1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
_____________________________________________________________________

The main aim of the project is to protect the higher KVA power distribution
transformer from high voltages, high load currents, low frequency, high temperature.
The project is basically design by using micro controllers, analog to digital conversion
and counters. The power supply automatically enters into the off state when one of the
fallowing situations occurred.

 The input voltage of the transformer exceeds the specified limit.

 The input frequency of the transformer reduces the specified limit.
 The transformer draws more than the specified load current.
 When the temperature of the transformer exceeds the specified limit.

We will use the different sensors for the voltage transformer,

current transformer, frequency counter and temperature measuring processor.
Here for the purpose of transformer measurement we are not used any sensor the
temperature needs from temperature processor
DS-1620.

The project is basically designed with MS-51 series 89C52 micro

controller.

We have established a RS-232 port for the purpose of future expansion to

communicate with PC for storing different parameters with respect to time and
date.
 2

CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
___________________________________________________________

POWER
INPUT RELAY T/F OUTPUT

CURRENT FULL-
T/F WAVE DIVIDER
BRIDGE
RECT
ADC

HALF- 89C5
VOLTAGE WAVE 1
INPUT DIVIDER
RECT MAX
232C

INPUT
FREQUE RECTIFIER COMPARATOR
NCY

THERMAL
SENSOR COMPARATOR PC
 3

CHAPTER 3
AT 89C51
___________________________________________________________

The microcontroller generic part number actually includes a whole

family of microcontrollers that have numbers ranging from 8031 to 8751 and are
available in N-Channel Metal Oxide Silicon (NMOS) and Complementary Metal
Oxide Silicon (CMOS) construction in a variety of package types.

3.1 Features
 Compatible with MCS-51 Products
 4 Kbytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000
write/Erase Cycles
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
 Three-Level Program Memory Lock
 Programmable Serial Channel
 Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes
 Eight-bit CPU with registers A (accumulator) and B
 Sixteen-bit program counter (PC) and data pointer (DPTR)
 Eight-bit program status word (PSW)
 Eight-bit stack pointer (SP)
 Internal ROM or EPROM of 0 to 4K
 Internal RAM of 128 bytes
1. Four register banks, each containing eight registers
2. Sixteen bytes, which may be addressed at the bit level
3. Eighty bytes of general-purpose data memory
 Thirty-two input/output pins arranged as four 8-bit ports:P0-P3
 Two 16-bit timer/counters: T0 and T1
 Full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter: SBUF
 Control registers: TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP and IE
 Two external and three internal interrupt sources
 Oscillator and clock circuits
 4

3.2 Description
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer
with 4Kbytes of Flash Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM).
The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51instruction set
and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-
system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a
versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a
powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution
to many embedded control applications. The AT89C51 provides the following
standard features: 4 Kbytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit
timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port,
on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with
static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable
power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power
Down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip
functions until the next hardware reset.

Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port each
pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used
as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed
loworder address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In
this mode P0 has internal pullups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash
programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External
pullups are required during program verification

Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins
they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
 5

internal pullups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash
programming and program verification.

3.1 Pin diagram of 89C51

Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins
they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pullups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external
program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit
addresses (MOVX@ DPTR). In this application it uses strong internal pull-ups when
emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses
(MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2
also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.
 6

Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins
they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
pullups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as
listed below:

RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the
oscillator is running resets the device.

ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input
(PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant
rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking
purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to
external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of
SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC
 7

instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has
no effect if the microcrontroller is in external execution mode.

PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program
memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory,
PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are
skipped during each access to external data memory.

EA/VPP
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to
enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at
0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be
internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program
executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP)
during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP.

XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating
circuit.

XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

3.3 Oscillator Characteristics

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an
inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown
in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the
device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while
XTAL1 is driven . There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock
signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two
flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must
be observed.
 8

3.4 Idle Mode

In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the onchip
peripherals remain active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-
chip RAM and all the special functions registers remain unchanged during this mode.
The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset. It
should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hardware reset, the device normally
resumes program execution, from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before
the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hard-ware inhibits access to
internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate
the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated by reset,
the instruction following the one that invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a
port pin or to external memory.

3.5 Power Down Mode

In the power down mode the oscillator is stopped, and the
instruction that invokes power down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip
RAM and Special Function Registers retain their values until the power down mode is
terminated. The only exit from power down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the
SFRs but does not change the onchip RAM.
 9

GND
Vcc P0.0-P0.7 P2.0-P2.7

Port 0 Drives Port2 Drives

RAM
Address Port0 Port2
RAM Latch Latch Flash
Register

B Stack Program
Register ACC Pointer Address
Register

TMP2 TMP1 Buffer

PC
ALU Incrementer

Interrupt, Serial- Program

PSW Port, Timer Blocks counter

DPTR
Timing and Instruction
Control register

Port1 Port3
Latch Latch

OSC Port1 Drives Port3 Drives

P1.0-P1.7 P3.0-P3.7

3.2 Block Diagram of 89C51

3.6 Program Memory Lock Bits
 10

On the chip are three lock bits which can be left unprogrammed (U) or can
be programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the table below:
When lock bit 1 is programmed, the logic level at the EA pin is sampled and
latched during reset. If the device is powered up without a reset, the latch initializes to
a random value, and holds that value until reset is activated. It is necessary that the
latched value of EA be in agreement with the current logic level at that pin in order
for the device to function properly.

3.7 Program Counter and Data Pointer

The 8051 contains two 16-bit registers: the program counter (PC) and
the data pointer (DPTR), Each is used to hold the address of a byte in memory. The
PC is the only register that does not have an internal address. The DPTR is under the
control of program instructions and can be specified by its 16-bit name, DPTR, or by
each individual byte name, DPH and DPL. DPTR does not have a single internal
address, DPH and DPL are each assigned an address.

3.8 A and B Registers

The 8051 contains 34 general-purpose, working, registers. Two of
these, registers A and B, hold results of many instructions, particularly math and
logical operations, of the 8051 CPU. The other 32 are arranged as part of internal
RAM in four banks, B0-B3, of eight registers. The A register is also used for all data
transfers between the 8051 and any external memory. The B register is used for with
the A register for multiplication and division operations.

3.9 Flags and the Program Status Word (PSW)

Flags may be conveniently addressed, they are grouped inside
the program status word (PSW) and the power control (PCON) registers. The 8051
has four math flags that respond automatically to the outcomes of math operations and
three general-purpose user flags that can be set to 1 or cleared to 0 by the programmer
as desired. The math flags include Carry (C), Auxiliary Carry (AC), Overflow (OV),
and Parity (P). User flags are named F0,GF0 and GF1, they are general-purpose flags
that may be used by the programmer to record some event in the program.
 11

3.10 Internal Memory

The 8051 has internal RAM and ROM memory for the functions.
Additional memory can be added externally using suitable circuits. This has a
Harvard architecture, which uses the same address, in different memories, for code
and data.
3.11 Internal RAM
The 128-byte internal RAM is organized into three distinct areas

1. Thirty-two bytes from address 00h to 1Fh that make up 32 working registers
organized four banks of eight registers each. The four register banks are
numbered 0 to 3 and are made up of eight registers named R0 to R7. Each
register can be addressed by name or by its RAM address. Thus R0 of bank 3
is R0 (if bank 3 is currently selected) or address 18h (whether bank 3 is
selected or not). Bits RS0 and RS1 in the PSW determine which bank of
registers is currently in use at any time when the program is running.

3.4 Internal RAM Organization

 12

Byte
Byte Address
Address

1F R7
b 1E R6
a 7F
1D R5
n 1C R4
k 1B R3
3 1A R2
19 R1
18 R0
17 R7
b
16 R6
a
15 R5
n
14 R4
k
13 R3 Byte Bit
2
12 R2 Address Addresses
11 R1
10 R0
0F R7 2F 7F 78
b 0E R6 2E 77 70
a 0D R5 2D 6F 68
n 0C R4 2C 67 60
k 0B R3 2B 5F 58
1 0A R2 2A 57 50
09 R1 29 4F 48
08 R0 28 47 40
07 R7 27 3F 38
b 06 R6 26 37 30
a 05 R5 25 2F 28
n 04 R4 24 27 20
k 03 R3 23 1F 18
0 02 R2 22 17 10
01 R1 21 0F 08
00 R0 20 07 00 30

Working Registers Bit Addressable General Purpose

Registers banks not selected can be used as a general-purpose RAM. Bank 0 is

selected on reset.
 13

2. A bit-addressable area of 16 bytes occupies RAM byte addresses 20h to 2Fh,

forming a total of 128 addressable bits. An addressable bit may be specified by its bit
address of 00h to 7Fh, to 8 bits may form any byte address form 20h to 2Fh.
3. A genersl-purpose RAM area above the bit area, from 30h to 7Fh, addressable as
bytes.
3.12 Special Function Registers
The 8051 operations that do not use the internal 128-byte RAM
addresses from 00h to 7Fh are done by a group of specific internal registers, each
called a Special Function register, which may be addressed much like internal RAM,
using addresses from 80h to FFh. PC is not part of the SFR and has no internal RAM
address.

3.13 The Stack and Stack Pointer

The stack refers to an area of internal RAM that is used in
conjunction with certain opcodes to store and retrieve data quickly. The 8-bit stack
 14

pointer register is used by the 8051 to hold an internal RAM address that is called the
top of the stack. The address held in the SP register is the location in internal RAM
where the last byte of data was stored by a stack operation. When data is to be placed
on the stack, the SP increments before storing data on the stack sothat the stack grows
up as data is stored. As data is retrieved from the stack, the byte is read from the
stack, then the SP decrements to point to the next available byte of stored data.

3.14 Internal ROM

The 8051 is organized so that data memory and program code
memory can be in two entirely different physical memory entities. Each has the same
address ranges. Program addresses higher than 0FFFh, which exceeds the internal
ROM capacity, will cause the 8051 to automatically fetch code bytes from external
program memory. Code bytes can also be fetched exclusively from an external
memory by connecting the external access pin to ground.
 15

CHAPTER 4
TRANSFORMER

4.1 Introduction

The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one

electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and
without a change in the frequency. The electric circuit which receives energy from the
supply mains is called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electric
energy to the load is called the secondary winding.

. This is a very useful device, indeed. With it, we can easily multiply
or divide voltage and current in AC circuits. Indeed, the transformer has made long-
distance transmission of electric power a practical reality, as AC voltage can be
"stepped up" and current "stepped down" for reduced wire resistance power losses
along power lines connecting generating stations with loads. At either end (both the
generator and at the loads), voltage levels are reduced by transformers for safer
operation and less expensive equipment. A transformer that increases voltage from
primary to secondary (more secondary winding turns than primary winding turns) is
called a step-up transformer. Conversely, a transformer designed to do just the
opposite is called a step-down transformer.

This is a step-down transformer, as evidenced by the high turn count of

the primary winding and the low turn count of the secondary. As a step-down unit,
this transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power into low-voltage, high-
 16

current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the secondary winding is necessary due
to the increase in current. The primary winding, which doesn't have to conduct as
much current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire.

In case you were wondering, it is possible to operate either of these

transformer types backwards (powering the secondary winding with an AC source
and letting the primary winding power a load) to perform the opposite function: a
step-up can function as a step-down and visa-versa. However, as we saw in the first
section of this chapter, efficient operation of a transformer requires that the individual
winding inductances be engineered for specific operating ranges of voltage and
current, so if a transformer is to be used "backwards" like this it must be employed
within the original design parameters of voltage and current for each winding, lest it
prove to be inefficient (or lest it be damaged by excessive voltage or current!).

Transformers are often constructed in such a way that it is not obvious

which wires lead to the primary winding and which lead to the secondary. One
convention used in the electric power industry to help alleviate confusion is the use of
"H" designations for the higher-voltage winding (the primary winding in a step-down
unit; the secondary winding in a step-up) and "X" designations for the lower-voltage
winding. Therefore, a simple power transformer will have wires labeled "H1", "H2",
"X1", and "X2". There is usually significance to the numbering of the wires (H1 versus
H2, etc.), which we'll explore a little later in this chapter.

The fact that voltage and current get "stepped" in opposite directions
(one up, the other down) makes perfect sense when you recall that power is equal to
voltage times current, and realize that transformers cannot produce power, only
convert it. Any device that could output more power than it took in would violate the
Law of Energy Conservation in physics, namely that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only converted. As with the first transformer example we looked at, power
transfer efficiency is very good from the primary to the secondary sides of the device.

The practical significance of this is made more apparent when an

alternative is considered: before the advent of efficient transformers, voltage/current
level conversion could only be achieved through the use of motor/generator sets. A
drawing of a motor/generator set reveals the basic principle involved:
 17

In such a machine, a motor is mechanically coupled to a generator, the

generator designed to produce the desired levels of voltage and current at the rotating
speed of the motor. While both motors and generators are fairly efficient devices, the
use of both in this fashion compounds their inefficiencies so that the overall efficiency
is in the range of 90% or less. Furthermore, because motor/generator sets obviously
require moving parts, mechanical wear and balance are factors influencing both
service life and performance. Transformers, on the other hand, are able to convert
levels of AC voltage and current at very high efficiencies with no moving parts,
making possible the widespread distribution and use of electric power we take for
granted.

In all fairness it should be noted that motor/generator sets have not

necessarily been obsoleted by transformers for all applications. While transformers
are clearly superior over motor/generator sets for AC voltage and current level
conversion, they cannot convert one frequency of AC power to another, or (by
themselves) convert DC to AC or visa-versa. Motor/generator sets can do all these
things with relative simplicity, albeit with the limitations of efficiency and mechanical
factors already described. Motor/generator sets also have the unique property of
kinetic energy storage: that is, if the motor's power supply is momentarily interrupted
for any reason, its angular momentum (the inertia of that rotating mass) will maintain
rotation of the generator for a short duration, thus isolating any loads powered by the
generator from "glitches" in the main power system.
 18

Looking closely at the numbers in the SPICE analysis, we should see a

correspondence between the transformer's ratio and the two inductances. Notice how
the primary inductor (l1) has 100 times more inductance than the secondary inductor
(10000 H versus 100 H), and that the measured voltage step-down ratio was 10 to 1.
The winding with more inductance will have higher voltage and less current than the
other. Since the two inductors are wound around the same core material in the
transformer (for the most efficient magnetic coupling between the two), the
parameters affecting inductance for the two coils are equal except for the number of
turns in each coil. If we take another look at our inductance formula, we see that
inductance is proportional to the square of the number of coil turns:

Some important points in the case of transformers are

 Transformers "step up" or "step down" voltage according to the ratios of

secondary turns

 A transformer designed to increase voltage from primary to secondary is called a

step-up transformer. A transformer designed to reduce voltage from primary to
secondary is called a step-down transformer.
 The transformation ratio of a transformer will be equal to the square root of its
primary to secondary inductance (L) ratio.
 19

The step-up/step-down effect of coil turn ratios in a transformer is analogous

to gear tooth ratios in mechanical gear systems, transforming values of speed and
torque in much the same way:

So, it should be apparent that our two inductors in the last SPICE
transformer example circuit -- with inductance ratios of 100:1 -- should have coil turn
ratios of 10:1, because 10 squared equals 100. This works out to be the same ratio we
found between primary and secondary voltages and currents (10:1), so we can say as a
rule that the voltage and current transformation ratio is equal to the ratio of winding
turns between primary and secondary.
 20

The main features of the transformers are given below

4.2 Power capacity

As has already been observed, transformers must be well designed in

order to achieve acceptable power coupling, tight voltage regulation, and low exciting
current distortion. Also, transformers must be designed to carry the expected values of
primary and secondary winding current without any trouble. This means the winding
conductors must be made of the proper gauge wire to avoid any heating problems. An
ideal transformer would have perfect coupling (no leakage inductance), perfect
voltage regulation, perfectly sinusoidal exciting current, no hysteresis or eddy current
losses, and wire thick enough to handle any amount of current. Unfortunately, the
ideal transformer would have to be infinitely large and heavy to meet these design
goals. Thus, in the business of practical transformer design, compromises must be
made.

Additionally, winding conductor insulation is a concern where high

voltages are encountered, as they often are in step-up and step-down power
distribution transformers. Not only do the windings have to be well insulated from the
iron core, but each winding has to be sufficiently insulated from the other in order to
maintain electrical isolation between windings.

Respecting these limitations, transformers are rated for certain levels of

primary and secondary winding voltage and current, though the current rating is
usually derived from a volt-amp (VA) rating assigned to the transformer. For
example, take a step-down transformer with a primary voltage rating of 120 volts, a
secondary voltage rating of 48 volts, and a VA rating of 1 kVA (1000 VA). The
maximum winding currents can be determined as such:
 21

Sometimes windings will bear current ratings in amps, but this is

typically seen on small transformers. Large transformers are almost always rated in
terms of winding voltage and VA or kVA.

4.3 Energy losses

When transformers transfer power, they do so with a minimum of loss.

As it was stated earlier, modern power transformer designs typically exceed 95%
efficiency. It is good to know where some of this lost power goes, however, and what
causes it to be lost. There is, of course, power lost due to resistance of the wire
windings. Unless superconducting wires are used, there will always be power
dissipated in the form of heat through the resistance of current-carrying conductors.
Because transformers require such long lengths of wire, this loss can be a significant
factor. Increasing the gauge of the winding wire is one way to minimize this loss, but
only with substantial increases in cost, size, and weight.

Resistive losses aside, the bulk of transformer power loss is due to

magnetic effects in the core. Perhaps the most significant of these "core losses" is
eddy-current loss, which is resistive power dissipation due to the passage of induced
currents through the iron of the core. Because iron is a conductor of electricity as well
as being an excellent "conductor" of magnetic flux, there will be currents induced in
the iron just as there are currents induced in the secondary windings from the
alternating magnetic field. These induced currents -- as described by the
perpendicularity clause of Faraday's Law -- tend to circulate through the cross-section
of the core perpendicularly to the primary winding turns. Their circular motion gives
them their unusual name: like eddies in a stream of water that circulate rather than
move in straight lines.

Iron is a fair conductor of electricity, but not as good as the copper or

aluminum from which wire windings are typically made. Consequently, these "eddy
currents" must overcome significant electrical resistance as they circulate through the
core. In overcoming the resistance offered by the iron, they dissipate power in the
form of heat. Hence, we have a source of inefficiency in the transformer that is
difficult to eliminate.
 22

This phenomenon is so pronounced that it is often exploited as a means

of heating ferrous (iron-containing) materials. The following photograph shows an
"induction heating" unit raising the temperature of a large pipe section. Loops of wire
covered by high-temperature insulation encircle the pipe's circumference, inducing
eddy currents within the pipe wall by electromagnetic induction. In order to maximize
the eddy current effect, high-frequency alternating current is used rather than power
line frequency (60 Hz). The box units at the right of the picture produce the high-
frequency AC and control the amount of current in the wires to stabilize the pipe
temperature at a pre-determined "set-point." The main strategy in mitigating these
wasteful eddy currents in transformer cores is to form the iron core in sheets, each
sheet covered with an insulating varnish so that the core is divided up into thin slices.
The result is very little width in the core for eddy currents to circulate in:

Laminated cores like the one shown here are standard in almost all low-
frequency transformers. Recall from the photograph of the transformer cut in half that
the iron core was composed of many thin sheets rather than one solid piece. Eddy
current losses increase with frequency, so transformers designed to run on higher-
frequency power (such as 400 Hz, used in many military and aircraft applications)
must use thinner laminations to keep the losses down to a respectable minimum. This
has the undesirable effect of increasing the manufacturing cost of the transformer.

Another, similar technique for minimizing eddy current losses which

works better for high-frequency applications is to make the core out of iron powder
instead of thin iron sheets. Like the lamination sheets, these granules of iron are
individually coated in an electrically insulating material, which makes the core
nonconductive except for within the width of each granule. Powdered iron cores are
often found in transformers handling radio-frequency currents.
 23

Another "core loss" is that of magnetic hysteresis. All ferromagnetic

materials tend to retain some degree of magnetization after exposure to an external
magnetic field. This tendency to stay magnetized is called "hysteresis," and it takes a
certain investment in energy to overcome this opposition to change every time the
magnetic field produced by the primary winding changes polarity (twice per AC
cycle). This type of loss can be mitigated through good core material selection
(choosing a core alloy with low hysteresis, as evidenced by a "thin" B/H hysteresis
curve), and designing the core for minimum flux density (large cross-sectional area).
Transformer energy losses tend to worsen with increasing frequency. The skin effect
within winding conductors reduces the available cross-sectional area for electron
flow, thereby increasing effective resistance as the frequency goes up and creating
more power lost through resistive dissipation. Magnetic core losses are also
exaggerated with higher frequencies, eddy currents and hysteresis effects becoming
more severe. For this reason, transformers of significant size are designed to operate
efficiently in a limited range of frequencies. In most power distribution systems where
the line frequency is very stable, one would think excessive frequency would never
pose a problem. Unfortunately it does, in the form of harmonics created by nonlinear
loads.

As we've seen , nonsinusoidal waveforms are equivalent to additive

series of multiple sinusoidal waveforms at different amplitudes and frequencies. In
power systems, these other frequencies are whole-number multiples of the
fundamental (line) frequency, meaning that they will always be higher, not lower,
than the design frequency of the transformer. In significant measure, they can cause
severe transformer overheating. Power transformers can be engineered to handle
certain levels of power system harmonics, and this capability is sometimes denoted
with a "K factor" rating.

4.4 Stray capacitance and inductance

Aside from power ratings and power losses, transformers often harbor
other undesirable limitations which circuit designers must be made aware of. Like
their simpler counterparts -- inductors -- transformers exhibit capacitance due to the
insulation dielectric between conductors: from winding to winding, turn to turn (in a
single winding), and winding to core. Usually this capacitance is of no concern in a
 24

power application, but small signal applications (especially those of high frequency)
may not tolerate this quirk well. Also, the effect of having capacitance along with the
windings' designed inductance gives transformers the ability to resonate at a
particular frequency, definitely a design concern in signal applications where the
applied frequency may reach this point (usually the resonant frequency of a power
transformer is well beyond the frequency of the AC power it was designed to operate
on). Flux containment (making sure a transformer's magnetic flux doesn't escape so as
to interfere with another device, and making sure other devices' magnetic flux is
shielded from the transformer core) is another concern shared both by inductors and
transformers.

Closely related to the issue of flux containment is leakage inductance.

We've already seen the detrimental effects of leakage inductance on voltage
regulation with SPICE simulations early in this chapter. Because leakage inductance
is equivalent to an inductance connected in series with the transformer's winding, it
manifests itself as a series impedance with the load. Thus, the more current drawn by
the load, the less voltage available at the secondary winding terminals. Usually, good
voltage regulation is desired in transformer design, but there are exceptional
applications. As was stated before, discharge lighting circuits require a step-up
transformer with "loose" (poor) voltage regulation to ensure reduced voltage after the
establishment of an arc through the lamp. One way to meet this design criterion is to
engineer the transformer with flux leakage paths for magnetic flux to bypass the
secondary winding(s). The resulting leakage flux will produce leakage inductance,
which will in turn produce the poor regulation needed for discharge lighting.

4.5 Core saturation

Transformers are also constrained in their performance by the magnetic

flux limitations of the core. For ferromagnetic core transformers, we must be mindful
of the saturation limits of the core. Remember that ferromagnetic materials cannot
support infinite magnetic flux densities: they tend to "saturate" at a certain level
(dictated by the material and core dimensions), meaning that further increases in
magnetic field force (mmf) do not result in proportional increases in magnetic field
flux (Φ).
 25

When a transformer's primary winding is overloaded from excessive

applied voltage, the core flux may reach saturation levels during peak moments of the
AC sinewave cycle. If this happens, the voltage induced in the secondary winding will
no longer match the wave-shape as the voltage powering the primary coil. In other
words, the overloaded transformer will distort the waveshape from primary to
secondary windings, creating harmonics in the secondary winding's output. As we
discussed before, harmonic content in AC power systems typically causes problems.
Special transformers known as peaking transformers exploit this principle to produce
brief voltage pulses near the peaks of the source voltage waveform. The core is
designed to saturate quickly and sharply, at voltage levels well below peak. This
results in a severely cropped sine-wave flux waveform, and secondary voltage pulses
only when the flux is changing (below saturation levels):

Another cause of abnormal transformer core saturation is operation at

frequencies lower than normal. For example, if a power transformer designed to
operate at 60 Hz is forced to operate at 50 Hz instead, the flux must reach greater peak
levels than before in order to produce the same opposing voltage needed to balance
 26

against the source voltage. This is true even if the source voltage is the same as
before.

Since instantaneous winding voltage is proportional to the instantaneous

magnetic flux's rate of change in a transformer, a voltage waveform reaching the
same peak value, but taking a longer amount of time to complete each half-cycle,
demands that the flux maintain the same rate of change as before, but for longer
periods of time. Thus, if the flux has to climb at the same rate as before, but for longer
periods of time, it will climb to a greater peak value

Mathematically, this is another example of calculus in action. Because

the voltage is proportional to the flux's rate-of-change, we say that the voltage
waveform is the derivative of the flux waveform, "derivative" being that calculus
operation defining one mathematical function (waveform) in terms of the rate-of-
change of another. If we take the opposite perspective, though, and relate the original
waveform to its derivative, we may call the original waveform the integral of the
 27

derivative waveform. In this case, the voltage waveform is the derivative of the flux
waveform, and the flux waveform is the integral of the voltage waveform.

The integral of any mathematical function is proportional to the area

accumulated underneath the curve of that function. Since each half-cycle of the 50 Hz
waveform accumulates more area between it and the zero line of the graph than the 60
Hz waveform will -- and we know that the magnetic flux is the integral of the voltage
-- the flux will attain higher values:

For most transformers, core saturation is a very undesirable effect, and it is

avoided through good design: engineering the windings and core so that magnetic flux
densities remain well below the saturation levels. This ensures that the relationship
between mmf and Φ is more linear throughout the flux cycle, which is good because it
makes for less distortion in the magnetization current waveform. Also, engineering
the core for low flux densities provides a safe margin between the normal flux peaks
and the core saturation limits to accommodate occasional, abnormal conditions such
as frequency variation and DC offset.
 28

Yet another cause of transformer saturation is the presence of DC current

in the primary winding. Any amount of DC voltage dropped across the primary
winding of a transformer will cause additional magnetic flux in the core. This
additional flux "bias" or "offset" will push the alternating flux waveform closer to
saturation in one half-cycle than the other:

4.6 Inrush current

When a transformer is initially connected to a source of AC voltage,

there may be a substantial surge of current through the primary winding called inrush
current. This is analogous to the inrush current exhibited by an electric motor that is
started up by sudden connection to a power source, although transformer inrush is
caused by a different phenomenon.

We know that the rate of change of instantaneous flux in a transformer

core is proportional to the instantaneous voltage drop across the primary winding. Or,
as stated before, the voltage waveform is the derivative of the flux waveform, and the
flux waveform is the integral of the voltage waveform. In a continuously-operating
transformer, these two waveforms are phase-shifted by 90 o. Since flux (Φ) is
proportional to the magnetomotive force (mmf) in the core, and the mmf is
proportional to winding current, the current waveform will be in-phase with the flux
waveform, and both will be lagging the voltage waveform by 90o:
 29

Let us suppose that the primary winding of a transformer is suddenly

connected to an AC voltage source at the exact moment in time when the
instantaneous voltage is at its positive peak value. In order for the transformer to
create an opposing voltage drop to balance against this applied source voltage, a
magnetic flux of rapidly increasing value must be generated. The result is that
winding current increases rapidly, but actually no more rapidly than under normal
conditions:

Both core flux and coil current start from zero and build up to the same
peak values experienced during continuous operation. Thus, there is no "surge" or
"inrush" or current in this scenario.

Alternatively, let us consider what happens if the transformer's

connection to the AC voltage source occurs at the exact moment in time when the
instantaneous voltage is at zero. During continuous operation (when the transformer
has been powered for quite some time), this is the point in time where both flux and
winding current are at their negative peaks, experiencing zero rate-of-change (dΦ/dt =
0 and di/dt = 0). As the voltage builds to its positive peak, the flux and current
waveforms build to their maximum positive rates-of-change, and on upward to their
positive peaks as the voltage descends to a level of zero in fig 4.9.

A significant difference exists, however, between continuous-mode

operation and the sudden starting condition assumed in this scenario: during
continuous operation, the flux and current levels were at their negative peaks when
 30

voltage was at its zero point; in a transformer that has been sitting idle, however, both
magnetic flux and winding current should start at zero. When the magnetic flux
increases in response to a rising voltage, it will increase from zero upward, not from a
previously negative (magnetized) condition as we would normally have in a
transformer that's been powered for awhile. Thus, in a transformer that's just
"starting," the flux will reach approximately twice its normal peak magnitude as it
"integrates" the area under the voltage waveform's first half-cycle:

In an ideal transformer, the magnetizing current would rise to approximately twice

its normal peak value as well, generating the necessary mmf to create this higher-
than-normal flux. However, most transformers aren't designed with enough of a
margin between normal flux peaks and the saturation limits to avoid saturating in a
condition like this, and so the core will almost certainly saturate during this first half-
cycle of voltage. During saturation, disproportionate amounts of mmf are needed to
generate magnetic flux. This means that winding current, which creates the mmf to
cause flux in the core, will disproportionately rise to a value easily exceeding twice its
normal peak:
 31

This is the mechanism causing inrush current in a transformer's primary

winding when connected to an AC voltage source. As you can see, the magnitude of
the inrush current strongly depends on the exact time that electrical connection to the
 32

source is made. If the transformer happens to have some residual magnetism in its
core at the moment of connection to the source, the inrush could be even more severe.

4.7 Heat and Noise

In addition to unwanted electrical effects, transformers may also exhibit

undesirable physical effects, the most notable being the production of heat and noise.
Noise is primarily a nuisance effect, but heat is a potentially serious problem because
winding insulation will be damaged if allowed to overheat. Heating may be
minimized by good design, ensuring that the core does not approach saturation levels,
that eddy currents are minimized, and that the windings are not overloaded or
operated too close to maximum ampacity.

Large power transformers have their core and windings submerged in an

oil bath to transfer heat and muffle noise, and also to displace moisture which would
otherwise compromise the integrity of the winding insulation. Heat-dissipating
"radiator" tubes on the outside of the transformer case provide a convective oil flow
path to transfer heat from the transformer's core to ambient air:

Oil-less, or "dry," transformers are often rated in terms of maximum operating

temperature "rise" (temperature increase beyond ambient) according to a letter-class
system: A, B, F, or H. These letter codes are arranged in order of lowest heat
tolerance to highest:
 33

 Class A: No more than 55o Celsius winding temperature rise, at 40o Celsius
(maximum) ambient air temperature.
 Class B: No more than 80o Celsius winding temperature rise, at 40o Celsius
(maximum)ambient air temperature.
 Class F: No more than 115o Celsius winding temperature rise, at 40o Celsius
(maximum)ambient air temperature.
 Class H: No more than 150o Celsius winding temperature rise, at 40o Celsius
(maximum)ambient air temperature.

Audible noise is an effect primarily originating from the phenomenon

of magnetostriction: the slight change of length exhibited by a ferromagnetic object
when magnetized. The familiar "hum" heard around large power transformers is the
sound of the iron core expanding and contracting at 120 Hz (twice the system
frequency, which is 60 Hz in the United States) -- one cycle of core contraction and
expansion for every peak of the magnetic flux waveform -- plus noise created by
mechanical forces between primary and secondary windings. Again, maintaining low
magnetic flux levels in the core is the key to minimizing this effect, which explains
why ferroresonant transformers -- which must operate in saturation for a large portion
of the current waveform -- operate both hot and noisy.

Another noise-producing phenomenon in power transformers is the

physical reaction force between primary and secondary windings when heavily
loaded. If the secondary winding is open-circuited, there will be no current through it,
and consequently no magneto-motive force (mmf) produced by it. However, when the
secondary is "loaded" (current supplied to a load), the winding generates an mmf,
which becomes counteracted by a "reflected" mmf in the primary winding to prevent
core flux levels from changing. These opposing mmf's generated between primary
and secondary windings as a result of secondary (load) current produce a repulsive,
physical force between the windings which will tend to make them vibrate.
Transformer designers have to consider these physical forces in the construction of
the winding coils, to ensure there is adequate mechanical support to handle the
stresses. Under heavy load conditions, though, these stresses may be great enough to
cause audible noise to emanate from the transformer.
 34

CHAPTER 5
DESCRIPTION OF OTHER COMPONENTS

5.1 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

The function of an A/D converter is to produce a digital word which
represents the magnitude of some analog voltage or current. Important specification
for an A/D converter is its conversion time. This is simply the time it takes the
converter to produce a valid output binary code for an applied input voltage. When we
refer to converter as high speed, we mean that it has a short conversion time. For an
A/D converter with only a positive input range, a straight binary code or inverted
binary code is usually used. If the output of an A/D converter is going to drive a
display, then it is convenient to have the output coded in BCD.

The device ADC 0808 contains an 8-channel single ended signal

multiplexer. A particular input channel is selected by using the address decoder .
Table shows the input for the address lines to select any channel. The address is
 35

latched into the decoder on the low-to-high transform of the address latch enable
signal.

Selected Address line

Analog Channel C B A

IN0 L L L
IN1 L L H
IN2 L H L
IN3 L H H
IN4 H L L
IN5 H L H
IN6 H H L
IN7 H H H

TABLE3 SELECTED CHANNEL FOR ADC

The heart of this single chip data acquisition system is its analog-to-
digital converter. The converter is designed to have fast, accurate and repeatable
conversions over a wide range of temperatures. The converter is partitioned into 3
sections: the 256R ladder network, the successive approximation register and the
comparator. The converter’s digital outputs are positive true.
The 256R ladder cutwork approach was chosen as the conventional R/2R
ladder because of its inherent monotonicity, which guarantees no missing digital
codes. It is particularly important is closed loop feedback control systems. A non-
monotonic relationship can cause relations that will be catastrophic for the system.
Additionally, the 256R network does not cause load variations on the reference
voltage. The bottom resistor and the top resistor of the ladder network are not the
same value as the remainder of the network. The difference in these resistors causes
the output characteristics to be symmetrical with zero and full-scale point s of the
transfer curve.
The successive approximation register (SAR) performs 8 iterations to
approximate the input voltage. For any SAR type converter, n-iterations are required
 36

for an n-bit converter. The A/D converter’s SAR is reset on the positive edge of the
start conversion start pulse. The conversion is begun on the falling edge of the start
conversion pulse. A conversion in process will be interrupted by receipt may be
accomplished by tying the end of conversion output to the SC input. If used in this
mode, an external SC pulse should be applied after power up. EOC will go low
between 0 and 8 clock pulses after the rising edge of SC.
The most important section of A/D converter is the comparator. It is this
section which is responsible for the ultimate accuracy of the entire converter. It is also
the comparator drift which has the greatest influence on the repeatability of the
device. A chopper stabilized comparator provides the most effective method of
satisfying all the converter requirements. The chopper stabilized comparator converts
the DC input signal into an AC signal. This signal is then fed through a high gain AC
amplifier and has the DC level stored. This technique limits the drift component of the
amplifier since the drift is a DC component which is not passed by the AC amplifier.
This makes the entire A/D converter extremely insensitive to temperature, long term
drift and input offset errors.

5.2 COMPARATOR

Comparator is one of the applications of op-amp. In this circuit the op amp

effectively compares the input voltage with the voltage on the inverting input and
gives a high or low output, depending on the result of the comparison. If the input is
more than a few micro volts above the reference voltage on the inverting input, the
output will be high. If the input voltage is a few micro volts more negative than the
reference voltage, the output will be low. An op amp used in this way is called a
comparator. The reference voltage applied to the inverting input does not have to be
grounded. An input voltage can be compared to any voltage within the input range
specified for the particular op amp.
Another commonly used comparator circuit is
comparator with hysteresis. Note in this circuit that the reference signal is applied to
the non inverting input, and the input voltage is applied to the inverting input. This
connection simply inverts the output state from those in the previous circuit. The
positive feedback resistors from the output to the non inverting input gives the
comparator a characteristic called hysterisis. Hysterisis means that the output voltage
 37

changes at a different input voltage when the input is going in the positive direction
than it does when the input voltage is going in the negative direction

5.3 POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The positive voltage regulator has different features like
 3-terminal regulators
 Output current up to 1.5A
 No external components
 Internal thermal overload protection
 38

 High power dissipation capability

 Internal short-circuit current limiting
 Output transistor safe area compensation
 Direct replacements for Fairchild microA7800 series

Nominal Regulator
Output Voltage

5V uA7805C
6V uA7806C
8V uA7808C
8.5V uA7885C
10V uA7810C
12V uA7812C
15V uA7815C
18V uA7818C
24V uA7824C

The series of fixed voltage monolithic integrated circuit voltage regulators

is designed for a wide range of applications. These applications include on-card
regulation for elimination of noise and distribution problems associated with single-
point regulation. Each of these regulators can deliver up to 1.5amperes of output
current. The internal current limiting and thermal shutdown features of these
regulators make them shutdown features of these regulators make them essentially
immune to overload. In addition to use as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can
be used with external components to obtain voltages and currents and also as the
power pass element in precision regulators.

5.4 555 TIMER

The 555 timer is used as an interrupt signal for the micro processor.
Some of the features of 555 timer are
 Timing from microseconds to hours.
 Astable or monostable operation
 39

 Adjustable duty cycle

 TTL-Compatible output can sink or source up to 200mA
 Designed to be interchangeable with signetics

These are monolithic timing circuits capable of producing accurate time delays or
oscillation. In the time-delay or monostable mode of operation, the timed interval is
controlled with two external resistors and a single external capacitor.
The threshold and trigger levels are normally two thirds and one third,
respectively of Vcc. These levels can be altered by use of the control voltage terminal.
When the trigger input falls below the trigger level, the flip-flop is set and the output
goes high. When the threshold input rises above the threshold level, the flip-flop is
reset and the output goes low. The reset input can override all other inputs and can be
used to initiate a new timing cycle. When the reset input goes low, the flip-flop is
reset and the output goes low. When the output is low, a low impedance path is
provided between the discharge terminal and ground. The output circuit is capable of
sinking or sourcing current up to 200 milliamperes. Operation is specified for supplies
of 5 to 15 volts. With a 5-volt supply, output levels are compatible with TTL inputs.

5.5 THERMISTER
Thermal sensitive resistors (thermistors) are commonly used types of
temperature sensors. These types are essentially resistors which change value with a
change in temperature. Thermistors consist of semiconductor material whose
resistance decreases nonlinearly with temperature. Devices with 25degree resistance
of tens of ohms to millions of ohms are available foe different applications.
Thermistors are relatively inexpensive, have very fast response times, and are useful
in applications where precise measurement is not required. These are used to produce
a voltage proportional to the resistance of the thermistor.

5.6 TRANSISTOR
A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either
p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly, there
are two types of transistors, namely n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor. The
transistor which is used as a switch is known as switching transistor. It is so arranged
 40

in the circuit that either maximum current (called saturation current) flows through the
load or minimum current (called collector leakage current) flows through the load. In
the other words, a switching transistor has two states 1. ON state or when collector
saturation current flows through the load. 2. OFF state or when collector leakage
current flows through the load.

The switching action of a transistor can be explained with the

help of output characteristics. The characteristics are arranged in three regions: OFF,
ON or saturation and active regions.
When the input base voltage is zero or negative, the transistor is
said to be in the OFF condition. In this condition, Ib=0 and the collector current is
equal to the collector leakage current Iceo. When the input voltage is made so much
positive that saturation collector current flows, the transistor is said to be in the ON
condition. It is the region that lies between OFF and ON conditions. The active region
is the unstable region through which the operation of the transistor passes while
changing from OFF state to the ON state.

5.7 MAX 232C

In the 1960s as the use of timeshare computer terminals became
more widespread, modems were developed so that terminals could use phone lines to
communicate with distant computers. Modems and other devices used to send serial
 41

data are often referred to as data communication equipment or DCE. The terminals or
computers that are sending or receiving the data are referred to as data terminal
equipment or DTE. In response to the need for signal and handshake standards
between DTE and DCE, the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) developed
standard Rs-232C. This standard describes the function of 25 signal and handshake
pins for serial-data transfer. It also describes the voltage levels, impedance levels, rise
and fall times, maximum bit rate, and maximum capacitance for these signal lines.
The voltage levels for all RS-232C signals are as follows. A logic high, or mark, is a
voltage between -3V and -15V under load (-25V no load). A logic low or space is a
voltage between +3V and +15V under load(+25V no load). Voltages such as +or –
12V are commonly used.RS-232C specifies that DTE connector should be a male and
the DCE connector should be a female.

3 PIN DIAGRAM OF RS 232C

The RS 232C interface standard allows for two full duplex data channels
transmitting serial data, either synchronously or asynchronously with or without
handshake. The RS 232C signal levels is such that binary 0 (also called a Space or
ON condition) is more positive than the binary 1 (also called the Mark or OFF
 42

condition). This can present problems when interfacing RS 232C to TTL since not
only is there a considerable difference between the two signal voltage levels but the
signal logic is inverted as well.
The RS 232C interface is designed for connection between two devices
only-usually a computer and a peripheral. Consequently if a computer wishes to
communicate with more than one peripheral, a separate RS 232C interface must be
provided for each peripheral. In addition, all RS 232C lines are unidirectional,
transferring data in one direction only, a factor which greatly simplifies both the
hardware and software control Pof the interface.

Max 232C has different features as

 Meets or Exceeds TIA/EIA-232-F and ITU Recommendation V.28

 Operates From a Single 5-V Power Supply with 1.0-uF Charge-Pump
Capacitors
 Operates Up To 120 kbit/s
 Two Drivers and Two Receivers ±30-V Input Levels
 Low Supply Current . . . 8 mA Typical
 ESD Protection Exceeds JESD 22- 2000-V Human-Body Model (A114-A)
 Upgrade With Improved ESD (15-kV HBM) and 0.1-uF Charge-Pump
Capacitors is available with the MAX202
 Applications
TIA/EIA-232-F, Battery-Powered Systems, Terminals, Modems, and
Computers
5.8 Current transformers

We can use a transformer to step down current through a power line so that
we are able to safely and easily measure high system currents with inexpensive
ammeters. Of course, such a transformer would be connected in series with the power
line, like this Note that while the PT is a step-down device, the Current Transformer
(or CT) is a step-up device (with respect to voltage), which is what is needed to step
down the power line current. Quite often, CTs are built as donut-shaped devices
 43

through which the power line conductor is run, the power line itself acting as a single-
turn primary winding:

5.4 CURRENT TRANSFORMER

 44

Some CTs are made to hinge open, allowing insertion around a power
conductor without disturbing the conductor at all. The industry standard secondary
current for a CT is a range of 0 to 5 amps AC. Like PTs, CTs can be made with
custom winding ratios to fit almost any application. Because their "full load"
secondary current is 5 amps, CT ratios are usually described in terms of full-load
primary amps to 5 amps, like this:

The "donut" CT shown in the photograph has a ratio of 50:5. That is, when
the conductor through the center of the torus is carrying 50 amps of current (AC),
there will be 5 amps of current induced in the CT's winding.

Because CTs are designed to be powering ammeters, which are low-

impedance loads, and they are wound as voltage step-up transformers, they should
never, ever be operated with an open-circuited secondary winding. Failure to heed this
warning will result in the CT producing extremely high secondary voltages,
dangerous to equipment and personnel alike. To facilitate maintenance of ammeter
instrumentation, short-circuiting switches are often installed in parallel with the CT's
secondary winding, to be as shown in fig.

5.9 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

 45

It contains four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 connected to form bridge. as

in fig 5.4.The a.c. supply to be rectified is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of
the bridge through the transformer. Between other two ends of the bridge, the load is
connected.
During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end P of the
secondary winding becomes positive and end Q negative. This makes diodes D1 and
D3 forward biased while the other diodes are reverse biased. Therefore, the diodes D1
and D3 will conduct and in series through the load. During the negative half-cycle of
secondary voltage, end P becomes negative and end Q positive. This makes diodes D2
and D4 forward biased whereas other diodes are reverse biased. Therefore, these
diodes will be in series through the load.
 46

5.6 FULLWAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH WAVEFORMS

5.10 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

In this, the rectifier conducts only during the positive half-cycles of input
a.c. supply. The negative half-cycles of a.c. supply are suppressed i.e. during negative
half-cycles, no current is conducted and hence no voltage appears across the load.
Therefore, current always flows in one direction through the load through after every
half-cycle.
 47

5.7 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH WAVEFORMS

5.11 Relay or Electro-Mechanical Switch

It is a mechanical switch which is operated electrically to turn ON or OFF
current in an electrical switch. Some of the advantages by using relays are
1. The relay requires a small power for its operation. This permits to control a
large
power in the load by a small power to the relay circuit. Thus a relay acts as a
power amplifier i.e. it combines control with power amplification.
2. The switch in the relay coil carries a small current as compared to the load
current. This permits the use of a smaller switch in the relay coil circuit.
3. The operator can turn ON or OFF power to a load even from a distance. This
is a very important advantage when high voltages are to be handled.
4. There is no danger sparking as the turning ON or OFF is carried by the relay
coil
switch which carries a small current.
But the speed operation is very small.
 48

5.12 Printed Circuit Board

The term “printer circuit” implies the used of certain printed components
such as small resistors, capacitors and inductors.
1. Single side PCB : Used in radios, TVs, Stereos etc.,
2. Flexible PCB : Used in computers, communications and professional
electronics
3. Multilayer PCB : Widely used in large scale integration

Materials for PCB:

1. Paper-base laminate
2. Glass cloth
3. Elastic polymers
4. Polyster films
5. Ceramic substrates
Making of PCB:
Making of PCB is the first step towards building an electronic
equipment/ there are several ways of drawing PCB patterns and making the final
boards.
The making of a PCB essentially involves the following two steps:
1. Preparing the PCB drawing and
2. Fabricating the PCB itself from the drawing.
The traditional method of making a PCB drawing with complete placement
of parts, taking a photographic negative of the drawing developing the image of
the negative formed on photo sensitized copper plate and dissolving the excess
copper by etching is a standard practice being followed in large scale operations.
However, for small operation, where large number of copies are not required. The
cost saving procedure here may be adopted.

PCB Drawing:
Making of the PCB drawing involves some preliminary
considerations such as placement of components on a piece of paper, location of
holes deciding the diameter of various holes, the optimum area of each component
should occupy, the share and location islands for connecting two or more
components at a place, full space utilization and prevention of over crowding of
 49

components at a particular place. There is no other way to arrive at a correct

conclusion than by trial and error method. For anchoring leads of components
1mm dia. Holes and for fixing PCB holding screws to the by 3mm dia. Holes are
recommended. The sketch obtained by following these hints is redrawn on a
tracing paper and it is reh mirror image of the PCB pattern desired. It shows the
components placement on the other side of the PCB laminate.
The mirror image of this sketch, the PCB pattern, can now be
drawn with the help of a thick paper. The sketch thus redrawn on a tracing paper
would appear as the PCB pattern, when viewed from the other side. To save the
time and effort, the sketch may be made on the tracing paper itself right in the
beginning. Carbon also and be used to trace the original circuit.

PCB Fabrication:
The silver clad PCB laminate may be prepared by rubbing away
the wxide, greese etc., with a fine emery paper or sand paper. On this the first
PCB drawing may be traced. Clips should be used to prevent the paper and the
silver form slipping while the PCB pattern is being traced on the laminate. Only
the connecting lines in PCBs islands and holes should be traced, the positions of
components need not be traced. The components positions can be marked on the
PCBs reverse side, if desired.
The marked holes in PCB may be drilled using 1mm or 3mm
drill bits and the traced PCB pattern coated with black, quick enamel paint, using
a thin brush and small metal scale. In case there is any scrapping with a blade or
knife, after the paint has dried.
Wash the dish, take just enough to immerse the board and FeC13
carefully without any splashing, placing the board in solution with silver side up.
Don’t try to breathe the vapour. Stir the solution by giving see-saw motion to the
dish and solution in it. Occasionally warm it over a heater. After sometime the
unlashed parts change their colour. Continue to etch. Gradually the base material
will become visible etch for two more minutes to get a neat pattern.
Take out the board, wash it with running water, rub with pumice
tore move the coating of etch resistant till you get shining. Dry it and put a coat of
varnish.
 50

CHAPTER 6
WORKING OF THE SYSTEM
___________________________________________________________
6.1 89C51:

RESET
89c51 uses an active high reset pin. It must go high for two machine
cycles. When power is first applied and then sink low. The simple RC circuit used
here will supply voltage (Vcc) to reset pin until capacitance begins to change. At a
threshold of about 2.5V, reset input reaches a low level and system begin to run.

OSCILLATOR:
Pins XTAL1 and XTAL2 are provided for connecting a resonant network
to form an oscillator. The crystal frequency is basic internal clock frequency. The
maximum and minimum frequencies are specified from 1to 24MHZ.
Program instructions may require one, two or four machine cycles to be
executed depending on type of instructions. To calculate the time any particular
instructions will take to be executed, the number of cycles ‘C’,
C*12d
T= ----------------------
Crystal frequency
 51

Here, we chose frequency as 11.0592MHZ. This is because,

smod
2 .clockfrequency
baud= ------------------------------
32d. 12d[256d-TH1]

The oscillator is chosen to help generate both standard and non-standard baud
rates. If standard baud rates are desired, an 11.0592MHZ crystal should be selected.
From our desired standard rate, TH1 can be calculated.
The internally implemented value of capacitances are 33pf .

EXTERNAL MEMORY:
The 89C51 accesses external RAM whenever certain program instructions are
executed. External ROM is accessed whenever EA pin is connected to ground. 89C51
 52

can thus use internal and external ROM automatically. During any memory access
cycle, port0 is time multiplexed that is, if first provides lower byte of 16 bit memory
address, and then acts as a bidirectional data bus to write or read a byte of memory
data. Port2 provides high byte of memory address during entire memory read of write
cycle.
The lower address byte from port0 must be latched into an external register to
save the byte. Address byte save is accomplished by ALE clock pulse. The port0 pins
then become free to serve as data bus. If the memory access is for a byte of program
code in the ROM to, PSEN pin will go low to enable RORM to place a byte of
program code on the data bus. I f thee access is for a RAM byte, WR of RD pins in
port3 will go low, enabling data to flow between RAM and data bus.
 53

6.2 Power supply:

The supply given is the +5V D.C. The incoming power is 230V A.C. , there is a
need to convert it into +5V D.C.
The input a.c. supply is stepped down from 230V to 9-0-9V. The rectifier
consists of diodes D1 and D2 makes the supply D.C. that is, unidirectional waveform.
The output from rectifier is a URDC, whose value is 12.726V peak to peak. The
voltage regulator makes this URDC to RDC of +5V. The capacitor C1 is used to
maintain constant voltage between two consecutive positive cycles where as C2 is
used to remove the fluctuations caused by regulator. Here we are selecting 12.726V
as a peak value. Because of fluctuations, the peak voltage may decrease, then
regulator cannot step up to +5V. If we select peak value, a higher one, then the
problem can be overcome.

A regulated power supply which maintains the output voltage constant

irrespective of a.c. mains fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated power
supply. A regulated power supply consists of an ordinary power supply and voltage
regulating device. The output of ordinary power supply is fed to the voltage regulator
which produces the final output. The output voltage remains constant whether the
load current changes or there are fluctuations in the input a.c. voltage.
The rectifier converts the transformer secondary a.c. voltage into pulsating
voltage. The pulsating d.c. voltage is applied to the capacitor filter. This filter reduces
the pulsations in the rectifier d.c. output voltage. Finally, it reduces the variations in
the filtered output voltage
Need of RPS: In an ordinary power supply, the voltage
regulation is poor i.e. d.c. output voltage changes with load current. Output voltage
 54

also changes due to variations in the input a.c. voltage. This is due to the following
reasons

:
1. There are considerable variations in a.c. line voltage caused by outside factors
beyond our control. This changes the d.c. output voltage. Most of the electronic
circuits will refuse to work satisfactorily on such output voltage fluctuations. This
necessities to use regulated d.c. power supply.
2. The internal resistance of ordinary power supply in relatively large. Therefore,
output voltage is markedly affected by the amount of load current drawn from the
supply.
These variations in d.c. voltage may cause erratic operation of electronic circuits.
Therefore, regulated d.c. power supply is the only solution in such situations.
 55

6.3 ADC 0808:

The function of an ADC is to produce a digital word which represents the

magnitude of some analog voltage and current. Our application is using the type,
Successive approximation ADC. Commonly available converters have analog
multiplexers on their inputs. This allows the one converter to digitize any one of the 8
input signals. The in put channel to be digitized is determined by a 3-bit address
applied to the address inputs of the device. An ADC with a multiplexer on its inputs is
often called a data acquisition system, or DAS. In addition to the data lines, there are
two other successive approximation ADC signals we need to interface to the
microcomputer for the data transfer. The first of these is a START CONVERT signal
which you output from the microcomputer to the ADC to tell it to do a conversion for
you. The second signal is an EOC signal which the ADC outputs to indicate that the
conversion is complete and that the word on the outputs is valid. If the time between
input and output is more, then we use EOC signal. The OE signal is used to connect
the output data lines. If it is grounded, the output will be zero.
The ADC 0808 is used as an 8-input DAS. You tell the device which input
signal you want digitized with a 3-bit address you send to the ADC, ADB and ADA
inputs. This 8-input device was chosen so that other control loops could be added
later.
The voltage drop across an LM329 low-drift zener is buffered by an LM308
amplifier to produce a Vcc and a Vref of 5.12V for the ADC. With this reference
 56

voltage, the ADC will have 256 steps of 20mV each. The 3-bit address of the desired
input. The

555 timer will send an interrupt signal approximately once every second. An interrupt
procedure is used to keep a count of how many interrupts have occurred. This count is
equal to the number of seconds that have passed. In the mainline we setup stack and
data segments. We initialize the data segment register, stack segment register, and
stack pointer register as before. Each time, it receives an interrupt from the 555 timer,
it executes the interrupt-service procedure for the interrupt. In this procedure we
decrement the seconds count in the named memory location and test to see if the
 57

count is sown to zero yet. If the seconds count is not zero, execchannel is first sent to
the multiplexer inputs. After at least 50ns, the ALE input is sent high. After another
few seconds, the SOC input is sent high and then low. Thin the ALE input is brought
low again. Then the 8-bit value can be read in.

6.4 555 TIMER:

The 555 timer circuit is not very accurate, but it is inexpensive, and it is good
enough for this applicationution simply returns to the mainline program until the next
interrupt from the 555 or from some other source occurs. The advantage of this
approach is that the interrupt-service procedure takes only a few micro seconds. The
rest of the time , it is free to run the mainline program.

6.5 MAX 232C:

The TTL signals output by a USART are not suitable for transmission over
long distances, so these signals are converted to some other form to be transmitted.
With a jumper between the points numbered 7 and 8, a high on the TxD output of the
8251A produces a high on the base of the transistor , which turns it off. with points
numbered 9 and 10 jumpered, the CR TX line will then be pulled to -12V, which is a
legal high or marking condition for RS-232C. A low on the TxD output of the 8251A
will turn on the transistor and pull the CR TX line to +5V, which is legal low or space
condition for RS- 232C.

6.6 COMPARATOR:

Comparator is one of the applications of op-amp. In this circuit the op amp

effectively compares the input voltage with the voltage on the inverting input and
gives a high or low output, depending on the result of the comparison. If the input is
more than a few micro volts above the reference voltage on the inverting input, the
output will be high. If the input voltage is a few micro volts more negative than the
reference voltage, the output will be low. An op amp used in this way is called a
comparator. The reference voltage applied to the inverting input does not have to be
grounded. An input voltage can be compared to any voltage within the input range
specified for the particular op amp.
 58

Frequency:
From the URDC value, select a reference point. Whenever the
waveform reaches this reference value from zero, the output is taken as logical zero
till that point and when it reaches above reference point, the output will be logical
 59

one, till it reaches again below the reference point. When we combine all these points,
we will get a square wave output. The reference point can also be changed by varying
resistance.

Voltage and Current:

For these parameters we are using dividers. We can also use comparators also.
But comparators are used only for comparing. The frequency used for an a.c. supply
is always 50HZ. There is no need to increase or decrease it . Where as by using
dividers, the value of the output can also be calculated. For example, the input is taken
as 230V and division point as 2. If the output division is found as 4, then we can
easily calculate the output as 460V.
The half-wave rectifier is used for the voltage. The diode conducts during
positive half-cycles of a.c.supply while no current conduction takes place during
negative half-cycles. In this rectification, a maximum of 40.6% of a.c. power is
converted into d.c. power.
We are using current transformer for current parameter. The output of load is
connected to the current transformer. Whenever the current of the load exceeds the
reference point, the output is taken as digital one. The full-wave bridge rectifier is
used for the current. The rectifier will conduct current through the load in the same
direction for both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage. This has double the efficiency than
the half wave rectifier. Therefore, it is twice as effective as a half-wave rectifier.
 60

All these four outputs are given as inputs to microcontroller. Whenever the output of
any of these is digital one, the relay is switched off such that the power transformer is
out of the supply. Whenever the output enters into the normal state, automatically the
power is switched on.

Thermal:
Here, we place a thermister to sense the temperature. The output voltage
changes if R1:R2 ratio changes. If R1 is fixed, R2 is variable then, if temperature
increases, R2 decreases, in turn voltage increases. The output results to digital one. R2
is nothing but resistance of thermister. When the voltage from the temperature sensor
goes above the voltage on the reference input of the comparator, the output of the
comparator will change state and send an interrupt signal to the micro controller.
For frequency and thermal outputs we are using comparators. These are use
to compare the input and output values. We are using inverting side as a reference
point . Therefore, when the output voltage is above the reference point, it results to
digital one.The comparator has the feature to convert analog data to digital data.
 61

CHAPTER 7
PC INTERFACE PROGRAM
___________________________________________________________

; THIS IS DAS VOL, FREQUENCY

; ON 1-4-2006

; P2.0 = RLY0
; P2.1= BUZZ

; P1 = ADC DATA
; P3.5 = B
; P3.4 = A

; P3.3 = START
; P3.2 = ALE
; P3.6 FR
; P3.7 TEMP

TXD MACRO
JNB T1, $
CLR T1
MOV SBUF, R6
MACEND

RXD MACRO
JNB R1, $
CLR R1
MOV R7, SBUF
MACEND
ORG0
 62

LJMP START
ORG 0050H

START: CLR P2.0

CLR P2.1
LCALL SPIN1
LCALL DEL

MOV R6, #00H

TXD

NEXT: RXD
CLR A
MOV A, R7
MOV R6, A

TXD

BUZON: CJNE R7, #FFH, BUZOFF

SETB P2.1
LJMP NEXT

BUZOFF: CJNE R7, #FEH, FLYON

CLR P2.1
LJMP NEXT

RLYON: CJNE R7, #FDH, RLYOFF

SETB P2.0
LJMP NEXT

RLYOFF: CJNE R7, #FCH, READ

CLR P2.0
LJMP NEXT
 63

;***********READ VAL DISP************

READ: CJNE R7, #FBH, ERR
LCALL VSEN
MOV R6, 51H
TXD

LCALL ISEN
MOV R6, 51H
TXD

LCALL FEN
MOV R6, 51H
TXD

LCALL TSEN
MOV R6, 51H
TXD
LJMP NEXT

ERR: MOV R6, #00H

TXD

;*******************************

DEL: MOV R7, #FFH

DJNZ R7, $
RET
DEL1: MOV R7, #FFH
DJNZ R7, $
RET

SEC: MOV R5, #03H

M1: MOV R6, #FFH
M2: MOV R7, #FFH
 64

M3: DJNZ R7, M3

DJNZ R6, M2
DJNZ R5, M1
RET

;**************VOLTAGE SENSE****************
VSEN : MOV P1, #FFH
MOV P3, #FFH
CLR P3.2
CLR P3.3

LCALL DEL
CLR P3.1
CLR P3.5

LCALL DEL
SETB P3.2
LCALL DEL
SETB P3.3
LCALL DEL
CLR P3.2
LCALL DEL
CLR P3.3
LCALL SEC
MOV R6, P1
MOV 51H, R6
RET

;****************************************

ISEN: MOV P1, #FFH

MOV P3, #FFH
CLR P3.2
CLR P3.3
 65

LCALL DEL
SETB P3.1
CLR P3.5

LCALL DEL
SETB P3.2
LCALL DEL
SETB P3.3
LCALL DEL
CLR P3.2
LCALL DEL
CLR P3.3

LCALL SEC

MOV R6, P1
MOV 51H, R6
RET

;****************************************

FSEN: MOV PSW, #18H

MOV R6, #00H
SETB P3.6
MOV R2, #05H
SD1: MOV R3, #69H
SD2: MOV R4, #FFH

WE: JB P3.6, WEE

MOV R0, #0FH
DJNZ R0, $
JB P3.6, WE
FFJ: JNB P3.6, FFJ
 66

MOV R0, #0FH

DJNZ R0, $
JNB P3.6, FFJ

INC R6
CJNE R6, #FFH, WWE
LJMP WER

WEE: DJNZ R4, WE

DJNZ R3, SD2
DJNZ R2, SD1

WER: MOV 51H, R6

MOV PSW, #00H
RET

;*****************************************

TSEN: MOV 51H, #00H

JB P3.7, TRET
MOV R0, #0FH
DJNZ R0, $
JB P3.7, TSEN
MOV 51H, #01H
TRET: RET

;**********************************************

SPINI: MOV A, #00H

MOV TCON, #01H
MOV TMOD,#20H
MOV SCON, #52H
MOV 1E, #9AH
MOV TH1, #FDH
 67

MOV TL1, #FDH

RET

;************************************************

END;
 68

CONCLUSION
_________________________________________________________

This project is meant to provide security for the distribution power

transformer from high voltages, high currents, high temperatures and low frequencies.
For this we can use micro controller with the help of PC interface.
The hardware we used consists of microcontroller, ADC, serial
communication, sensors, comparators, rectifiers. These are made on a Printed Circuit
Board. The others are resistors, capacitors, transistors, timers, voltage regulators.

Advantages

 The power transformer can be protected from different parameters using

relay operation.
 The voltage and current parameters can be adjusted in our desired manner
using the PC.

Disadvantages

 The installation of different ICs makes the circuit complex.

 The cost is somewhat high.
 The damage of any circuit makes the circuit inoperative.
 69

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Kenneth J. Ayala ---------- “The 8051 Micro Controller”

 Douglas V. Hall ---------- “Micro Processors And Interfacing”
 V.K. Mehta ----------- “Principles of Electronics”

 Mahahar Lotia ----------- “Modern IC”

 P. S. Bimbhra ----------- “Electrical machinery”