TYPE Review

PUBLISHED 04 January 2023

DOI 10.3389/fceng.2022.1072761

Sustainable production of
OPEN ACCESS biofuels and bioderivatives from
EDITED BY
Muhammad Sajid,
Yibin University, China
aquaculture and marine waste
REVIEWED BY
Nur Izyan Wan Azelee, Lynette Alvarado-Ramírez 1,2, Berenice Santiesteban-Romero 1,2,
University of Technology Malaysia,
Malaysia
Guillaume Poss 2, Juan Eduardo Sosa-Hernández 1,3,
Ayesha Shahid, Hafiz M. N. Iqbal 1,3, Roberto Parra-Saldívar 1,3*,
University of Agriculture, Pakistan
Shahi Mulk, Alfredo D. Bonaccorso 2* and Elda M. Melchor-Martínez 1,2,3*
Shenzhen University, China 1
Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey, Mexico, 2School of
*CORRESPONDENCE Chemistry, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom, 3Tecnologico de Monterrey,
Roberto Parra-Saldívar, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Monterrey, Mexico
[email protected]
Alfredo D. Bonaccorso,
[email protected]
Elda M. Melchor-Martínez,
[email protected], The annual global fish production reached a record 178 million tonnes in 2020,
[email protected]
which continues to increase. Today, 49% of the total fish is harvested from
SPECIALTY SECTION
aquaculture, which is forecasted to reach 60% of the total fish produced by
This article was submitted to
Sustainable Process Engineering, 2030. Considering that the wastes of fishing industries represent up to 75% of
a section of the journal the whole organisms, the fish industry is generating a large amount of waste
Frontiers in Chemical Engineering
which is being neglected in most parts of the world. This negligence can be
RECEIVED 17 October 2022 traced to the ridicule of the value of this resource as well as the many difficulties
ACCEPTED 13 December 2022
PUBLISHED 04 January 2023 related to its valorisation. In addition, the massive expansion of the aquaculture
CITATION
industry is generating significant environmental consequences, including
Alvarado-Ramírez L, chemical and biological pollution, disease outbreaks that increase the fish
Santiesteban-Romero B, Poss G, mortality rate, unsustainable feeds, competition for coastal space, and an
Sosa-Hernández JE, Iqbal HMN,
Parra-Saldívar R, Bonaccorso AD and increase in the macroalgal blooms due to anthropogenic stressors, leading
Melchor-Martínez EM (2023), to a negative socio-economic and environmental impact. The establishment of
Sustainable production of biofuels and
integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) has received increasing attention
bioderivatives from aquaculture and
marine waste. due to the environmental benefits of using waste products and transforming
Front. Chem. Eng. 4:1072761. them into valuable products. There is a need to integrate and implement new
doi: 10.3389/fceng.2022.1072761
technologies able to valorise the waste generated from the fish and aquaculture
COPYRIGHT
industry making the aquaculture sector and the fish industry more sustainable
© 2023 Alvarado-Ramírez,
Santiesteban-Romero, Poss, Sosa- through the development of a circular economy scheme. This review wants to
Hernández, Iqbal, Parra-Saldívar, provide an overview of several approaches to valorise marine waste (e.g., dead
Bonaccorso and Melchor-Martínez.
This is an open-access article
fish, algae waste from marine and aquaculture, fish waste), by their
distributed under the terms of the transformation into biofuels (biomethane, biohydrogen, biodiesel, green
Creative Commons Attribution License diesel, bioethanol, or biomethanol) and recovering biomolecules such as
(CC BY). The use, distribution or
reproduction in other forums is proteins (collagen, fish hydrolysate protein), polysaccharides (chitosan, chitin,
permitted, provided the original carrageenan, ulvan, alginate, fucoidan, and laminarin) and biosurfactants.
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are
credited and that the original
publication in this journal is cited, in KEYWORDS
accordance with accepted academic
biofuels, bioderivatives, aquaculture, marine waste, circular economy
practice. No use, distribution or
reproduction is permitted which does
not comply with these terms.

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Alvarado-Ramírez et al. 10.3389/fceng.2022.1072761

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

1 Introduction rate of the wild population (Van Osch et al., 2017; Mangano et al.,
2019). Oliviera et al. (2021) reported that more than 10 million fish
The demand for fish meat is increasing, however, capture die annually around the world for environmental factors which
fisheries production remains static or is diminishing, depending directly affect the increase of infectious agents and parasites. The
on the species in question, during the last decades. The aquaculture high mortality generates a massive amount of low-value waste that is
industry has been recognised to have a critical role in food difficult to recycle due to restricted legislation.
production, so it is growing at the fastest rate in the world. Up The significant environmental issues caused by intensive
today, the aquaculture industry produces 48% of the total fish aquaculture increased the interest in alternative sustainable
produced and it is estimated that by 2030 the demand for practices, such as integrated multi-trophic aquaculture
aquaculture will reach 57% of the total global production (IMTA) (Alexander et al., 2016; Sarà et al., 2018). Integrated
(OECD-FAO, 2021). This industry involves cultures of fish or multi-trophic aquaculture aims to incorporate the production of
aquatic organisms, either in freshwater or marine culture. It is aquaculture species of different trophic levels under a circular
commonly associated with fish farming since it is the most economy approach, minimising energy losses, environmental
relevant one for human consumption, but it also covers other deterioration and valorising the waste products (Buck et al.,
forms of aquatic animal and plant production, such as 2018). This novel system uses algae to capture nutrient and
crustaceans, molluscs, algae and seaweed, and others (Ahmad inorganic solid waste and convert them into feed, fertiliser and
et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the fast growth of the aquaculture possible substrate to produce biofuel (Correia et al., 2020). The
industry and its intensive activities are creating a negative impact use of this novel aquaculture concept could reduce the fish
on the environment caused of the excessive release of nutrients into mortality both for the aquaculture and for the wild fish up to
the sea, causing eutrophication of coastal areas and other aquatic 5.5% which is closer to mortality rates on egg-laying hen farms. It
systems (Sarà et al., 2018). The excessive formation of algae has been calculated for Norwegian farmers that reach the level of
decreases the oxygen level in the water and increases the level of mortality mentioned above, it could generate an annual saving of
toxins in the water due to their degradation affecting the mortality over $892 million USD (Just Economy, 2021).

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FIGURE 1
Global capture fisheries and aquaculture production, 1990–2030 Adapted from FAO, 2022b.

Despite the environmental benefits of integrated multi- (15,539 MUSD). The mortality also generate of Environmental
trophic aquaculture (IMTA), aquaculture and the fisheries and social costs which account for 19,195 MUSD.
industry produce a large amount of waste which is not With respect to the waste represented by the fisheries and
included in the circular economy of the process and takes into aquaculture, it is estimated that 35% of the global harvest is
account dead fish, algae waste, and all the waste generated by fish either lost or wasted every year, meaning that in the year of
manufactured (e.g., viscera, skin, bonds, and heads). The 2018 about 28.7 million tonnes of the aquaculture production
transformation of waste products into biofuel and were lost, which translates to the loss of USD 87.5 billion. In
bioderivatives will help to further reduce the carbon footprint most regions of the world, total fish loss and waste lies between
of the aquaculture industry (4-75KgCO2/Kg protein), replacing 30%–35%. With the rapid growth of this industry and the
the utilization of fossil fuel resources. In 2018, world fish expansion of fish processing, the number of by-products
production reached about 179 million tonnes with a total first obtained from aquaculture has also increased (Khawli et al.,
sale value estimated at USD 401 billion, 82.1 million tonnes of 2019), these may represent up to 70% of processed fish (FAO,
that fish production, which is the largest in aquaculture industry, 2020). In the past, these by-products were treated as marine
of which 82 million tonnes, valued at USD 250 billion, came from waste, used directly as feed for aquaculture, livestock, or
aquaculture production, followed by aquatic algae production, employed to produce fish oil, fertilizer, pet food and fish
dominated by seaweed, with 32.4 million tonnes produced silage, most of these recycled products possess low
(Figure 1). economic value allowing only a minimal amount of the
These two products had a total farmgate value of USD capital invested in the aquaculture production to be
263.6 billion. Of the total global fish production, about 88% recovered. However, this waste can now be used more
was used for human consumption, equivalent to an estimated efficiently as a source of marine biomass with a great
annual supply of 20.5 kg per capita (FAO, 2020). Considering diversity of biotechnological applications. Recent studies
that 50%–60% of the whole organism is wasted annually, we have identified a number of bioactive compounds from
generate a waste stream of 134 million tons/yr. While the waste remaining fish muscle proteins, collagen and gelatin, fish
generates from fish mortality is difficult to quantify due to the oil, fish bone, internal organs and shellfish and crustacean
main factors that affect the value. Oliviera et al. (2021) reported shells. These bioactive compounds can be extracted, purified,
that in Norway, the salmon industry generated 50 million tonnes transformed, and exploited as a consequence of the improved
per year of dead fish in 2018, while in Scotland 8.3 million tonnes processing technologies varying from simple to complex
per year. A recent report published by Just Economy (2021) techniques. Such compounds may include the preparation
focuses on the main aquaculture industry in Norway, Scotland, and isolation of bioactive peptides, polyphenols,
Chile and Canada reported that the fish mortality due to different polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, fatty acids, enzymes and
causes is the main cost for the salmon aquaculture industry biopolymers for biotechnological applications (Kim and

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FIGURE 2
Schematic description of marine waste and fish waste products conversion path and products.

Mendis, 2006; Khawli et al., 2019; Rudovica et al., 2021) such issue if accumulated in excessive amounts (Rudovica et al., 2021).
as the synthesis of biofuels, biosurfactants, biochar and other Although the negative impact that algal blooms can have on an
bioproducts. Global food loss and waste is one of the main ecosystem and the environment due to their overproduction and
concerns regarding sustainable development, for this reason, it degradation, they could represent a solution and resource if they are
is the focus of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target collected and reused for the production of biofuel (The Climate
12.3, which aims at halving wastage by 2030 (FAO, 2020). The Institute, 2017).
most extensively used and promising alternative to achieve Indeed, algae waste from marine and aquaculture is a
this SDG goal is the use the exploitation of marine biomass and sustainable and optimal solution for producing third-
valorisation of seafood by-products either directly or by the generation fuel. Seaweeds (U. lactuca) collected from the
extraction of bioproducts, leading to more environmentally beach could become profitable as it gathers in blooms that
sustainable uses of marine resources and higher economic need to be removed from beaches. Thus, harvest cost is cheap,
benefits, in line with the circular economy concepts (Rudovica and it may even attract a gate fee. Allen et al. (2015) reported that
et al., 2021) that can provide a continued supply of aquatic the potential Gross energy yields can be on the order of 186 GJ
products beneficial for human consumption without harming ha−1 yr−1, which is higher than the first-generation liquid biofuel
existing ecosystems or exceeding the ability of the planet to like ethanol (135 GJ ha−1 yr−1) produced from sugarcane or
renew the natural resources required for aquaculture biodiesel (120 GJ ha−1 yr−1) from palm oil.
production. Algae biomass has enormous potential to also high-value
Regarding the aquatic algae production, algae play a very products like nutraceuticals, proteins and other functional
important role in many ecosystems, providing food and shelter ingredients (Jena and Hoekman, 2017). This review aims to
for many different species of aquatic animals. However, when highlight the importance of using marine and aquaculture
uncontrolled growth occurs, their impact on the ecosystem can waste and assessing current technologies to convert this waste
be harmful. The excessive growth of marine algae is called “algal into high-value products in line with new sustainability trends in
blooms” there are several factors that contribute to algal blooms, industries such as the circular economy by using what was once
including limiting nutrients, climate change, and pollution. waste and converting it into new valuable products for
Although some blooms occur naturally, others are caused by human use.
human intervention. Algae bloom affects not only ecological
balances but also fundamental economic activities in the
territory, such as fishing and tourism, potentially even affecting 2 Bio-based circularity economy:
public health (Jena and Hoekman, 2017). Beach wrack is another Exploring the impact fish-
concerning algae bloom, it consists of organic material like seagrass aquaculture-marine waste
or seaweed biomass which accumulates on beaches due to the action conversion into products
of waves, tides, and non-periodical water level fluctuations. Despite
the natural origin of most of this material and its significant The circular bio-based economy target to reuse all types
ecological role, beach wrack often becomes an environmental of sustainable sourced biomass and degradable waste from

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FIGURE 3
Schematic description of metabolic mechanisms of anaerobic digestion.

many sectors and transforming it into a wide-spectrum of The rapid growth of aquaculture sector has resulted in
high value products including biofuels, biomaterials, massive waste, residuals products and environmental concerns
bioactive compounds, among others (Vishwakarma et al., has been conflicted also with the amount of water utilised (Azwar
2022). et al., 2022). Considering that 35% of the global harvest in
The circular economy has gain momentum by returning fisheries and aquaculture is lost as waste every year, there is a
materials and waste into sources towards making a sustainable gap of opportunities to valorise and minimize the total discarded.
and zero-waste environment. The global energy demand is The sociological and environmental impact complain to
estimated to increase approximately 28% by the year 2040 and construct regulatory frameworks, services and infrastructure to
there is much interest in biofuels production under sustainable reduce fish lost and waste (Rudovica et al., 2021).
circular bioeconomy because they are eco-friendly and are For example, alternative valorisation routes for scale, skin,
preferred for their carbon neutral character, production bones, tails, and fins are needed. The conversion of these
flexibility from several and versatile sources and renewability residuals into valuable materials has numerous advantages.
(Ranjbari et al., 2022). Fish has high oil content which one has been shown to be
The use of the biofuels as an alternative to fossil fuel and suitable source for biofuel production, also can be converted
technologies for its production is improving day by day. The main into biodiesel via chemical catalysis and enzymatic approaches.
source of biofuels is the organic matter called biomass, it could be Additionally, this kind of biowaste permits the methane
plants, waste, farming residue, waste from sewage, manure, etc. production derived from its composition (Lee et al., 2022).
Recently, the biofuels from crops and plants have been taken Algae circular economy has gained interest in the last years in
relevance. Additional to plants, algae, microalgae seaweeds and the bioplastic production. In case of microalgae, is a renewable
seagrass founded to be potential reserves and solution in the resource with high potential for bioplastic production, several
energetic transition. The suitable biofuels production from third strains have been evaluated on their functionality for production
and fourth generation is not competing with land and food leading of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA′s). Macroalgae and seaweed are
to lot benefits in transport sector (Priya et al., 2021). consider a low-cost source of bioderivatives such as alginate,

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TABLE 1 Anaerobic digestion of fish waste.

Type of waste Incubation time Biochemical methane potential (BMP) References

(substrate) (days)
Salmon heads 33 .828 ± .15 CH4 m3/kg VS. added Nges et al. (2012)

Fish waste 36 F/M ratio .2 with a total maximum methane yield .165 CH4 m3/kg VS. Hadiyarto et al. (2015)
added CODMn

Fish waste 21 540.5 CH4 ml gVS−1 Bucker et al. (2020)

Solid Anchovy slurry 34 296.1 CH4 ml gVS−1 Paone et al. (2021)

Fish waste 15 350.5 ± 5.2 ml/gVSadded Hanifa Jannat et al. (2022)

Jellyfish Aurelia aurita – 121.35 ml/g and 870.12 ml/g Kim et al. (2012)

Tuna, sardine, mackerel waste 67 .47–.59 g COD-CH4/g COD added Eiroa et al. (2012)

Mixed FW (1%Total Solid) 28 464.5 ml CH4/g VS. Cadavid-Rodríguez et al.

(2019)

Fish waste – 361 Nm3 CH4/Mg VS. Greggio et al. (2018)

Round goby waste – .520–.922 CH4 m3/kg VS. added Gruduls et al. (2018)

TABLE 2 Co-digestion of fish waste with other material.

Type of waste (substrate) Ratio substrate Biochemical methane potential (BMP) References
3
FWS: JA 1:1 .531 CH4 m /kg VS. added Nges et al. (2012)

S.E.: FCIW 94:6 .205 CH4 m3/kg VS. added Serrano et al. (2014)

FPW-LFB 75:25 170 ml/g VS. Choe et al. (2020)

FS: MSS 30:70 1950 ml CH4/kg of waste (Maria M.Estevez et al., 2022)
3
FW: WH .408 CH4 m /kg VS. added Serrano et al. (2014)
3
FW: BWS 20:8 .408 CH4 m /kg VS. added Nalinga and Legonda, (2016)

CM:CI: FS. 45:22:33 .533 CH4 mL/kg VS. added Kafle et al. (2013)

FWS:CM2 80:20 1966 CH4 m3/kg VS. added Kébé et al. (2021)

FW/SWG 3:2 8.4 L CH4 m3/kg of waste Solli et al. (2014)

FW/SWG 2:3 4.2 L CH4 m3/kg of waste Solli et al. (2014)

3
SWG 100% 2.9 L CH4 m /kg of waste Solli et al. (2014)

FW, fish waste; FWS, fish waste silage; FPW- fish processed waste; FS–Fish Sludge; CM, Cod meat; MSS, Municipal Sewage Sludge CI, cod intestine; WH, water hyacinth; LFB, Liquid
fraction Bamboo; CD, cow dung; SE, strawberry extraduate; MSS, municipal Sewage sludge; JA, Jerusalem artichoke; FCIW, fish canning industry waste; CM2, cow manure; BWS, –bread
waste silage; SWG, seaweed grass.

carrageenan, fucoidan and ulvan which ones after their and requirements should be provided to all the actors in the value
extraction and purification could be competitive and chain of fishering and aquaculture and ensure the safe aquatic
commercially expensive products (Dang et al., 2022). products on the market and fish loss reduction globally (FAO,
Food loses and waste not only means a reductions on the 2022a).
quantity of the marine products from catch and harvest, it means Contributing to the significant progress made in the reuse of
also the decrease of its quality and nutritional values, additional marine biomass, research, and innovation on technology for
on the impact on the economic sector. To avoid and prevent scale-up must be establish a nexus and collaboration between
issues related to food and safety and fish loss, is priority to industry and government to promote sustainability and a circular
recognize and validate how to implement all stages of the economy in order to enhance the aquaculture productivity and
fisheries and aquaculture value chains. Training on food safety efficiency on supply chains.

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3 Advanced production of biofuels Generally, 70% of the Earth’s surface is occupied by oceans
from fish-aquaculture waste, and and seas that are intensively used by the fishery and aquaculture
algae bloom industries. The amount of waste generated is massive, mainly
composed of seaweed, dead fish and fish waste derived from the
Nowadays, 80% of the energy supply is produced by fossil manufacturing industry. This waste is rich in compounds that
fuels (Renewables, 2021). Energy demands are increasing can be converted into biofuel using biological and chemical
worldwide due to industrialisation, population growth and processes. Different conversion technologies are used to
modernisation, leading to the over-exploitation of limited produce biofuels, such as biochemical–anaerobic digestion
available natural fossil fuel reserves (Kumar et al., 2020a). The (biogas) and fermentation (bioethanol) and chemical
high utilization of fossil fuels represents a massive issue due to gas conversion–extraction and transesterification (biodiesel)
emissions, which are the main cause of global warming. To (Figure 2).
mitigate this issue is fundamental to replace fossil fuels with In this section will evaluate the advantages and
third-generation biofuels, which use feedstocks that do not disadvantages of the technologies to convert fish and algae
compete with food, reduce pressure on the land due to the waste into gaseous fuel (biomethane and bio-hydrogen) used
low amount available, and need to be abundant to satisfy the to decarbonise the domestic and industrial sector and liquid
current oil demand (Jamil et al., 2018; Mansir et al., 2018, Singh (biodiesel, green diesel) used to decarbonise the heavy
et al., 2019). To achieve this, it is necessary to use waste sources. transportation sector.
Despite agricultural, industrial, and household, organic waste has
been used for a long time as feedstocks to generate power and
small quantities of synthetic oils that are not enough to satisfy the 3.1 Biogas and biomethane
global demand (Skaggs et al., 2018). Today, there is a large
number of unexplored waste sources generated from Anaerobic digestion is a well-established technology that
aquaculture, marine and fish industry waste but also use of converts organic waste into clean bioenergy. Biogas and
biomass growth generated by photosynthesis, like algae, that digested substrate (digestate) are the products of anaerobic
could help to match the energy demand and the use of these digestion. The biogas usually contains 55%–65% CH4, 35%–
additional wastes (Tsukahara et al., 2001; Kumar et al., 2020b). 45% CO2, 0%–3% N2, 0%–1% H2, and 0%–1% H2S (Milono et al.,
Using waste biomass represents a sustainable strategy because it 1981).
reduces the utilization of food crops, optimises waste The anaerobic digestion of organic waste is a complex
management, and reduces the gas emissions generated by process composed of a series of bio-metabolism steps, which
waste disposal in landfills and the combustion of fossil fuels. include hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and
Hence, waste biorefineries are attracting significant interest methanogenesis, respectively (Figure 3).
worldwide because required energy needs are met, and a The mechanisms reported above are the main ones
solution to the waste management problem is found in the responsible for the kinetic of reactions, and they are highly
circular economy context (Tuck et al., 2012; Ahrens et al., dependent on environmental and/or ambient conditions such
2017; Yuvaraj et al., 2019). The industrial processes focused as temperature, pH, C/N ratio, C/P ratio, particle size, inhibitors,
on valorising terrestrial biomass are well established, but and type of substrate (Mata-Alvarez et al., 2000). The first step of
marine sources still represent an untapped resource. the process is hydrolysis, where enzymes decompose the complex
The fish industry is one of the world’s largest industries, polymeric structures of cellulose, starch and proteins into
where tons of fish are used daily. Every year a billion tons of fish monomers or oligomers such as glucose, fatty acids, and
are utilised for edible purposes, but it also generates a large amino acids. This process is quite fast, but it can be limited
amount of waste fish derived from a high mortality rate in the by the presence of lignin-rich substrates. Ariunbaatar et al. (2014)
marine environment of the aquaculture industry and non-edible report that this step process can be accelerated by introducing
parts (e.g., head, viscera, dorsal fins, tail, skin, and liver) derived specific enzymes.
from the fish processing. This non-edible waste is considered The second step (acidogenesis) transforms the products of
worthless garbage and discarded without recovering valuable the hydrolytic process into volatile fatty acids (VFAs), alcohols
products by dumping on land or hauling it into the ocean and ketones. This process is fast (30 min, and this causes an
(Milano et al., 2016). accumulation of VFA accumulation in the digester, resulting in
The marine and aquaculture industry also produces a large digester toxicity if not properly controlled by operational
amount of algae waste. Lipid-rich sources offer an attractive conditions, substrate composition, and microbial population
choice for a biofuel feedstock due to its high CO2-fixing in the anaerobic digestion system (Lukitawesa-Patinvoh et al.,
capabilities (Milano et al., 2016). Algae absorb about 2020). The pH is the operating parameter that affects most the
183 gigatons of CO2 while growing about 100 gigatons of VFA formation, and it was reported that the optimal pH range is
algal-cell biomass (Dumay et al., 2004; Schenk et al., 2008). 5.5–6.5 (Mao et al., 2015).

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TABLE 3 Dark fermentation of the biomass, food waste and algae.

Substrate type Microbial Reactor Temp. (°C) pH Maximum H2yield H2 in References

inoculum source type (ml H2/g VSadde) biogas (%)
Food waste Heatshock treated Leaching bed 37 5.5–7 310 10–55 Han and Shin, (2004)
anaerobic sludge reactor

Food waste Acid-treated anaerobic Batch 37 4.6 169 23 Shin et al. (2004)
digestion sludge

Food waste and Anaerobic digester Batch 35 5.0–6.0 122.9 – Alavi-Borazjani et al.
sewage sludge sludge (2019)

OFMSW Anaerobic digestate Semi- 55 6.4 360 58 Valdez-Vazquez et al.

continuous (2005)
CSTR

OFMSW Non-anaerobic inocula Packed bed 38 5.6 99 47 Alzate-Gaviria et al.

(soil, pig excreta) reactor (2007)

Cheese whey Adapted anaerobic Batch 55 7 111 – Kargi et al. (2012)

sludge (initia)

Pig slurry Mesophilic CSTR 70 6.7 3.65 – Kotsopoulos et al. (2009)

methanogenic sludge (feed)

Untreated de-oiled Anaerobic digester Batch 29 6 66 – Venkata Subhash and

algae cake sludge (initia) Venkata Mohan, (2014)

The third step (acetogenesis) transforms most products of Fish waste is a complex substrate because the composition of
acidogenesis and some of the long-chain fatty acids from the solid and liquid fish processing waste depends on the
hydrolysis stage into acetate, CO2, and H2 into (CH3COO-), composition of the fish species used, which in turn depends
hydrogen (H2), and carbon dioxide (CO2) and the kinetic of on the sex, feeding habits, season and health of fish.
reaction is reported to be in a range of 1.5–4 days (Ramos-Suárez These wastes contain high levels of protein (up to 60%), fat
et al., 2015). This step is sensible to the presence of H2 and O2, (up to 20%) and minerals (calcium and hydroxyapatite from
and the operating pH has to be in a range between 6–6.2 (Geraldi, bones and scales), and the high content of fat seems to favour the
2003; Burton et al., 2014; Stronach et al., 2012). yielding of the biomethane. An optimised model for anaerobic
The fourth step (methanogenesis) plays an essential role in digestion reported that the production of biomethane can vary
generating methane gas by methanogens. There are two primary from .2 to .9 CH4 m3/kg VS. added by using different forms of fish
mechanisms for methane generation, including acetoclastic waste (Kaspars et al., 2018) (Table 1)
(CH3 COOH→CH4+CO2) and hydrogenotrophic Despite the methane production shown in Table 1, using fish
methanogenesis (CO2+4H2→CH4+2H2O). Typically, waste as substrate can cause operational problems. Indeed, fish
methanogens are extremely sensitive to pH conditions, the waste releases high levels of ammonia when digested, which
presence of oxygen, and other factors such as free ammonia inhibits the digestion of substrates (Achinas et al., 2017). High
(FAN), H2S, and Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs) (Geraldi, 2003; ammonia concentrations can result in the accumulation of VFAs
Mao et al., 2015; Ramos-Suárez et al., 2015; Van et al., 2020). (acetic acid as the main type in the batch tests). To mitigate the
Most of the literature on anaerobic digestion uses municipal negative effect of ammonia formation co-digestion process is a
waste and agricultural waste as substrates. However,Xu et al. possible technological solution. One of the best ways to co-digest
(2018) reported that the digestion of food waste has more fish waste is with agricultural waste or algae, as reported in
advantages, such as mitigation of climate change, economic Table 2. Nazurally (2018) reported that a general accumulation of
benefits and diversion opportunities. For example, Bartocci VFAs was observed for co-digestion of algae and fish, and this
et al. (2020) reported that by replacing 9,900 tonnes of corn phenomenon was due to the high content of fatty acid. The co-
silage with 6,600 tonnes of food waste, it is possible to reduce CO2 digestion is not the only way to control free ammonia formation
emission by up to 42% of the electricity produced from the biogas and the accumulation of VFAs, but they can also be controlled by
plant could be achieved. The benefit of the anaerobic digestion of the reactor, type and organic loading rate and pH (Shi et al.,
food waste against agricultural waste creates a strong interest in 2017).
using fish and algae waste as substrates has been growing since Table 2 reports that the digestion of pure algae produces
2018 due to the incredible potential of these sources for the much less methane when macroalgae are processed alone. The
production of biogas through anaerobic digestion. co-digestion of algae and fish waste seems an optimal solution for

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TABLE 4 Hydrogen production from light driven fermentation methods.

Technology Basic principle Microorganism H2 prod Efficiency References

Photo In the presence of light, photosynthetic bacteria Photoheterotrophic bacteria 160.40 ml/ 15.93% efficiency in Lu et al. (2021)
fermentation convert complex organic microalgal biomass into (Rhodopseudomona, g energy conversion
simpler organic Rhodobacter)

Direct In the presence of a direct light source, Cyanobacteria > 10% > 80% Mona et al.
biophotolysis pigmentcontaining microorganisms are used in a (2020)
sequence of processes to generate hydrogen from
water molecules

Dark fermentation In the absence of light, complex organic microalgal Fermentative bacteria (Escherichia 89.80 ml/ 42.80% Song et al.
biomass is converted into simpler organic or coli, Clostridia, Enterobacter gVS (2020)
inorganic components

Indirect In PS I and PS II compartments, sulphur-deficient Cyanobacteria 10%–15% 16.30% El-Dalatony

biophotolysis microorganisms are used in one or more step et al. (2020)
reactions to generate hydrogen from complex
carbohydrates or pyruvate

an environmentally and economically sustainable process. The The conversion of waste biomass represents an inexpensive
use of pure macroalgae waste in the bioreactor is not alternative for bio-hydrogen generation because the technologies
economically sustainable due to several technical issues, such used do not require high energy consumption compared to water
as the seasonal growth associated with different types of electrolysis. The electricity cost accounts for 80% of the total cost
macroalgae, the variability of the feedstock and operational of hydrogen production by electrolysis (Kapdan and Kargi,
costs (Ward et al., 2014; Milledge et al., 2019). In addition, 2006).
the use of marine waste macroalgae produce several problems, The methods for biohydrogen production can essentially be
such as difficulty in processing material such as polyphenols, categorised into two main classes: The thermochemical
cellulosic fibres and lignin-type components. This results in the conversion (pyrolysis and gasification) route relies on high-
reduced biodegradability of the biomass by bacterial processes temperature operations to degrade biomass wastes to produce
and thus a limiting digestibility and gas production (Briand and biohydrogen, where the types and conditions of feedstocks used
Morand, 1997). Microalgae waste could be more valuable if can heavily influence the outcome of the products.
microalgae species were grown as part of a wastewater The biochemical conversion (dark fermentation and
treatment process, but this review will not discuss it. photobiological) fermentation route emphasises more on the
physical conditions of the medium (living organisms) and the
types of catalysts used. In both processes, the hydrogen must be
3.2 Biohydrogen separated by several technologies, such as absorption, adsorption,
membrane separation, and cryogenics separation, irrespective of
Biohydrogen generated from a renewable and sustainable upstream processing routes (Ren and Toniolo, 2018; Jiménez-
source is a clean energy carrier since the combustion process Llanos et al., 2020).
leads to water formation, which creates an attractive energy Studies on several types of biomass waste reported that
source compared to other renewable sources. Nowadays, 96% hydrogen production via the thermochemical pathway seems
of hydrogen (grey) is produced through carbon-intensive techno-economic more viable than the biochemical pathways.
processes, where steam reforming of natural gas accounts for The thermochemical pathway is proven at a commercial scale,
48% of total production capacity, while petroleum fractionation the cost of the catalysts is lower, and the technical challenges are
and coal gasification make up 30% and 18% of production limited compared to the biochemical pathway (e.g., biomass pre-
capacity, respectively (Franchi et al., 2020). The remaining 4% treatment, bioreactor design and restriction to hydrogen), and
of hydrogen is considered green because it is produced by they are able to achieve overall efficiency in a range between
renewable sources and water electrolysis. Considering the 50%–70% depending on the operating conditions (Dascomb
actual percentage of green hydrogen, the decarbonisation of et al., 2013; Kannah et al., 2021).
hydrogen production (grey hydrogen) is a potential paradigm The gasification process is the most efficient method of
that can be only solved by implementing carbon capture and hydrogen production from waste products due to the high
storage (CCS) integration (blue hydrogen) or considering the use biomass conversion in the gas phase. Pyrolysis is an ideal
of clean energy sources (green hydrogen). Using clean energy method of hydrogen production only at high operating
sources is expected to reduce annual carbon dioxide emissions by temperatures (over 600°C) and or at low temperatures if the
nearly 440 million tonnes in 2050 (Nicita et al., 2020). pyrolysis plant is coupled with a steam reforming system able to

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FIGURE 4
Production methods of biodiesel and renewable diesel.

hydrocrack the bio-oil produced. The thermochemical pathways production. The utilization of a catalyst in this process reduces
required biomass waste with a moisture content not higher than the operating temperature and favours the gasification process.
20%. The biomass with moisture content higher than 20%, such The introduction of steam increases hydrogen production.
as fish or algae, must be dried. The procedure requires an However, the process has challenges that must be faced up,
additional power source or an optimised heat exchange such as decreasing the tar contents, optimising the
system to reduce the moisture contained in the waste before composition of the catalyst to minimise the deactivation, and
being fed into the system. Thus, using waste with higher moisture reducing the energy and material costs. Duman et al. (2014)
will reduce the efficiency of the process and increase the reported that the feasibility of steam gasification was affirmed by
production of hydrogen costs. On the other side, fish waste using micro and macroalgae as feedstock. The studies conducted
and algae are inexpensive biomass waste that produces a showed that the hydrogen production capacity of macroalgae was
third-generation of biofuel at low cost. Recent studies on fish much higher than that of microalgae. The maximum hydrogen
waste and algae are easy to process and obtain bio-oil or syngas as production depends on the inorganic content of raw materials in
precursors in synthetic fuel production. Rowland et al. (2009) macroalgae (18%), which favours gasification and could reach
successfully demonstrated that fish waste with high moisture 1,036 ml/g of hydrogen production against 413 ml/g from
content could easily gasify fish waste with dried pellet wood to microalgae.
control the moisture level upstream of the gasifier reactor. The The studies on biomass gasification reported successful
study also demonstrates that adding fish to the pellet wood studies on fish and algae waste. The studies report that
reduces the High Heating Value (HHV) of the syngas gasification is a promising technology for hydrogen
produced, which is still high enough to make this process production and operating parameters such as steam/biomass,
feasible in rural areas or for local use. Reza et al. (2022) pressure temperature and water contents) that drastically affects
successfully demonstrated that fish waste could easy be hydrogen production, as reported in different studies (Han et al.,
gasified into syngas at high temperatures without reducing the 2013; Iovane et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015a).
moisture content of the biomass. They reported the high syngas Thermochemical processes of biomass are a mature and
production and, thus, hydrogen was achieved operating at a efficient process for converting both dry and wet biomass, but
temperature over 600°C. The high temperature favoured the this requires high temperatures and biomass pre-treatment to
cracking reaction of bio-oils contained in the fish and feed wet biomass. Hence, the scientific community is focusing on
produced during the pyrolysis process, consequently developing a biochemical process that has the advantages of
increasing the fraction of gas produced up to 43% at 600°C. using low operating temperatures and microbial to convert wet
The percentage can be increased by increasing the temperature biomass such as algae and fish waste into biohydrogen. They are
and ramp rate moving from conventional pyrolysis to a fast still under investigation and have been proven mainly at the lab
pyrolysis process. However, they also reported that using fish scale.
waste as feedstock produces a high amount of ash that must be Nowadays, thermochemical conversion is the only one
removed during operations, which can affect the operating costs mature technology able to produce large amount of
and, consequentially, the biofuel costs. Cao et al. (2020) reported biohydrogen. However, this technology can compete with
that steam gasification is one of the most efficient processes to conventional fossil fuel (price below $2.00/kg) only if the cost
produce syngas and hydrogen using biomass with higher of the waste biomass has a gate fee that could range anywhere
moisture content. The process is suitable for large-scale from $50-$75/tonnes and the size of the gasification plant is
industrial production with a high gasification rate and low ash 150 MW. Above this value the biohydrogen cost can vary

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between $2.80/kg (Binder et al., 2018; Shahabuddin et al., 2020). production. The complexity of the system requires that
Fish and algae waste are low-cost feedstock which could different challenges have to be overcome, such as energy
thermochemically converted into low-cost hydrogen. balance and COD conversion and improved solid-state
Biohydrogen production by biological conversion is a fermentation, which has demonstrated higher hydrogen
promising technology due to the low operating temperature production (Ghimire et al., 2015a, 2015b). This technology is
and by-product formation. However, state of the art, this promising to produce biohydrogen, but it still requires a lot of
technology has been proven only in a laboratory-scale, and its investigations to be economically viable on a large scale. Many
efficiency strongly depends on the type of technology used. The researchers have documented that the H2 production from
highest efficiency achieved with the biological conversions is 80% wastewater, organic waste or biomass by biochemical path has
using Direct Bio-Photosynthesis and 42.80% using dark the potential to reduce H2 production costs (Das and Veziroǧlu,
fermentation. 2001; Chang et al., 2011).
The predicted cost to produce Biohydrogen by biological Differently from dark fermentation, photo-fermentation
conversion are calculated by the assumption, and the hydrogen and biophotolisys are two light-driven processes in which
cost can change from $2.13/kg for direct photosynthesis to carbon sources are converted to biohydrogen using
$7.53/kg for dark fermentation (Forrunque-Ahmed et al., photosynthetic bacteria. A key addition to the whole
2021). Although the predicted hydrogen cost productions are process is light energy, natural or artificial. The photo-
comparable to the thermochemical conversion this technology is fermentation uses photosynthetic bacteria, mainly called
still not mature to compete for thine biohydrogen production purple non-sulphur bacteria (PNS bacteria). Rare, green
due to technical challenges to face up. bacteria and purple bacteria are used too. The light energy
Indeed, the most developed biochemical processes are dark is used to oxidise the carbon source and produce electrons.
fermentation (DF) (light independent) and photolysis (light PNS bacteria (and the other bacteria that can be used)
dependent). They are still in the demonstration phase due to synthesise nitrogenase or hydrogenase enzymes. The
the low hydrogen production. It will be essential to reduce the methods take place in anaerobic conditions, and
reactor cost and investigate different geometry to improve the nitrogenase under anaerobic conditions use electrons and
performance and reduce the production cost. The feedstock cost ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) and produces hydrogen and
is also considered an important parameter in lowering the cost of ADP (Adenosine diphosphate), as described by the Eq. 1
hydrogen. Among all these processes, photo and dark (Rahman et al., 2016).
fermentation are essential to biological hydrogen production
2H + 2e− + ATP → H2 + 4ADP + Pi (1)
technologies. Of the two methods mentioned above, DF is the
most studied and promising technology for biohydrogen Operating conditions (i.e., pH, temperature and light
production owing to its higher production rates and treatment intensity) depend on the specific bacteria used and the
capacity for organic wastes. DF can convert several types of converted feedstock.
substrates, including waste products rich in carbohydrates and Biophotolysis uses microorganisms such as cyanobacteria or
fatty acids. At present, the DF process is not mature, and the microalgae to produce biohydrogen from water. A key factor for this
development at the industrial scale is limited due to the lower method is sunlight, which is essential for the system to make
hydrogen yield compared to its theoretical maximum yield of biohydrogen. Water is not the only reactant that can be used in
4 mol of H2 per mole of hexose, as well as the estimated costs these processes. Glucose as well as other organic matter, can be used
associated with the H2 production. The production cost in a in biophotolytic processes. This method of hydrogen production has
scaled-up system can be minimised by pre-treatment of been applied in different ways through the years, mostly at the
substrates, enrichment of inoculum and low-cost feedstock. laboratory scale. Biophotolytic processes can be categorised into two
Dark fermentation has been suggested as more practical than main categories: direct biophotolysis and indirect biophotolysis. The
the other processes as it does not require external energy to drive general chemical reaction that describes these two processes is given
the process or a large surface area to capture the necessary light. It by reaction Eq. 2 (Anto et al., 2020).
can take advantage of existing reactor technologies to utilise
organic wastes as feedstock (Han and Shin, 2004; Perera et al., 2H2 O + Light energy → 2H2 + O2 (2)
2010) (Table 3).
In direct biophotolysis, the photosystem absorbs the light
Dark fermentation is a complex system where environmental
energy and transports electrons to ferredoxin, reducing the water
factors and bioreactor operation conditions such as temperature,
molecule. The reduced ferredoxin can transport electrons to
pH and H2 partial pressure control metabolic pathways of
hydrogenase (biohydrogen-producing enzyme). After that,
hydrogen-producing microorganisms. Furthermore, we need
hydrogenase catalyses the conversion of a proton to
to consider other parameters, such as substrate types and their
biohydrogen, according to the reaction Eq. 3, (Mona et al., 2020).
pre-treatment methods, bioreactor configurations, inoculum
sources and enrichments that influence biohydrogen 2H− + 2FD− → H2 + O2 (3)

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The oxygen produced acts as an inhibitor for the converted into biofuel with minimal economic and
hydrogenase enzyme and is a major problem in direct environmental impact (Abomohra et al., 2018; Papargyriou
biophotolytic systems. et al., 2019).
Indirect biophotolysis is a process that takes place in two Fish and algae waste are two sources rich in oils. The amount
stages. In the first stage, the photosynthetic system produces a of oil contained depends on the type of fish and algae. Depending
large amount of biomass to increase the amount of on the extraction methods, it is possible to extract up to 25 wt% of
carbohydrates. In the second stage, biomass-rich carbohydrate oils in fish waste, and 10 wt% and 60 wt% of oil from macroalgae
is utilised as carbon sources. This carbon source plays a similar and microalgae oils (Zhaohui et al., 2020; Gosch et al., 2012). The
role to water in direct biophotolysis. This second stage has some oil is extracted using several methods, such as wet rendering,
similarities with anaerobic fermentation processes. The enzymatic hydrolysis, autolysis, dry rendering, solvent
advantage of indirect photolysis compared to direct photolysis extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction (Dumay et al.,
is that oxygen generation is separated from the stage of hydrogen 2004; Falch et al., 2006; Rai et al., 2010; Ghaly et al., 2013;
evolution, so oxygen is not inhibiting the H2 evolution (Rahman Jayasinghe et al., 2013; Oliveira et al., 2013; Suseno et al., 2015).
et al., 2016; Mona et al., 2020). Table 4 summarises the various While the algae oil is extracted using the Soxhlet apparatus and
biological hydrogen production processes with general technical hexane solvent (Aravind et al., 2020). The studies reported
information involved therein broad classification of showed that supercritical and microwave-assisted technologies
microorganisms used with their relative advantages. are the most appropriate technologies to extract oil from waste.
Photo fermentation was coupled with dark fermentation to These technologies demonstrated a high oil recovery efficiency,
convert residue from anaerobic digestion from fish waste into lower cost, and high environmental sustainability (Zulqarnain
biohydrogen (Melitos et al., 2021). Ghimire et al. (2015c) et al., 2021). The purified oil can then be converted accordingly to
reported that connecting the DF-Photo Fermentation reduces the type of fuel desired. The extracted waste can produce third-
the control of operating parameters such as pH and the process generation biodiesel (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester) and renewable
impacts on the energy yield reaching 55 MJ/kg volatile solid food diesel (long-chain hydrocarbons). There are two main mature
waste, adding a synergistic effect to the overall energy recovery routes for the production of biodiesel and renewable diesel from
during the conversion of food waste. marine, aquaculture, fish industry and algae, which are
Biophotolysis is the main use to process hydrogen from transesterification and hydrodeoxygenation (Figure 4).
water. The process has also been applied to wastewater and The transesterification reaction of fish oil or algae oil with
improved water quality in the aquaculture system. Malara et al. low molecular weight alcohols in the presence of a catalyst oil
(2017) use photolysis to inactivate vibrio species (pathogens) in produces Biodiesel (FAME), a biodegradable fuel (Wu and
aquaculture. Leung, 2011; Sharmila et al., 2021). The utilization of waste oil
makes the production of biodiesel more economically and
environmentally sustainable biodiesel (Rajendran et al., 2022).
3.3 Biodiesel and renewable diesel However, the process requires a high energy demand for
biodiesel purification and recycling of large volumes of
One of the biggest challenges today is to produce a large alcohol when it is carried out using homogeneous catalysis
amount of sustainable biofuel to decarbonise the heavy (Falch et al., 2006; Tanwar et al., 2013). The recent study
transportation sector and achieve the zero-emission target by focused on using a more sustainable method, replacing the
2050. Biodiesel and renewable diesel seem to be the more suitable homogenous catalyst with a heterogeneous catalyst based on
fuel for their physical chemistry properties to replace fossil fuels. alkaline Earth oxide (Marinković et al., 2016). Papargyriou
However, their economic and environmental sustainability is et al. (2019) and Mahdavi et al. (2015). The heterogeneous
highly affected mainly by the feedstock type and the oil extraction catalysis showed comparable performance compared to the
method, which are responsible for the overall biodiesel and the homogenous catalysis, but it has the advantage of reducing
catalyst used and for production methods and the catalyst. The energy consumption and operating cost, producing high-
utilization of edible oils (vegetable oil) is too costly and negatively purity biodiesel by reusing the catalyst for many cycles (Lee
impacts the environment and society (Sumathi et al., 2008). et al., 2014; Knothe and Razon, 2017). Enzymatic catalysts
Utilising non-edible oil plants does not provide enough oil to have also been investigated as possible heterogeneous catalysts
satisfy the energy demand, and the extraction of the oil from the for the conversion of fish waste oil with success. The utilization
plant seed is complex (Hamza et al., 2020). Studies have shown of enzymes allows the production of very pure biodiesel, which
that waste feedstock rich in oil, such as fat animal waste (e.g., fish could further reduce the cost of biodiesel production.
waste) and algae, are potential renewable low-cost fuel sources of However, the enzymatic reactions show a slow reaction
interest (Aniokete et al., 2022; Douvartzides et al., 2019; Madeen rate, and the high cost of the catalysts doesn’t make it a
et al., 2021). Fish waste and algae waste from aquaculture are low- commercial pathway for biodiesel production (Angulo
cost feedstock and have demonstrated that they can be easily et al., 2020).

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Biodiesel production is proven at a commercial scale, and the Despite the several challenges and problems related to this
size of the plant does not affect the price of its sustainability. This technology, the Techno-economic Analysis and Life-Cycle
means that the plant can also be scaled up accordingly with the Analysis of Renewable Diesel Fuels Produced with Waste
amount of feedstocks available locally. The main problem Feedstocks carried out from Longwen et al. (2022)
associated with the use of biodiesel is its low oxidation highlight as the use of waste feedstock is still crucial for the
stability, poor cold flow properties and low energy content. production costs and for the Greenhouse gas emissions.
This required that biodiesel has to be blended with fossil fuel However, the main challenge for this technology is the
to improve its properties and can be distributed using existing process scalability elated to the viability of large-scale
infrastructure (Knothe and Razon, 2017). production because distributed waste resources are a well-
Differently from biodiesel, Renewable diesel is a mixture of known feature for any conversion strategy using a waste
long-chain hydrocarbons) with a composition like diesel derived resource.
from fossil fuels. This makes green diesel highly stable due to the
absence of double bonds in its structure, and more valuable than
biodiesel because it has a higher cetane number and a higher 4 Production of bioderivatives from
heating value than FAME biodiesel and has similar fuel fish-aquaculture waste and algae
properties to petroleum-diesel. This means that green diesel bloom
can replace diesel-derived fossil fuel and can be delivered
using existing infrastructure (Miller and Kumar, 2014). 4.1 Proteins and peptides
Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) is a catalytic chemical process
that uses hydrogen to decarboxylase the methyl ester for a stable 4.1.1 Fish hydrolysates for the generation of
long-chain hydrocarbon with the same characteristics as diesel biologically active peptides
derived from fossil fuel. HDO of bio-oil generally occurs under Fish protein hydrolysates (FPH) can be obtained from fish
high pressure (7 MPa–20 MPa) and high temperature processing waste (skin, muscle, head, viscera, and bones),
(200°C–400°C) conditions to increase the amount of effective representing a good source of protein, peptides, and amino
hydrogen in bio-oil and reduce the oxygen content, thereby acids. FPH contain bioactive peptides with a wide range of
ameliorating the physical and chemical properties of bio-oil. biological activities, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-
Oxygen is removed in the form of CO2 or H2O, meanwhile, the hypertensive, antitumoral, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant,
unsaturated bonds become saturated (Qu et al., 2021). and antidiabetic. Furthermore, it has been reported that the
The hydrodeoxygenation process has the advantages of nutritional properties of FPH are superior to other protein
guaranteeing large conversion, better selectivity, high stability hydrolysates because fish proteins are abundant in essential
product. However, the process requires highly harsh conditions, amino acids like lysine and valine (López-Pedrouso et al.,
a complex equipment system, blockages of the reactor due to the 2020; Korkmaz and Tokur, 2022). The production of bioactive
production of high molecular weight wax and deactivation of the peptides includes several steps involving chemical or enzymatic
catalyst (Qu et al., 2021). The catalysts are the main components hydrolysis, and the purification of the hydrolysate proteins. Fish
of this process because they guide the performance of the process. hydrolysates could be used as commercial sources of bioactivity;
Transition metals such as Ni, Mo, Co., Zn, Ce, Nb, Fe, and Cu, however, it has been reported that biological activities are
among which Ni and Mo are generally used as the main active superior in purified peptides. The purification of protein
metals (Wang et al., 2015; Hong and Wang, 2017; Yang et al., hydrolysates has been investigated by several techniques such
2018). The Mo-based catalysts displayed high arene selectivity, as ultrafiltration (UF), ion exchange chromatography, reverse
while the Ni-based catalysts mainly saturated the aromatic ring in phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and
liquid-phase reaction conditions (high hydrogen pressure) gel filtration (GF) (Ishak and Sarbon, 2018).
(Zhang et al., 2020). However, purification at industrial levels could be
Renewable diesel is produced by the hydro-deoxygenation of economically feasible only for high added value products, such
vegetable oils, and it is a mature and certified technology at a as peptides for pharmacology proposes, due to the high
large scale. However, some gaps still need to be filled, such as production cost.
selecting the suitable and best catalyst, inexpensive feedstock and The common treatments to recover the bioactive compounds
studying the mechanism of the reaction. Several studies have from fish wastes are chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis (Table 5)
been conducted to prove that waste material reduces the (Idowu et al., 2021). In chemical hydrolysis, acid or alkali
production cost, particularly when fat animal waste is used conditions are used at high temperatures; the process is low-
(Toldrá-Reig et al., 2020). However, the hydrodeoxygenation cost and fast. However, the hydrolyzed products have high
process of algae waste seems not to be economically sustainable variations in the amino acid profile. In enzymatic hydrolysis,
due to the highest impact on the water scarcity footprint and the lower temperatures and pH values are used. Even though this
unit production cost (Madeen et al., 2021). process is long and expensive, enzymatic hydrolysis produces

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TABLE 5 Extraction conditions of polysaccharides and proteins from aquaculture and marine waste.

Source High-value Extraction Methods Extraction conditions Yield References

product
Fish waste Collagen Enzymatic hydrolysis 180 min, 50°C, and pH 8 DH (25%) Araujo et al.
(protease) (2021)

Scales Collagen Chemical hydrolysis Acetic acid .5 M stirring 24 h 13.6% Chinh et al.
(2019)

Spine Collagen Enzymatic hydrolysis 60 min, 200 rpm, 60°C, pH 8 Morimura et al.
(2002)

Loach skin (Misgurnus Acid Soluble Enzymatic (pepsin aided) and .5 mol/L acetic acid 24 h 4°C 22.42% Wang et al.
anguillicaudatus) collagen chemical (acetic acid) (2018)

Channel catfish (Ictalurus Collagen type I Enzymatic (pepsin aided), HCl pH 2.4 h (100 rpm) 64.19% (Tan and Chang,
punctatus) skin Homogenization-aided, and 2018)
chemical (acetic acid)

Skin of Golden Carp Collagen type I Chemical and enzymatic Acetic acid .5 M Containing 4.13% Ali et al. (2018)
(Probarbus Jullieni) Porcine pepsin (50 g−1)

Skin of Pacific bluefin tuna Collagen type I Chemical and enzymatic Acetic acid .5 M 24, pepsin 5.4% Tanaka et al.
3,130 U/mg solid 48 h (2018)

Skin of Cod Fish Collagen type Eutectic Solvents (DESs) Choline chloride−oxalic acid 91.69% of the total Bai et al. (2017)
4 h, 45°C

Whole fish, skin, and head Fish Protein Enzymatic hydrolysis pH 8.65, 60°C alcalase (1% v/ Protein Content (69.8%– Henriques et al.
from North West Spain hydrolysates with w) 200 rpm, 4 h 76.6%) Yield (2021)
fishing fleet bioactive peptides (83.4%–97.3%)

Rainbow trout (skeleton, fin, Fish hydrolysates Enzymatic hydrolysis Protamex, 1 h, 1% enzymatic 74.30 Degree of Korkmaz and
head, skin, and viscera) ratio, pH 7 Hydrolysis (DH) (%) Tokur, (2022)
Protein Recovery 83.43%

Whiting (head and viscera) Fish hydrolysates Enzymatic hydrolysis Alkaline protease, 60°C, 1 h, 57.46 (DH %) Protein Korkmaz and
1% enzymatic ratio, pH 8 Recovery 95.22% Tokur, (2022)

Anchovy (head and viscera) Fish hydrolysates Enzymatic hydrolysis Flavourzyme Enzymatic ratio 68.23 (DH %) Protein Korkmaz and
1% 1.42 h, pH 7 Recovery 82.89% Tokur, (2022)

Sargassum latifolium Fucoidan Acid extraction 2% citric acid, 2 h, 30°C 10.1% Gomaa et al.
(2018)

Fucus serratus (FS), Fucus Fucoidan Acid extraction M HCl, 80°C, 4 h, pH 5–7 6.0, 9.8, and 8.0 wt% Fletcher et al.
Vesiculosus (FV), and (2017)
Ascophyllum nodosum (AN)

Laminaria japonica Fucoidan Acid extraction 4 h, 80°C .1 M HCl 17 wt% Zhang and Row,
(2015b)

Durvillaea potatorum Fucoidan, laminarin Acid Extraction Before .05 M HCl, 60°C 3 h 47.53% w/w Abraham et al.
and alginate Alkaline extraction (2019)

Focus vesiculosus Fucoidan Microwave extraction 10 mM Sulfuric acid, 30 min, 11.10% Ptak et al. (2019)
120°C

Kjellmaniella crassifolia Fucoidan Enzymatic extraction Cellulolytic Enzyme cocktail, 4.74% Tang et al.
1:4.29 enzyme ratio, and 10 h (2022)

Saccharina latissima Laminarin Cross-flow filtration Ceramic Membrane with (Sterner and
5 kDa, 15 kDa, and 50 kDa Gröndahl 2021)
molecular weight cutoffs

Focus vesiculosus Laminarin Microwave extraction 100 mM HCl, 30 min, 120°C 8.68% (Ptak et al 2019)

Sargassum seaweed Alginate Alkali extraction Na2CO3, 6 h 80°C 20.76% Mohammed

et al. (2020)

Saccharina latissima and Alginate Acid treatment acid extraction .2 M HCl 11.2% Bojorges et al.
Ascophyllu nodosum (2022)

(Continued on following page)

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TABLE 5 (Continued) Extraction conditions of polysaccharides and proteins from aquaculture and marine waste.

Source High-value Extraction Methods Extraction conditions Yield References

product
Ascophyllu nodosum Alginate Acid treatment acid extraction .2 M HCl 13.8% Bojorges et al.
(2022)

Sargassum latifolium Alginate Acid extraction alkaline 2% citric acid, 2 h, 30°C, 44.26% Gomaa et al.
treatment Na2CO3 2% for 3 h 40°C (2018)

Shrimp shells Chitin and chitosan Chemical extraction 1.0 M HCl 3.0 M NaOH, Srinivasan et al.
75 min, room temperature (2018)

Shrimp shells Chitosan Chemical extraction 1 N HCl 65°C, 2 h 3.5% 12.93% Al-Manhel et al.
NaOH (2018)

Mud crab shells Chitosan Chemical extraction 1.0 M HCl 3 h, room 17.9% Narudin et al.
temperature 5% NaOH 6 h, (2022)
90–95°C

Shrimp waste Chitosan Chemical extraction 2 N HCl, 2 h, room 12.03% Varun et al.
Temperature 2 N NaOH, (2017)
2 h, 50°C

Waste shrimp shells Chitosan Citric acid Demineralizati on, 10 wt% citric acid, 1 h, papain 19% Pérez et al.
enzymatic deproteinization and bromelain 1 wt%, (2022)
pH 740°C, 6 h

Waste shrimp shells Chitosan Biological demineralization Lactic acid And Proteolytic 32.12% Marzieh et al.
enzyme (2019)

FIGURE 5
Polysaccharides and proteins extracted from aquaculture and marine wastes and their applications.

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high-quality FPH. Numerous commercial enzymes have been collagen peptides (Bai et al., 2017). Wang et al. (2018) used
used, such as alcalase, flavourzyme, papain, protamex, pronase skin loach for the extraction of acid-soluble collagen (ASC) and
(Siddik et al., 2021). Korkmaz and Tokur (2022) hydrolysed fish pepsin-soluble collagen (PSC) and obtained yields of 22.42% and
wastes from trout, anchovy, and whiting to produce fish proteins. 27.32%, respectively. They used .5 mol/L acetic acid and pepsin
They compared three commercial enzymes (alkaline protease, (1,200 u/g) for the extraction, and the temperature of
Protamex, and flavourzyme) and optimized the hydrolysis denaturalization of the obtained collagen was similar to the
conditions (time, enzymatic ratio, temperature) for protein porcine skin collagen. Tan and Chang (2018) used catfish
production. The highest protein content was obtained from skins by acid, homogenization-aided, and enzymatic methods,
the head and viscera of whiting (95.22%) with alkaline and their recovery rate was 64.19%. However, it is difficult to
protease. They concluded that the degree of hydrolysis and separate the proteins after the alkali or acid treatment. Besides,
protein recovery depends on fish species, waste composition, the enzymatic process enhances the total cost of production
hydrolysis method, and enzyme. Henriques et al. (2021) because enzymes are expensive and cannot be reused. Therefore,
characterized protein hydrolysates from the most discarded new methods have been developed. Bai et al. (2017) used deep
species by the North-West Spain fishing fleet (gurnard, eutectic solvents for collagen extraction from cod skins. These
Atlantic horse mackerel, blue whiting, red scorpionfish, solvents are biocompatible and environmentally friendly.
pouting, and four-spot megrim). They used whole fish, skin, Choline chloride (ChCl) was used, and under optimal
bones, and head and enzymatic hydrolysis using alcalase. The conditions, the extraction efficiencies were up to 91.57%–
maximum yield of FPH and protein was achieved with the skins 96.01% of the total collagen peptides in only 2 h.
and bones, 97.3% of FPH yield with blue whiting, and 76.6% of
protein. Also, the hydrolysates contained all the essential amino
acids; glutamic and aspartic acids were the most abundant. 4.2 Polysaccharides
Nevertheless, most enzymes used for hydrolysis have different
specificities that are difficult to control or standardize. 4.2.1 Fucoidan
Subsequently, searching for proteases with higher activity and Fucoidan is a polysaccharide composed of L-fucose and
substrate specificity is essential. Further, it is important to sulphate groups found in brown macroalgae (Luthuli et al.,
mention that almost all the investigations have been confined 2019). Ascophyllum nodusum, Undaria pinnatifida, and
to small scale because of the high cost of the enzymes (Figure 5). Ecklonia cava macroalgae have been reported as the richest
sources of fucoidan (Abdel-Latif et al., 2022). The principal
4.1.2 Collagen application of fucoidan is in the pharmaceutical industry
Collagen is a natural material with excellent biocompatibility because of its anticancer, anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory,
and biodegradability (Bai et al., 2017). There are at least 29 types antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory activities
of collagens, and among these, the most common is type 1. This (Wijesinghe and Jeon, 2012). Another application of fucoidan
collagen has multiple applications in the cosmetic, food, is in aquaculture. Multiple authors have reported using fucoidan
medicine, and pharmaceutical industries (Wang et al., 2018). in the dietary supplementation of aquafeed. Fucoidan could be
Collagen can be obtained from pig skin, pork, cattle bones, and used as a growth promotor, antiviral agent, antioxidant, toxicity
other mammalian sources. Nevertheless, this material is also modulator, and to improve resistance against bacterial pathogens
present in marine organisms such as fish and sponges (Subhan (Abdel-Latif et al., 2022). Regarding fucoidan production, the
et al., 2021). Marine collagen has multiple advantages; for extraction consists of an initial purification using alcohol, an
example, it can be consumed by people with religious extraction step using acid, and final precipitation using ethanol
restrictions because marine animals are not affected by (Fletcher et al., 2017). However, environmental technologies
infectious diseases. Also, marine collagen has lower thermal such as microwave-assisted and enzyme-assisted extraction
denaturalization temperature than collagen from pigs or cows have also been reported. For example, Ptak et al. (2019) used
(Tanaka et al., 2018). In the fishing industry, only about 25% of a microwave-assisted extraction to improve the fucoidan yield
the total fish weight is used, with 75% of waste containing skin, from Fucus genus. They found that fucoidan yield is maximized
bone, and scale that could produce collagen (Srikanya et al., by extraction with 10 mM sulfuric acid, obtaining a yield of
2017). Fish is rich in type I collagen, and the yield and properties 11.10%. Tang et al. (2022) used an enzymatic-assisted extraction
depend on the extraction method and the raw material (Table 5). using a cocktail of cellulose, and they reported a yield of 4.74% for
Although the yield from marine collagen is lower than from fucoidan extraction from Kjellmaniella crassifolia. Higher yields
mammalian sources, different studies have been done on the have been reported with acidic extractions. Zhang and Row
improvement. For collagen extraction, two principal operations (2015b) identified the best condition for fucoidan extraction
have been reported. In the first one, gelatin is obtained by a from Laminaria japonica, and they obtained a yield of 17 wt%
chemical pre-treatment with dilute acid or alkali. Afterward, the with an acidic treatment using HCl. According to season, specie,
gelatin’s enzymatic hydrolysis (using pepsin) produces the maturity and location, it has been reported that fucoidan

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structure is different. Fletcher et al. (2017) studied the seasonal 4.2.3 Chitin and chitosan
variation of three species of brown macroalgae: Fucus serratus Chitin is a linear polysaccharide formed mainly of β- (1 → 4)-
(FS), Fucus vesiculosus (FV), and Ascophyllum nodosum (AN) linked 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-D-glucopyranose units and
harvested on the coastal of Aberystwyth United Kingdom. The partially of β-(1 → 4)-linked 2-amino-2- deoxy-β-
average content was 6 wt%–9.8 wt%, with the highest content in D-glucopyranose (El Knidri et al., 2018). It is the second most
autumn. Abraham et al. (2019) developed and optimized a abundant natural biopolymer, found in fungi, insects, algae, and
process for the extraction of multiple polysaccharides crustaceans (Lionetto and Corcione, 2021). The composition of
(fucoidan, alginate, and laminarin) from Durvillaea potatorum chitin is different between organisms. Three crystalline forms, α-,
(giant bull kelp), using an acidic extraction before the β-, and γ-chitin, differ in orientation, degree of orientation,
conventional alkali extraction. They reported a higher yield number of chains, and unit size. In crustaceans and algae, the
(43.53% w/w) of the total polysaccharides compared with the α-chitin crystalline structure is the most abundant form. This
traditional process for a single alginate product (38.97% w/w). structure is the most stable and has a remarkable stability (Pellis
et al., 2022). Advantages such as biodegradability,
4.2.2 Alginate biocompatibility, and non-toxicity make chitin and its
Alginate is the primary cell wall component in brown derivative chitosan widely used in medicine, pharmacy,
seaweeds (17%–45% of the dry weight), and it is a textiles, cosmetic, and food industries (Marzieh et al., 2019).
polysaccharide formed by two monomeric units [β-D Crustaceans are the principal source of chitin extraction.
mannuronic acid (M) and α-L guluronic acid (G)] Crustacean’s shells contain 20%–30% of chitin, 30%–40% of
(Abraham et al., 2019; Bojorges et al., 2022). The algae proteins, 30%–50% of calcium carbonate (Kumari et al.,
variety and growing conditions affect the structure and 2015). However, it has been reported that shrimp has a higher
composition. The principal sources of alginate are percentage of chitin and is a more suitable choice than crabs, in
Macrocystis pyrifera from California and Ascophyllum terms of high average molecular weight. Generally, the extraction
nodosum from the North Atlantic (López-Pedrouso et al., process is chemical or biological and involves three major steps:
2020). Alginate is broadly used in different fields such as demineralization, deproteinization and deacetylation. In the
the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, food, and textile industries due chemical extraction, the demineralization is done by acid
to its gelling, film-forming, and emulsifying properties treatment using HCl, HNO3, and H2SO4, the deproteinization
(Gomaa et al., 2018). It has also been reported that alginate by alkaline treatment using NaOH or KOH, and the
has potential prebiotic activity and can decrease cholesterol deacetylation by alkaline treatment using a strong NaOH or
levels (López-Pedrouso et al., 2020). Alginate production KOH. The principal advantages of this extraction are a short
follows an acid and alkaline treatment by a precipitation or processing time and a high depolymerization degree of the final
flocculation method, principally by adding sodium chloride product, making them the method used on an industrial scale.
and isopropanol. Also, some authors have reported a pre- However, it is considered environmentally unfriendly due to the
treatment with formaldehyde (Table 5). For example, solvents employed. Biological extraction treatments are an
Mohammed et al. (2020) extract alginate from Sargassum alternative, using lactic acid in the demineralization, proteases
seaweed using formaldehyde, acid treatment with sulfuric in the deproteinization, and chitin deacetylase for the
acid, and alkali extraction. They used a response surface deacetylation (El Knidri et al., 2018). Pérez et al. (2022)
methodology to optimize the extraction process; the developed an eco-friendly process for chitosan production
optimum conditions were Na2CO3 3.75% (w/v) for 6 h at from waste shrimp shells. They used citric acid and enzymatic
80°C, with a yield of 21.21%. Even when formaldehyde is deproteinization using papain and bromelain, and their process
used to improve the quality of the polysaccharides or as a had a 24% lower water consumption than the traditional process.
preservative, it should be considered toxic, allergenic, and In addition, an increment of 10% in chitosan yield was achieved.
possibly carcinogenic. For these reasons, diverse authors have Marzieh et al. (2019) used a biological extraction using lactic-acid
designed extraction technologies without formaldehyde. and proteolytic enzymes, followed by mild alkali treatment. The
Bojorges et al. (2022) extracted alginate from Saccharina combination of these treatments exhibited a yield of 32.12% for
latissima and Ascophyllum nodosum. Produced alginates the chitosan, making it a good strategy as a greener method for
had a comparable composition as commercial alginates; chitosan extraction.
also, after the first treatment, a high potential as a bioactive
ingredient was found due to a high content of sulphated 4.2.4 Other polysaccharides: Carrageenan,
fucoidan and polyphenols. Gomaa et al. (2018) extracted laminarin, and ulvan
alginate from Sargassum latifolium using citric acid for an Carrageenan, a sulphated polysaccharide in the cell wall of
acid extraction, followed by an alkali treatment using Na2CO3. red seaweeds (30%–75% of dry weight), is formed by alternate
Under the extraction conditions, the yield of alginate was units of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydrogalactose. Carrageenan is
44.26%. principally produced from the red seaweed species Eucheuma,

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Gigartina, Chondrus, and Hypnea. At least 15 different structures cationic, and zwitterionic) depending on the nature of their
have been reported. However, the most relevant are κ-, λ-, and i-. hydrophilic fragment, the lipophilic fragment remaining
The structure could be modified depending on the seaweed structurally similar across all categories of surfactants. Gemini
species, growing conditions, and the extraction process surfactants are a separate category of surfactants constituted of
(Rudke et al., 2020). Because of their properties, such as two hydrophilic head groups of any type and a single lipophilic
gelling and hydrocolloid, they are mainly used in the food tail group.
industry. Additionally, several biological activities have been Most industrially relevant surfactants have found
reported to exhibit, such as anti-HIV, antithrombotic, applications in the detergent, cosmetics, emulsification, and
anticoagulant, anticancer, and antioxidant (Qureshi et al., anti-foaming industries (Chang, 2016) and are widely derived
2019). Moreover, properties such as biocompatibility and high from petroleum. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand for
adsorption of water made it a good candidate for drug delivery surfactants as petroleum reserves run out, biosurfactants have
systems (Khan et al., 2017). The common extraction method is emerged as ideal alternatives. They have the characteristic overall
under hot alkaline conditions, followed by filtration and alcohol amphiphilic structure of synthetic surfactants but vary at the
precipitation (Qureshi et al., 2019). However, greener methods hydrophilic head group, which can be one of several usual motifs
have been reported in recent years, such as microwave-assisted encountered in natural molecules.
extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, photobleaching, These are naturally synthesised by microbial sources such
enzyme-assisted extraction, and pressurized solved extraction as bacteria (typically Bacillus sp. (Sakr et al., 2021),
(Rudke et al., 2020). Pseudomonas sp. (Bhosale et al., 2019)., Botyris cinerea
Ulvan is a sulphated polysaccharide extracted from the green (Abidi et al., 2008), Lactobacilli (Gudiña et al., 2011), and
algae “Ulva lactuca.” This polysaccharide possesses attractive Candida utilis (Ribeiro et al., 2019) from renewable sources
gelling and antioxidant properties (Guidara et al., 2019; Kidgell and perform equally to better than synthetic surfactants in
et al., 2019). Also, other biological activities, including several areas (e.g., oil spill, oil recovery, wastewater treatment,
immunomodulating, anticancer, and antiviral, have been and pharmaceuticals) (Ng et al., 2022). Apart from being more
reported. Consequently, ulvan is increasing its interest as a environmentally friendly than their current counterparts, they
constituent in biomedical products and agriculture (Konasani also present many desirable features such as being less toxic
et al., 2018). Similarly, to other polysaccharides, the yield and (Akbari et al., 2018), biodegradable (Vijayakumar and
quality depend on the extraction and purification procedure and Saravanan, 2015), highly specific and effective at extreme
the source. Guidara et al. (2019) compared chemical extraction temperature, salinity, and pH conditions (Pacwa-
with enzymatic chemical extraction. They reported a high ulvan Płociniczak et al., 2011). Certainly, their main selling point
yield after the enzymatic chemical extraction 17.95%, whereas the is that they can be produced at a lower cost from waste (Sáenz-
yield was 14.22% with the chemical extraction. Marta et al., 2015; Martins and Martins, 2018; Jiménez-
Laminarin is a polysaccharide in brown macroalgae and Peñalver et al., 2020). However, this is conditional on the
represents up to 35% of dry weight. However, the average isolation of the biosurfactant, as the purification process may
content of laminarin for different species of brown still represent the main contribution to the overall production
macroalgae is 10% (Rocher et al., 2021). It is a β-1,3-D-glucan cost (Mukherjee et al., 2006) and identifying suitable organic
that consists of approximately 25 glucosyl residues (Abraham waste material is crucial for the commercialization of
et al., 2019; López-Pedrouso et al., 2020; Sterner and Gröndahl, biosurfactant. Additionally, parameters such as carbon and
2021). There are variations in the structure due to the specie, nitrogen sources, trace elements, temperature and pH are
season, and other environmental factors. Contrasting the other other variables which can strongly influence the
polysaccharides, laminarin does not form gels. Nevertheless, it biosurfactant yield (Patel and Desai, 1997).
has been reported their anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, Biosurfactant production by bacteria or enzymes has been
antitumoral and antioxidant activities (López-Pedrouso et al., investigated with all sorts of plant biomass and food industry
2020). wastes (Makkar et al., 2011; Mohanty et al., 2021).
Alternatively, marine environments host a rich diversity of
organisms that naturally produce biosurfactants and
4.3 Biosurfactants emulsifiers (Rahman et al., 2019), some of which are
already widely used in the food industry (Liao et al., 2021).
Surfactants are amphiphilic compounds, composed of so- In general, biosurfactants from marine environments are
called hydrophilic head and lipophilic tail that have the ability to derived from a wide range of organisms including, but not
reduce surface and interfacial tensions by accumulating at the limited to, macroalgae, microalgae, bacteria, diatoms, and
interface and forming larger structures called micelles, in the first cyanobacteria (Silva et al., 2012). Algae are the most
case, and surfactant liquid crystals, in the second (Kronberg and abundant resource in the ocean and represent a virtually
Lindman, 2014). They fall into four categories (neutral, anionic, endless source of biosurfactants called polysaccharides (Xu

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et al., 2017). These long polymers [tens to hundreds of kDa Another non-negligible potential feedstock for
(Usman et al., 2017)] occur as the main structural components biosurfactant production is fish wastes as sources of both
of marine algae or as microbial secretions, known as peptide and fatty substrates. With 30%–80% of the fish
exopolysaccharides (EPS) (Manivasagan and Kim, 2014). body weight being discarded during industrial processing
Polysaccharides can be extracted with hot water (Zhang operations (Dave and Manuel, 2014), the upcycling of these
et al., 2010; Savage, 2012), although removing unwanted wastes also contributes to solving environmental and health
species with organic solvents is more efficient and less problems. Zhu et al. (2020) took advantage of the richness of
costly (Lim et al., 2014). Lately, these methods have been these wastes to synthesize lipopeptides. They first hydrolysed
replaced with microwave, ultrasonic, and enzyme-assisted blended fish heads and fish livers to produce peptones that
extraction. Microwave-assisted extraction has the Bacillus subtilis transformed into lipopeptides. The
advantages of short extraction time, low energy, and low lipopeptides were used in the formulation of a bio-
cost (Sousa et al., 2010; Hahn et al., 2012; Kadam et al., dispersant that exhibited particularly good behaviour to
2013). Ultrasonication and enzymes are used to break down treat oil spills. Similarly, Hu et al. (2021) enzymatically
the cell walls and release the compounds of interest either by hydrolysed tuna fish red meat to obtain peptones that were
cavitation and diffusion through cell walls or by hydrolysis of converted into biosurfactants by Bacillus subtillis. They found
some of the cell wall structures (Kadam et al., 2013). All these that on a laboratory scale, the surface tension and critical
techniques have proved to have higher efficiency compared micelle dilution were similar to those obtained by Zhu et al.
with conventional methods (Yuan and Macquarrie, 2015). To (2020) but insist that results may vary depending on the fish
a lesser extent, liquid extraction methods have been improved source. Their process was scaled up to a 100-L pilot-scale,
using more environment-friendly solvents such as which is to date the most advanced process for the production
supercritical fluids (Herrero and Ibáñez, 2015) and ionic of biosurfactant from fish materials. The same bacteria
liquids (Kadam et al., 2013; Martins et al., 2016). Algal Bacillus subtilis was used to prepare lipopeptides in 30%
polysaccharides have found widespread applications in the yield from more refined materials, such as fish oil and a
food industry as emulsifiers and thickening and stabilizing culture broth (Saranya et al., 2014). They were then
agents, cosmetics, biomedical industry due to their anti- immobilized on nanoporous activated carbon and
cancer, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effectively removed Ca2+ (98%) and Cr3+ (92%) from water
activities, and heavy-metal removal among others solutions. By using Ustilago maydis FBD12 instead of Bacillus
(Anestopoulos et al., 2020). subtillis. Cortes-Sánchez et al. (2011) produced glycolipids
Exopolysaccharides (EPS), or extracellular from soybean and fish oils. In optimal conditions, the
polysaccharides, are complex mixtures of anionic production of glycolipids was higher with fish oil.
biopolymers consisting primarily of polysaccharides as well Moreover, the production of glycolipids from soybean oil
as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and humic substances was higher when Candida rugosa (lipase) was added, while
(Manivasagan and Kim, 2014). The huge variety of this revealed detrimental when fish oil was used, suggesting
organisms (e.g., macro-/microalgae, bacteria) that produce that fish oil may be a better raw material. Finally, Kaskatepe
EPS combined with the sometimes drastically different et al. (2015) used Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains to convert
environment in which they grow has been an endless fish meal into rhanmopeptides. The three strains tested
source of new biopolymers with unique properties. This (ATCC, H1, and SY1) produced biosurfactants at
comes to the price of a challenging isolation and concentrations of 12.3 g/L, 9.3 g/L, and 10.3 g/L
purification of the target compounds, as exopolysaccharides respectively, which decreased when the bacteria were
are secreted along with other extracellular polymeric exposed to UV light. Kadam and Savant (2019) compared
substances (Suresh Kumar et al., 2007; Manivasagan and the production of glycolipids from shrimp shell and fish wastes
Kim, 2014). Therefore, EPS may exhibit properties and and plant biomass by Pseudomonas stutzeri. Curiously, fish
functions that are actually reflected by the collective wastes gave by far the worst yield while shrimp shell wastes
extracellular polymeric substances’ characteristics of a were the best substrate and could produce 4 g/L–6 g/L of
mixture of compounds (Xiao and Zheng, 2016). In sucrose-based glycolipids under the optimized conditions.
particular, sulphated polysaccharides are a category of When fish wastes were transformed with Corynebacterium
biosurfactants exclusively found in the marine spp. CCT, anionic biosurfactants were produced (Martins and
environments with additional properties that structural Martins, 2018). When compared to sugarcane bagasse,
polysaccharides do not possess, owing to the multiple petroleum sludge, and glycerol, both fish wastes and
sulphate functional groups, and that slightly vary depending sugarcane bagasse significantly outperformed the last two
on the degree of sulphation of the polymers (Silva et al., 2012; feedstocks. Despite the more industrially viable production
Raposo et al., 2013). These are as diverse as joint lubrication of artificial surfactants, there seems to be a trend according to
and targeted drug delivery. which biosurfactant production is higher when unrefined

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feedstocks from sources other petroleum are used. These essential as an alternative on the reuse of nutrients along the
combinations of sustainable feedstocks and natural productive chains for a sustainable future in next the green world.
microorganisms is economically promising as they valorise
cheap wastes that would otherwise create environmental and
health problems, without loss of efficiency compared with Author contributions
artificial surfactants.
LA-R: Write original draft, BS-R: Write original draft; GP:
Write original draft; JES-H: Write original draft; HMNI: Review-
5 Conclusion and future prospect editing; RP-S: Supervision, Review-editing, Funding acquisition;
ADB: Write original draft, Review-editing, Funding acquisition;
Due to the aquaculture sector is growing fast, it is necessary EMM-M: Write original draft, Review-editing, Supervision.
to implement new technologies to take advantage of the waste
generated. Improving waste utilization in aquaculture is
necessary to minimize its environmental impact. It has been Funding
reported that aquaculture by-products possess multiple
properties that make them useful in different fields, such as This work received the financial support of the project
energy, medicine, and food. Biofuels from aquaculture and GCRFNGR4/1388 "Algae bloom: waste resource for aquaculture
marine waste, and macroalgae represent a promising and bioenergy industry in Mexico". This work was supported by the
alternative to carbon fuels because they do not compete with World Universities Network, Research Development Fund.
food crops for arable land such as the first and second generation
of biofuels. Also, the cost of biofuels could be less because marine
waste and macroalgae are inexpensive sources. Nowadays, most Acknowledgments
biofuels cannot compete with fossil fuels and most of them are on
a laboratory scale that needs to solve challenges related to large- The authors acknowledge the support of the participant
scale production and yields. Proteins and polysaccharides institutions for gaining access to scientific journal databases and
isolated from marine and aquaculture waste have shown GCRF to fund the project. CONACyT is thankfully acknowledged for
multiple biological and physiological properties. The recovery partially supporting this work under Sistema Nacional de
processes for these biomolecules are now focused on enzyme- Investigadores (SNI) program awarded to EM-M (CVU: 230784),
assisted processes than chemical-based processes due to their JS-H (CVU: 375202), HI (CVU: 735340), and RP-S (CVU: 35753).
eco-friendly and green aspects. Although there are different
alternatives for by-product management, as we discussed
before, most of them remain in the development phase or Conflict of interest
optimization. So, future research must focus on can scale
these processes to an industrial level. With this article, we The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
hope to encourage the use of aquaculture and marine waste absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
for the sustainable production of biofuels and bioderivates on a be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
circular and sustainable strategy. Several applications for the by-
product of aquaculture and algae are on the table. However,
countries and industries must invest in infrastructure and Publisher’s note
technology for by-product utilization and monitoring the
positive impact on that. With investment, by-products will All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
contribute to the sustainable development of the society. The authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
production of different useful products in one refinery could be a organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
more advantageous project rather than the exclusive production reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
of only one product reducing the cost. To secure and guarantee claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
food safety, the integration of aquaculture and marine waste is endorsed by the publisher.

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