use of SONET/SDH fiber infrastructures by building the ATM infrastructure for
carrying the telephonic and private-line traffic.

(3) ETHERNET

Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards 802.3. The reason behind its
wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, and maintain, and allows low-cost network
implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of the topologies that are allowed. Ethernet generally uses a
bus topology. Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer and the data link layer. For
Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since we mainly deal with DLLs. In order to handle collisions, the Access
control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.

Although Ethernet has been largely replaced by wireless networks, wired networking still uses Ethernet more
frequently. Wi-Fi eliminates the need for cables by enabling users to connect their smartphones or laptops to a
network wirelessly. The 802.11ac Wi-Fi standard offers faster maximum data transfer rates when compared to Gigabit
Ethernet. However, wired connections are more secure and less susceptible to interference than wireless networks.
This is the main justification for why so many companies and organizations continue to use Ethernet.

There are different types of Ethernet networks that are used to connect devices and transfer data.

1. Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network uses cables called twisted pair or CAT5. It can transfer data at a
speed of around 100 Mbps (megabits per second). Fast Ethernet uses both fiber optic and twisted pair cables to enable
communication. There are three categories of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-T4.

2. Gigabit Ethernet: This is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet and is more common nowadays. It can transfer data at a
speed of 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps (gigabit per second). Gigabit Ethernet also uses fiber optic and twisted pair cables for
communication. It often uses advanced cables like CAT5e, which can transfer data at a speed of 10 Gbps.

3.10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an advanced and high-speed network that can transmit data at a speed of 10 gigabits
per second. It uses special cables like CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-pair cables and fiber optic cables. With the help of
fiber optic cables, this network can cover longer distances, up to around 10,000 meters.

4. Switch Ethernet: This type of network involves using switches or hubs to improve network performance. Each
workstation in this network has its own dedicated connection, which improves the speed and efficiency of data
transfer. Switch Ethernet supports a wide range of speeds, from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, depending on the version of
Ethernet being used.

In summary, Fast Ethernet is the basic version with a speed of 100 Mbps, Gigabit Ethernet is faster with a speed of 1
Gbps, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is even faster with a speed of 10 Gbps, and Switch Ethernet uses switches or hubs to
enhance network performance.

Key Features of Ethernet:

1. Speed: Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds, with current Ethernet standards supporting
speeds of up to 100 Gbps.

2. Flexibility: Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with a wide range of devices and operating
systems. It can also be easily scaled to accommodate a growing number of users and devices.

3. Reliability: Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-correction techniques to ensure that data is
transmitted accurately and efficiently.

4. Cost-effectiveness: Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is widely available and easy to implement. It
is also relatively low-maintenance, requiring minimal ongoing support.

5. Interoperability: Ethernet is an interoperable technology that allows devices from different manufacturers to
communicate with each other seamlessly.

6. Security: Ethernet includes built-in security features, including encryption and authentication, to protect data
from unauthorized access.
 7. Manageability: Ethernet networks are easily managed, with various tools available to help network
administrators monitor and control network traffic.

8. Compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other networking technologies, making it easy to
integrate with other systems and devices.

9. Availability: Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be used in almost any setting, from homes
and small offices to large data centres and enterprise-level networks.

10. Simplicity: Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to understand and use. It does not require specialized
knowledge or expertise to set up and configure, making it accessible to a wide range of users.

11. Standardization: Ethernet is a standardized technology, which means that all Ethernet devices and systems
are designed to work together seamlessly. This makes it easier for network administrators to manage and
troubleshoot Ethernet networks.

12. Scalability: Ethernet is highly scalable, which means it can easily accommodate the addition of new devices,
users, and applications without sacrificing performance or reliability.

13. Broad compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of protocols and technologies, including
TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and others. This makes it a versatile technology that can be used in a variety of settings
and applications.

14. Ease of integration: Ethernet can be easily integrated with other networking technologies, such as Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth, to create a seamless and integrated network environment.

15. Ease of troubleshooting: Ethernet networks are easy to troubleshoot and diagnose, thanks to a range of built-
in diagnostic and monitoring tools. This makes it easier for network administrators to identify and resolve
issues quickly and efficiently.

16. Support for multimedia: Ethernet supports multimedia applications, such as video and audio streaming,
making it ideal for use in settings where multimedia content is a key part of the user experience. Ethernet is a
reliable, cost-effective, and widely used LAN technology that offers high-speed connectivity and easy
manageability for local networks.

(4) WIRELESS LANS

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a local area network that uses radio communication to
provide mobility to the network users while maintaining the connectivity to the wired network. A WLAN basically,
extends a wired local area network. WLANs are built by attaching a device called the access point (AP) to the edge of
the wired network. Clients communicate with the AP using a wireless network adapter which is similar in function to
an ethernet adapter. It is also called a LAWN is a Local area wireless network.

The performance of WLAN is high compared to other wireless networks. The coverage of WLAN is within a campus
or building or that tech park. It is used in the mobile propagation of wired networks. The standards of WLAN are
HiperLAN, Wi-Fi, and IEEE 802.11. It offers service to the desktop laptop, mobile application, and all the devices
that work on the Internet. WLAN is an affordable method and can be set up in 24 hours. WLAN gives users the
mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network. Latest brands are based on
IEE 802.11 standards, which are the WI-FI brand name.

WLAN Architecture:

Components in Wireless LAN architecture as per IEEE standards are as follows:

1. Stations: Stations consist of all the equipment that is used to connect all wireless LANs. Each station has a
wireless network controller.
2. Base Service Set (BSS): It is a group of stations communicating at the physical layer.
3. Extended Service Set (ESS): It is a group of connected Base Service Set (BSS).
4. Distribution Service (DS): It connects all Extended Service Set (ESS).

Types of WLANs:
As per IEEE standard WLAN is categorized into two basic modes, which are as follows:

1. Infrastructure: In Infrastructure mode, all the endpoints are connected to a base station and communicate
through that; and this can also enable internet access.

A WLAN infrastructure can be set up with: a wireless router (base station) and an endpoint (computer, mobile
phone, etc). An office or home WiFi connection is an example of Infrastructure mode.

2. Ad Hoc: In Ad Hoc mode WLAN connects devices without a base station, like a computer workstation.

An Ad Hoc WLAN is easy to set up it provides peer-to-peer communication. It requires two or more
endpoints with built-in radio transmission.

Characteristics of WLAN:

1. Seamless operation.
2. Low power for battery use.
3. Simple management, easy to use for everyone.
4. Protection of investment in wired networks.
5. Robust transmission technology.

Advantages of WLAN:

1. Installation speed and simplicity.

2. Installation flexibility.
3. Reduced cost of ownership.
4. Reliability.
5. Mobility.
6. Robustness.

Disadvantages of WLAN:

1. Slower bandwidth.
2. Security for wireless LANs is the prime concern.
3. Less capacity.
4. Wireless networks cost four times more than wired network cards.
5. Wireless devices emit low levels of RF which can be harmful to our health.

PHYSICAL LAYER

1. PHYSICAL LAYER:

Information can be transmitted on wires by varying some physical property such as voltage or current. By representing
the value of this voltage or current as a single-valued function of time, f(t), we can model the behavior of the signal
and analyze it mathematically.

1.1 FOURIER ANALYSIS:

In the early 19th century, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier proved that any reasonably behaved
periodic function, g(t) with period T can be constructed as the sum of a (possibly infinite) number of sines and
cosines:
∞ ∞
1
g ( t )= c+ ∑ an sin ( 2 πnft ) + ∑ cos ⁡( 2 πnft ) ––––– ①
2 n=1 n =1

where f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency, an and bn are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the n th harmonics (terms),
and c is a constant. Such a decomposition is called a Fourier series. From the Fourier series, the function can be
reconstructed; that is, if the period, T, is known and the amplitudes are given, the original function of time can be
found by performing the sums of Eq. (1).
A data signal that has a finite duration (which all of them do) can be handled by just imagining that it repeats the
entire pattern over and over forever (i.e., the interval from T to 2T is the same as from 0 to T, etc.).

1.2 SIGNALS:

Signal is a physical representation of data by means of analog or digital. To be transmitted, data must be transformed
to electromagnetic signals. Analog data are continuous and take continuous values. Digital data have discrete states
and take discrete values. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values m a range; digital signals can have only
a limited number of values.

For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives information in a continuous form; the
movements of the hands are continuous. On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will
change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.

1) Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals:

Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or nonperiodic (sometimes refer to as aperiodic,
because the prefix a in Greek means "non"). A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame,
called a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion of one full pattern is called
a cycle. A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time. In data
communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals (because they need less bandwidth), and nonperiodic
digital signals (because they can represent variation in data). Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves. A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the
peak amplitude, the frequency, and the phase. These three parameters fully describe a sine wave.

 Period and Frequency:

Period refers to the amount of time (T), in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle. Frequency (f) refers to the
number of periods in 1s. Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of period, as the following
formulas show.
1 1
f = ∧T =
T f
Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second.
The hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), who made important scientific
contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) in 1930. It was adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM)
(Conférence générale des poids et mesures) in 1960. The term cycle per second was largely replaced by hertz by the
1970s.Units of period and frequency are shown in table:
 Units of period and frequency

Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time. Change in a short span of time means high frequency. Change
over a long span of time means low frequency.

 Wavelength:

Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagation speed (the speed of light) and the period of the signal. It
is normally considered as the length of one complete cycle of a signal. However, since period and frequency are
related to each other, if we represent wavelength by 'λ’, propagation speed by ‘c’ (speed of light), and frequency by
‘f’, we get:

c 8
λ= , where c=3 ×10 m/s
f

The wavelength is normally measured in micrometres (microns) instead of meters. For example, the wavelength of red
light (frequency= 4 x 1014 Hz) in air is

2) Composite signals:

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications; we need to send a composite signal, a signal made
of many simple sine waves. Any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases. If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete
frequencies; if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with
continuous frequencies. FM and AM radio signals are nonperiodic composite signals.

 Bandwidth:

The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth (B) of a composite signal is
defined as the difference between the highest (f H) and the lowest (fL) frequencies contained in that signal. Hence, the
bandwidth (B) is calculated as
B=f H −f L

Bandwidth representation

1.3 Data transfer Rate:

a) Bit Rate:

Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate characteristics. Another term-
bit rate (instead of frequency)-is used to describe digital signals. The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed
in bits per second (bps). The figure shows the bit rate for two signals.

Bit rate of two signals

b) Bit Length:

The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

Bit Length=Propagation Speed × Bit Duration

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate; if we need to send bits faster, we need
more bandwidth. If the available channel is a band pass channel (a channel with a bandwidth that does not start from
zero), we cannot send the digital signal directly to the channel; we need to convert the digital signal to an analog
signal before transmission.

c) Data Rate Limits:

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel. Data rate depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth available

2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel, another by
Shannon for a noisy channel.

 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate:

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate

BitRate=2× Bandwidth × log 2 L

In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used to represent data, and
BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second. Practically there is a limit on the signal levels. Increasing the levels of a
signal may reduce the reliability of the system.

 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity:

In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Claude Shannon introduced a
formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:

Capacity=Bandwith ×log 2(1+ SNR)

In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and capacity is the
capacity of the channel in bits per second. Note that in the Shannon formula, there is no indication of the signal level

d) Throughput/data transfer rate:

In computer network, throughput is defined as the actual number of bits that flows through a network connection in a
given period of time. Throughput is always less than or equal to bandwidth but can never exceed bandwidth. In a
computer network, the throughput can be affected by many factors as listed below:
• Network congestion due to heavy network usage.
• Too many users are accessing the same server.
• Low bandwidth allocation between network devices.
• Medium loss of a computer network.
• Resources (CPU, RAM) of network devices.
So even if you have a high bandwidth to your ISP, it may not guarantee that you will have a high throughput due to
the above factors. The below figure shows the difference between bandwidth and throughput.

The throughput is always measured in bits/s (bps). The data transfer rate (DTR) is measured as follows when the
above said factors are not affected the data transmission.

Actual data transfered ∈bits

DTR=
Time taken∈seconds

THEORETICAL BASIS FOR DATA COMMUNICATION

Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer transfers information, instructions to each
other and for sharing resources. Or in other words, communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive
data. A network of computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Autonomous
means no computer can start, stop or control another computer.

Components of Data Communication:

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to another. It could be
a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video
camera, or workstation, etc.
 3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium that connect
two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable to the
receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in
Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer connected to the internet and they
are:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into packets on the source
computer and reassembling the received packet at the destination or recipient computer. It also makes sure
that the packets have the information about the source of the message data, the destination of the message
data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the message has been sent
correctly to the specific destination.

 IP (Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how computer determines which packet belongs to which
device. What happens if the message you sent to your friend is received by your father? Scary Right. Well! IP
is responsible for handling the address of the destination computer so that each packet is sent to its proper
destination.

Type of data communication:

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one device to
another. The data communication is divided into three types:

1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional communication in

which one device only receives and another device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in
transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the same time. When one
device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For example, mobile
phones, landlines, etc.

Communication Channels:

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by
either wired media or wireless media. It is also known as a transmission medium. The transmission medium or
channel is a link that carries messages between two or more devices. We can group the communication media into two
categories:

 Guided media transmission

 Unguided media transmission

GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Transmission media is nothing but the physical layer or medium. The physical layer is to transport bits from one
machine to another. Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission. Media are roughly grouped into
TWO types.
✓ Guided media, such as copper wire and fiber optics
✓ Unguided media, such as terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers through the air.

Communication

Guided Media:

There are five types in guided media

1) Magnetic Media
2) Twisted Pairs
3) Coaxial Cable
4) Power Lines
5) Fiber Optics

1. Magnetic Media:

The most common ways to transport data from one computer to another is to write them onto magnetic tape or
removable media. Physically transport the tape or disks to the destination machine, and read them back in again. A
simple calculation will make this point clear.

An industry-standard Ultrium tape can hold 800 gigabytes. A box 60 × 60 × 60 cm can hold about 1000 of these tapes,
for a total capacity of 800 terabytes, or 6400 terabits (6.4 petabits). A box of tapes can be delivered anywhere in the
United States in 24 hours by Federal Express and other companies.

It is more cost effective, especially for applications in which high bandwidth or cost per bit transported. It has delay
characteristics are poor.

2. Twisted Pairs:

Its uses metallic (Copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current.

Twisted-pair cable

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick. The wires are twisted together in a
helical form. A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together. One of these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as ground reference. The
receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,
interference(noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the
effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the
noise or crosstalk sources. This results in a difference at the receiver.
Twisted pair cabling comes in several varieties: (1) Category 3 twisted pairs and (2) Category 5 twisted pairs.
(a) The category 3 twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires gently twisted together. For such pairs are
typically grouped in a plastic sheath to protect the wires and keep them together.
(b) The category 5 twisted pairs have more twists per centimetre, which results in less crosstalk and a better-
quality signal over longer distances, making them more suitable for high-speed computer communication.

Twisted Pair is of two types: (1) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and (2) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).

(a) Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable:

It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which consists of
two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic insulator. Identification is the reason behind coloured
plastic insulation. UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable.

(b) Shielded Twisted Pair Cable:

This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated conductors.
Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also eliminates crosstalk.

3. Coaxial Cable:

Another common transmission medium is the coaxial cable. Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used. One kind,
50-ohm cable, is commonly used when it is intended for digital transmission from the start. The other kind, 75-ohm
cable, is commonly used for analog transmission and cable television.

A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating material. The insulator is
encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely woven braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a
protective plastic sheath.

The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise
immunity.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable:

✓ Bandwidth is high
✓ Used in long distance telephone lines.
✓ Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
✓ Much higher noise immunity
✓ Data transmission without distortion.
✓ They can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to twisted pair
cable.
 Coaxial cable

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable:

✓ Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
✓ Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
✓ If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Categories of coaxial cables:

Applications of Coaxial Cable:

✓ Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a single coaxial network could carry 10,000
voice signals.
✓ Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network used coaxial
cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
✓ In traditional Ethernet LANs used it.

4. Power Lines:

The telephone and cable television networks are not the only sources of wiring that can be reused for data
communication. There is a yet more common kind of wiring: electrical power lines. Power lines deliver electrical
power to houses and electrical wiring within houses distributes the power to electrical outlets.

The use of power lines for data communication is an old idea. Power lines have been used by electricity companies for
low-rate communication such as remote metering for many years, as well in the home to control devices. Simply plug
a TV and a receiver into the wall, which you must do anyway because they need power, and they can send and receive
movies over the electrical wiring. There is no other plug or radio. The data signal is superimposed on the low-
frequency power signal (on the active or ‘‘hot’’ wire) as both signals use the wiring at the same time.

The difficulty with using household electrical wiring for a network is that it was designed to distribute power signals.
This task is quite different than distributing data signals, at which household wiring does a horrible job. Electrical
signals are sent at 50–60 Hz and the wiring attenuates the much higher frequency (MHz) signals needed for high-rate
data communication.
 Power Lines

5. Fiber Optic Cable:

A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. For better understanding we
first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is mobbing
through a single uniform substance. If ray of light travelling through one substance suddenly enters another substance
(of a different density), the ray changes direction. The below figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when
going from a denser to a less dense substance.

Optical Fiber

Light reflection at fibre cable

As the figure shows:
• If the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the interface between the two
substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface.
• If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in the
denser substance.
• If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves parallel to the surface as shown.

Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of
less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it. Based on this concept, the fiber is
classified into two categories:
• Single-mode fiber - Carries light pulses along single path and Uses Laser Light Source.
• Multimode fiber - Many pulses of light generated by LED travel at different angles.

Multimode fiber
 Single-mode fiber

Transmission of Light Through:

Fiber Optical fibers are made of glass, which, in turn, is made from sand, an inexpensive raw material available in
unlimited amounts. Glassmaking was known to the ancient Egyptians, but their glass had to be no more than 1 mm
thick or the light could not shine through. Glass transparent enough to be useful for windows was developed during
the Renaissance. The glass used for modern optical fibers is so transparent that if the oceans were full of it instead of
water, the seabed would be as visible from the surface as the ground is from an airplane on a clear day.

Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable:

Fibre optic has several advantages over metallic cable:

✓ Higher bandwidth
✓ Less signal attenuation
✓ Immunity to electromagnetic interference
✓ Resistance to corrosive materials
✓ Light weight
✓ Greater immunity to tapping

Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable:

There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fibre:

✓ Installation and maintenance
✓ Unidirectional light propagation
✓ High Cost

Applications of Fibre Optic Cable

✓ Often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective.

✓ Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fibre and coaxial cable thus creating a hybrid network.
✓ Local-area Networks such as 100Base-FX network and 1000Base-X also use fibre optic cable.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUIDED AND UNGUIDED MEDIA

S.
Guided Media Unguided Media
No.
The guided media is also called wired The unguided media is also called wireless
1. communication or bounded transmission communication or unbounded transmission
media. media.
The signal energy propagates through wires The signal energy propagates through the air
2.
in guided media. in unguided media.
Guided media is used for point-to-point Unguided media is generally suited for radio
3.
communication. broadcasting in all directions.
4. It is cost-effective. It is expensive.
Discrete network topologies are formed by Continuous network topologies are formed by
5.
the guided media. the unguided media.
Signals are in the form of voltage, current, or Signals are in the form of electromagnetic
6.
photons in the guided media. waves in unguided media.
Examples of guided media are twisted pair
Examples of unguided media are microwave
7. wires, coaxial cables, and optical fiber
or radio links and infrared light.
cables.
 By adding more wires, the transmission It is not possible to obtain additional capacity
8.
capacity can be increased in guided media. in unguided media.
It sends out a signal that indicates which
9. It does not indicate which way to travel.
way to go.
10. For a shorter distance, this is the best option. For longer distances, this method is used.
11. It is unable to pass through walls. It can pass through walls.

CONNECTION-ORIENTED VS CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE

S. Comparison
Connection-oriented Service Connection Less Service
No Parameter
It is designed and developed based on
1. Related System It is service based on the postal system.
the telephone system.
It is used to create an end-to-end
It is used to transfer the data packets
connection between the senders to the
2. Definition between senders to the receiver without
receiver before transmitting the data
creating any connection.
over the same or different network.
It does not create any virtual connection
It creates a virtual path between the
3. Virtual path or path between the sender and the
sender and the receiver.
receiver.
It requires authentication before
It does not require authentication before
4. Authentication transmitting the data packets to the
transferring data packets.
receiver.
Data Packets All data packets are received in the same Not all data packets are received in the
5.
Path order as those sent by the sender. same order as those sent by the sender.
Bandwidth It requires a higher bandwidth to transfer It requires low bandwidth to transfer the
6.
Requirement the data packets. data packets.
It is a more reliable connection service It is not a reliable connection service
because it guarantees data packets because it does not guarantee the transfer
7. Data Reliability
transfer from one end to the other end of data packets from one end to another
with a connection. for establishing a connection.
There may be congestion due to not
There is no congestion as it provides an
providing an end-to-end connection
8. Congestion end-to-end connection between sender
between the source and receiver to
and receiver during transmission of data.
transmit of data packets.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Internet
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is
Protocol (IP), and Internet Control
9. Examples an example of a connection-oriented
Message Protocol (ICMP) are examples of
service.
connectionless service.
 QUESTIONS

2 MARKS

1. Define: “Internet”.
2. What are the functions of ATM?
3. Define the term “MAN”.
4. Define the term “Network”.
5. What do you mean by OSI?
6. What are the responsibilities of data link layer?
7. Write down the functions of network layer.
8. Define: “Internet”.
9. Define: “LAN”.
10. What is fiber optics?
11. Write a note on bandwidth.
12. List the uses of computer networks.
13. What is Subnet?
14. Define a standard 802.3
15. List the advantage of fiber optics.
16. What are the types of network structure?
17. What is meant by Data Communication?
18. What is the purpose of Physical Layer?
19. List the various Guided Media used for transmission.
20. Define Local Area Network.
21. Explain Interfaces.
22. Define Wide Area Network.
23. What is meant by Transmission Medium?
24. Define: layer.
25. What is an E-Mail?

5 MARKS

1. Elaborate the need of Ethernet and wireless LANs.

2. What are the service primitives of Network software? Explain.
3. How to guided media differ from unguided media?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber?
5. Differentiate between the connection-oriented and connectionless services.
6. Explain the functions of coaxial cable with diagram.
7. Explain the functions of the layer in the TCP\IP model.
8. Compare OSI and TCP/IP reference models.
9. Discuss about the characteristics of Fiber optic.
10. Briefly explain about Layers of OSI Model.
11. Briefly explain about Structure of Network.
12. Discuss about the different types of network structure.

10 MARKS

1. Draw and explain the architecture of TCP/IP reference models.

2. Compare the functions of LAN, WAN, and MAN.
3. Illustrate the architecture and functions of ATM Ethernet.
4. Describe any two types of transmission medium.
5. What is OSI Model? Explain the functions of OSI reference Model.
6. Explain in detail about uses of Networks.
7. Briefly explain about Structure of Network.
8. Explain in detail about the layers of OSI model.