Chapter 2

Set Theory (page 42 - )

Objectives:
• Specify sets using both the listing and set builder notation
• Understand when sets are well defined
• Use the element symbol property
• Find the cardinal number of sets

Definition (sets)
In mathematical terms a collection of (well defined) objects is called a set and the individual objects
in this collection are called the elements or members of the set.
Examples: a) S is the collection of all students in Math 1001 CRN 6977 class
b) T is the set of all students in Math 1001 CRN 6977 class who are 8 feet tall
d) E is the set of even natural numbers less than 2
e) B is the set of beautiful birds (Not a well-defined set)
f) U is the set of all tall people (Not a well-defined set)
Note: The sets in b) and d) have no elements in them.
Definition: (Empty Set): A set containing no element is called an empty set or a null set.
Notations: { } 𝒐𝒓 ∅ denotes empty set.

Representations of Sets
In general, we represent (describe) a set by listing it elements or by describing the property of the
elements of the set, within curly braces.
Two Methods: Listing and Set Builder

Examples of Listing Method: List the elements of the set

a) N5 is the set of natural numbers less than 5
𝐍𝟓 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒 }
b) 𝐍𝟏𝟎𝟎 the set of positive integers less than 100
𝐍𝟏𝟎𝟎 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . , 𝟏𝟎𝟎}
c) 𝑺 = {𝒎, +, 𝟏, ∅, 𝟓, ∆}
Set Builder Method: has the general format {𝒙: 𝑷(𝒙)}, here 𝑷(𝒙) is the property that the element x
should satisfy to be in the collection
Examples, Set-builder Method:
d) 𝑺 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ 1001𝐶𝑅𝑁 6977 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠}.
Here 𝑷(𝒙) = 𝒙 is a student in Math 1001 CRN6977 class
e) 𝑅 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2} = {𝑥: − 1 < 𝑥 < 2}
Here 𝑷(𝒙) = 𝒙 is a real number strictly between -1 and 2
f) 𝑇 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 4 − 1 = 0} = {𝑥: 𝑥 = −1, 1, −𝑖, 𝑖}
Here 𝑷(𝒙) = 𝒙 satisfies 𝐱 𝟒 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
Example: YouTube Videos:
 Sets and set notation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=01OoCH-2UWc
 Set builder notation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnfUZ-NTsCE

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Sets of Numbers commonly used in mathematics
𝑹 = ℝ = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓} = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏}
𝒂
𝑸 = ℚ = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓} = �𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝒃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ ℤ, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎�

𝑰 = 𝒁 = ℤ = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓} = { . . . , −𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, . . . }

𝑾 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒘𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓} = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . }
𝑵 = ℕ = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓} = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . }
Definition (Universal Set)
The universal set is the set of all elements under consideration in a given discussion. We denote
the universal set by the capital letter U.

The Element Symbol (∈)

We use the symbol ∈ to stand for the phrase is an element of, and the symbol ∉ means is not an
element of
Example1: i) 𝑨 = {𝟎, −𝟑, 𝟏𝟎, ±, ∀, 𝝏, 𝑯 } ,
𝟎 ∈ 𝑨, read as 0 is an element of A
𝟏𝟎 ∈ 𝑨, read as 10 is an element of A
𝝏 ∈ 𝑨, read as 𝝏 is an element of A
𝟑 ∉ 𝑨, read as 3 is not an element of A
𝒉 ∉ 𝑨, read as h is not an element of A
ii) 𝑩 = {∅, {𝟎, ∅}, {∅}, {𝟏, 𝟎}, 𝟎}. Referring to set B answer the following as True or False.
a) ∅ ∈ 𝐵 d) {{1, 0}, 0} ∈ 𝐵
b) {∅} ∈ 𝐵 e) {0, ∅} ∈ 𝐵
c) {0} ∈ 𝐵 f) 0 ∉ 𝐵

Cardinal Number
Definition: The number of elements in set A is called the cardinal number of A and is denoted by
𝒏(𝑨). A set is finite if its cardinal number is a whole number. A set is infinite if it is not finite
Example 2: Find the cardinal number of
a) 𝑨 = {0, −3, 10, ±, ∀, 𝜕, 𝐻 }
b) 𝑇 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 4 − 1 = 0}
c) 𝐵 = {∅, {0, ∅}, {∅}, {1, 0}, 0}
d) 𝐸 = {∅}
e) 𝐻 = { }
f) ℕ = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . }

Example: YouTube Videos:

 Elements subsets and set equality: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kGyOrbbllEY&spfreload=10
 Introduction to Set Concepts & Venn Diagrams: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jt-S9J947C8

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 2.2 Comparing Sets (Page 50)
Objectives:
• Determine when sets are equal
• Know the difference between the relations subsets and proper subsets
• Use Venn diagrams to illustrate sets relationships
• Distinguish between the ideas of “equal” and “equivalent” sets

Sets Equality
Definition (Equal sets)
Two sets A and B are equal if and only if they have exactly the same members. We write 𝑨 = 𝑩 to
mean A is equal to B. If A and B are not equal we write 𝑨 ≠ 𝑩.

Example 1: Let 𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 4}

𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}
𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4}
𝑫 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 4}
𝑬 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}
In the list above, identify the sets that are equal
Solution: 𝑨 = 𝑩 and 𝑫 = 𝑬

Subsets
Definition (subset):
The set A is said to be a subset of the set B if every element of A is also an element of B. We indicate
this relationship by writing 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩. If A is not a subset of B, then we write 𝑨 ⊈ 𝑩
Example 2: Let 𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 4}
𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}
𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4}
𝑫 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4}
In the set list above: 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩 and also 𝑩 ⊆ 𝑨
𝑨 ⊆ 𝑪 but 𝑪 ⊈ 𝑨, 𝑩 ⊆ 𝑪 ⊆ 𝑫

Proper Subset
Definition (proper subset):
A set A is said to be a proper subset of set B if 𝑨 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑩 but B is not a subset of A. We
write 𝑨 ⊂ 𝑩 to mean A is a proper subset of B.
Example 3: Let 𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 4}
𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 3}
𝑬 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}
Here 𝑨 ⊂ 𝑪, A is a proper subset of C
𝑪 ⊂ 𝑬, C is a proper subset of E
Example: YouTube Videos:
 Subsets and proper subsets: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wsF9GpGd00
 Subsets and proper subsets: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s8FGAclojcs

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Example 4: Let 𝑩 = {∅, {𝟎, ∅}, {∅}, {𝟏, 𝟎}, 𝟎}. Referring to set B, answer the following as True or
False.
a) ∅ ⊆ 𝐵 d) {{1, 0}, 0} ⊆ 𝐵
b) {∅} ⊆ 𝐵 e) {0, ∅} ⊆ 𝐵
c) {0} ⊆ 𝐵 f) 0 ⊆ 𝐵
Example 5: Finding all subsets of a set
Let 𝑺 = {𝟎, 𝟏}, 𝑻 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄} and 𝑬 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}.
List all subsets of the sets S and T
Solution:
𝑺 = {𝟎, 𝟏}; the subsets of set S are ∅, {𝟎}, {𝟏}, {𝟎, 𝟏}. There are 4 = 22 subsets of S
𝑻 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}; the subsets of set T are ∅, {𝒂}, {𝒃}, {𝒄}, {𝒂, 𝒃}, {𝒂, 𝒄}, {𝒃, 𝒄}, {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}. There are
𝟖 = 𝟐3 Subsets of T
𝑬 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}, Set E has 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟔 subsets

Number of Subsets of a set:

If a set has k elements, then the number of subsets of the set is given by 𝟐𝒌 .

Equivalent Sets
Definition:
Two sets A and B are equivalent, or in one to one correspondence, iff 𝒏(𝑨) = 𝒏(𝑩).
In other words, two sets are equivalent if and only if they have the same Cardinality.

Example 6: Equivalent sets

a) 𝑻 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄} and 𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}are equivalent, Note 𝑻 ≠ 𝑩
b) ℕ = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . } and 𝑾 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . } are equivalent
c) ℕ = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . } and ℤ = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓} are equivalent
d) ℕ = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . } and ℚ = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓} are equivalent
e) Equal sets are equivalent
Example 7: Let 𝐴 = �0, 𝑎, 𝑒, 𝜋, {0}�. How many subsets of A have:
a) One element (list the subsets)
b) Two elements (list the subsets)
c) Four elements (list the subsets)

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 Set Operations (page 57)
Objectives:
• Perform the set operations of union, intersection, complement and difference
• Understand the order in which to perform set operations
• Know how to apply DeMorgan’s Laws in set theory
• Use Venn diagrams to prove or disprove set theory statements
• Use the Inclusion – Exclusion Principle to calculate the cardinal number of the union of two sets

Union of Sets
Definition (set union ∪):
The union of two sets A and B, written 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩, is the set of elements that are members of A or B (or
both). Using the set-builder notation, 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = {𝒙: 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 ∈ 𝑩 }
The union of more than two sets is the set of all elements belonging to at least to one of the sets.
Example 1:
𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1}
𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}
𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4}
𝑫 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 4}
Find a) 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 c) 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 ∪ 𝑫
b) 𝑨 ∪ 𝑪 d) 𝑪 ∪ 𝑩 ∪ 𝑫

Intersection of Sets
Definition (set intersection ∩)
The intersection of two sets A and B, written 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩, is the set of elements common to both A and B.
Using the set-builder notation, 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 = {𝒙: 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 ∈ 𝑩 }
The intersection of more than two sets is the set of all elements that belongs to each of the sets. If the
intersection, 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 = ∅, then we say A and B are disjoint.

Example 2:
𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2}
𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}
𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4}
𝑫 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 3}
Find a) 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 c) 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 ∩ 𝑪
b) 𝑨 ∪ 𝑫 d) 𝑪 ∩ 𝑩 ∩ 𝑫
Example 3: Let 𝑩 = {∅, {𝟎, ∅}, {∅}, {𝟏, 𝟎}, 𝟎} and 𝑨 = �{∅, 𝟎}, {𝟎}, {∅}, {𝟎, 𝟏}, 𝟏�. Find:
a) 𝒏(𝑩) c) 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩
b) 𝒏(𝑨) d) 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Example: YouTube Videos:

 Intersection and union of sets: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAfNg3ylZAI

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Set Complement
Definition (𝑨′ , 𝑨 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑜𝑟 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕)
If A is a subset of the universal set U, the complement of A is the set of elements of U that are not
elements of A. This set is denoted by 𝑨′. Using the set-builder notation, 𝑨′ = {𝒙: 𝒙 ∈ 𝑼 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒙 ∉ 𝑨}
Example 4: Using Venn diagram:
a) Show that, if 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩, then 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 = 𝑨 b) Show that, if 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩, then 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = 𝑩

Example 5: Let 𝑼 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10} and

𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2}
𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} 𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4}
𝑫 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 3}
Find a) 𝑨′ b) 𝑩′ c) 𝑪′ d) 𝑫′
e) 𝑨′ ∪ 𝑩′ f) 𝑪′ ∪ 𝑩′ g) (𝑪 ∪ 𝑫)′ h) (𝑩 ∩ 𝑪)′

Set Difference
Definition (B – A, B less A)
The difference of sets B and A is the set of elements that are in B but not in A. This set is denoted
by 𝑩 − 𝑨. Using the set-builder notation, 𝑩 − 𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 ∈ 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 ∉ 𝑨}

Example 6: Let 𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2}
𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} 𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4}
𝑫 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 3}
Find: a) 𝑨 − 𝑩 b) 𝑫 − 𝑪 c) 𝑪 − 𝑩 d) 𝑨 − (𝑩 − 𝑪)

Venn Diagrams
The Universal Set ( 𝐔 ) is represented by a rectangle. The shaded regions represent, respectively,
the union, intersection, difference and complement of the sets 𝑨 and 𝑩.

a) 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 b) 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 B
A B A

Example: YouTube Videos:

 Intersection and union of sets: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAfNg3ylZAI

6
 ′
c) 𝑨 − 𝑩 A B d) 𝑨 B
A

Example: YouTube Videos:

 Difference or relative complement: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2B4EBvVvf9w
 Absolute complement: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVZUpOm3XUg

Order of Set Operations

Just as we perform arithmetic operations in a certain order, set notations specifies the order in which
we perform set operations.

1. Just like with numbers, we always do anything in parentheses first. If there is more than one set of
parentheses, we work from the inside out.

2. Union, intersection, and difference operations are all equal in the order of precedence. So, if we
have more than one of these at a time, we have to use parentheses to indicate which of these
operations should be done first.

Properties of Set Operations: If A, B and C be sets, then

a) 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = 𝑩 ∪ 𝑨 Commutative property of union
b) 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 = 𝑩 ∩ 𝑨 Commutative property of intersection
c) (𝑨 ∪ 𝑩) ∪ 𝑪 = 𝑨 ∪ (𝑩 ∪ 𝑪) Associative property of union
d) (𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) ∩ 𝑪 = 𝑨 ∩ (𝑩 ∩ 𝑪) Associative property of intersection
e) (𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) ∪ 𝑪 = (𝑨 ∪ 𝑪) ∩ (𝑩 ∪ 𝑪) Distributive property of union over intersection
f) (𝑨 ∪ 𝑩) ∩ 𝑪 = (𝑨 ∩ 𝑪) ∪ (𝑩 ∩ 𝑪) Distributive property of intersection over union
Proof: Use Venn diagram

Note that: 𝑨 − 𝑩 − 𝑪, 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 ∩ 𝑪, 𝑨 − 𝑩 ∪ 𝑪, 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 ∪ 𝑪, 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 − 𝑪 and so on, without parenthesis

indicating which to do first, are ambiguous.

Example 7: Let 𝑼 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10} be the universal set and

𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2} = { 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖}
𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} 𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4} = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}
𝑫 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 3}

Find a) (𝐴 − 𝐵) − 𝐶 b) 𝐴 − (𝐵 − 𝐶) c) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) j) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′
d) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 e) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶 f) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 − 𝐶)
g) 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ h) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ i) 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′

7
DeMorgan’s Laws:
If A and B are sets, then a) (𝑨 ∪ 𝑩)′ = 𝑨′ ∩ 𝑩′ and
b) (𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)′ = 𝑨′ ∪ 𝑩′

The inclusion-Exclusion Principle

If A and B are sets, then 𝒏(𝑨 ∪ 𝑩) = 𝒏(𝑨) + 𝒏(𝑩) − 𝒏(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)
Example 8: Let 𝐔 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔 }, the universal set, 𝐴 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4},
𝐵 = { 𝑎, 𝑏, 1, 2, 3, 𝑐, 𝑒 }, 𝐶 = {0, 𝑏, 𝑔, 𝑑 }, 𝐷 = {0, 1, 3, 𝑒, 5, 6 }, and 𝐸 = {0, 1, 6, 𝑎, 𝑓 } .
′ ′
Find: a) 𝑨 ∩ �𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 � b) (𝑨 ∪ 𝑩) ∩ (𝑫 − 𝑪) c) (𝑬 ∩ 𝑪)′ ∩ (𝑫 ∪ 𝑩)

d) Verify that 𝒏(𝑨 ∪ 𝑩) = 𝒏(𝑨) + 𝒏(𝑩) − 𝒏(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)

f) Verify DeMorgan’s Laws for the sets B and D

Example: YouTube Videos:

 Bringing the set operations together: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCNXS_m1HWU

Solving Survey Problems with Venn Diagrams

Objectives:
• Label sets in Venn diagrams with various names
• Use Venn diagrams to solve survey problems
• Understand how to handle contradictory information in survey problems

Example: YouTube Videos

 Solving problems using Venn Diagrams: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MassxXy8iko

Example 1: Describe the following sets using Venn diagram

a) Let 𝐔 = { 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆, 𝒇, 𝒈 } be the universal set
𝑨 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝒂, 𝒄} and 𝑩 = { 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝒄, 𝒆 }.

Solutions: U A B

a, 1, 2,
0, 4 3, c b, e

5, 6, d, f, g

8
b) Let 𝐔 = { 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆, 𝒇, 𝒈 }, the universal set
𝑪 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝒃, 𝒈, 𝒅, 𝒄 }, 𝑫 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝒆, 𝒃, 𝟓, 𝟔 }, and 𝑬 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟔, 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒇 }

U D
C

3, 5, e 2, g, d, c
0, 1, b
6

4 a
E

Example 2: Represent Using Venn diagram. Let 𝐔 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . , 𝟏𝟎} be the universal set and
𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1} = {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕}
𝑩 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝟏𝟎} = {𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎}
𝑪 = {𝒚: 𝒚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4} = { 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}

Solution:

𝐔 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . . . , 𝟏𝟎} , 𝑨 = {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕}, 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎}, 𝑪 = { 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}

U
A
B
6
5, 7 0, 8, 10

2, 4
3

9 1
C

9
Example 3: For each of the following, using the given information, find the number of elements in set
A, B, and C.
a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = { }, 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) = 5, 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = 3, 𝑛(𝐶 − 𝐴) = 7, 𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐶) = 2, 𝑛(𝑈) = 14
b) 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 5, 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = 2, 𝑛(𝐶 ∩ 𝐵) = 6, 𝑛(𝐵 − 𝐴) = 10, 𝑛(𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = 23,
𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) = 7, 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = 31
Solution: Use Venn diagram

Survey Problems
Example 4: The National Resource Defense Council, which was instrumental in drafting California’s
Global Warming Solution Act, believes that by using technology properly, we can cut U.S. global
warming solution by half. Three of the solutions proposed by NRDC are using energy-efficient
appliances, driving energy-efficient cars, and using renewable energy sources. Assume that you
surveyed 100 members of Congress to determine which solutions they favored funding and obtained the
following results:
a) 12 favored the increased use of renewable energy source only
b) 20 recommended funding both energy-efficient appliances and renewable energy sources
c) 22 favored funding both energy-efficient cars and increased use of renewable energy sources
d) 14 want to fund all three areas
From this information, determine the total number who favored increased funding for renewable
energy.
Solution: Good Notations; we will represent this information using sets
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑨 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒇𝒂𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 − 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔}
𝐸𝐶 = 𝑪 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒇𝒂𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 − 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒔}
𝑅𝐸 = 𝑹 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒇𝒂𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔}
The conditions from a) – d) can be written using set notations as follows:
𝒏(𝑹 ∩ 𝑨′ ∩ 𝑪′ ) = 𝟏𝟐, 𝒏(𝑨 ∩ 𝑹) = 𝟐𝟎, 𝒏(𝑪 ∩ 𝑹) = 𝟐𝟐, 𝒏(𝑨 ∩ 𝑪 ∩ 𝑹) = 𝟏𝟒

Venn diagram representations of the sets:

U
A
C

14
6 8
12
R

10
The total number who favored renewable energy is 𝟔 + 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟖 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎

Example 5: Fitness Survey

Personal Fitness Magazine surveyed a group of young adults regarding their exercise programs and the
following results are obtained:
a) 3 were using resistance training, Tae Bo, and Pilates to improve their fitness.
b) 5were using resistance training and Tae Bo
c) 12 were using Tae Bo and Pilates
d) 8 were using resistance training and Pilates
e) 15 were using resistance training only
f) 30 were using Tae Bo
g) 17 were using Pilates but not Tae Bo.
h) 14 were using something other than these three types of workouts
1) How many people were surveyed?
2) How many people were using only Tae Bo?
3) How many people were using Pilates but not resistance training?

Solution: Using set Notations we will represent this information using sets
The group of young adults surveyed is the universal set U containing three subsets.
𝑷 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑷𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔}
𝑻 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑻𝒂𝒆 𝑩𝒐}
𝑹 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈}
The conditions from a) – h) can be written using set notations as follows:
𝒏(𝑹 ∩ 𝑻 ∩ 𝑷) = 𝟑 𝒏(𝑹 ∩ 𝑻) = 𝟓 𝒏(𝑻 ∩ 𝑷) = 𝟏𝟐 𝒏(𝑹 ∩ 𝑷) = 𝟖,
𝒏(𝑹 ∩ 𝑷′ ∩ 𝑻′) = 𝟏𝟓, 𝒏(𝑻) = 𝟑𝟔, 𝒏(𝑷 ∩ 𝑻′) = 𝟏𝟕, 𝒏(𝑷′ ∩ 𝑻′ ∩ 𝑹′) = 𝟏𝟒,

Venn diagram representation of the sets:

U
P
12 9 T
16
3
5 2
14 15

1) How many people were surveyed? 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏𝟔 + 𝟏𝟗 = 𝟕𝟔

2) How many people were using only Tae Bo? 16
3) How many people were using Pilates but not resistance training? 𝟗 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏
11
Example 6: Social Media Survey
In a survey of 100 college students, the following information is obtained regarding their use of several
social media sites:
a) 21 use Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter
b) 32 use both LinkedIn and Twitter
c) 44 use Facebook and Twitter
d) 31 use Facebook but not LinkedIn
e) 78 use Facebook or Twitter
f) 12 use only Twitter
g) 5 use none of these three sites
How many of those surveyed use Facebook?
How many do not use Twitter?

Solution: Using set Notations; we will represent this information using sets
The 100 group of students surveyed is the universal set U containing three subsets.
𝑭 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒃𝒐𝒐𝒌}
𝑳 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒆𝒅𝑰𝒏}
𝑻 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑻𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 }

The conditions from a) – g) can be written using set notations as follows:

𝒏(𝑭 ∩ 𝑳 ∩ 𝑻) = 𝟐𝟏 𝒏(𝑳 ∩ 𝑻) = 𝟑𝟐 𝒏(𝑭 ∩ 𝑻) = 𝟒𝟒 𝒏(𝑭 ∩ 𝑳′) = 𝟑𝟏,
𝒏(𝑭 ∪ 𝑻) = 𝟕𝟖, 𝒏(𝑻 ∩ 𝑳′ ∩ 𝑭′) = 𝟏𝟐, 𝒏(𝑭′ ∩ 𝑻′ ∩ 𝑳′) = 𝟓
Venn diagram representation of the sets:

U
F
3 L
8
17
21

23 11
5 12

How many of those surveyed use Facebook? 𝟖 + 𝟑 + 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟓𝟓

How many do not use Twitter? 𝟖 + 𝟑 + 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟓 = 𝟑𝟑

12
Example 7: Survey of TV Preferences (Example 4 Page 70)
A television survey conducted a market survey to determine the evening viewing preferences of people
in the 18 – 25 age bracket. The following information was obtained:
a) 3 prefer a reality show early on weekdays
b) 14 want to watch TV early on weekdays
c) 21 want to see reality shows early
d) 8 want reality shows on weekdays
e) 31 want to watch TV on weekdays
f) 36 want to watch TV early
g) 40 want to see reality shows
h) 13 prefer late, weekends shows that are not reality shows
How many people do not want to see reality shows?
How many prefer to watch TV on the weekend.
Solution: Using set Notations; we will represent this information using sets
The set of people surveyed is a universal set containing three subsets.
𝑾 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒘𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝑻𝑽 𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒌𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔}
𝑬 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒘𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑻𝑽 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒔}
𝑹 = {𝒙: 𝒙 𝒘𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑻𝑽 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒔}

The conditions from a) – h) can be written using set notations as follows:

𝒏(𝑾′ ∩ 𝑬′ ∩ 𝑹′) = 𝟏𝟑, 𝒏(𝑹) = 𝟒𝟎, 𝒏(𝑬) = 𝟑𝟔, 𝒏(𝑾) = 𝟑𝟏, 𝒏(𝑹 ∩ 𝑾) = 𝟖,
𝒏(𝑹 ∩ 𝑬) = 𝟐𝟏, 𝒏(𝑬 ∩ 𝑾) = 𝟏𝟒, 𝒏(𝑹 ∩ 𝑾 ∩ 𝑬) = 𝟑
Venn diagram representation of the sets:

U
W
E
12 11
4
3
5 18
13 14

Number of people who do not want to see the reality show is 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏 + 𝟒 + 𝟏𝟑 = 𝟒𝟎

Number of people who watch the TV on weekends is 𝟒 + 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟏𝟑 = 𝟒𝟗

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Example 8: online music survey
Pandora.com surveyed a group of subscribers regarding which online music channels they use on a
regular basis. The following information summarizes their answers:
a) 7 listened to rap, heavy metal and alternative rock
b) 10 listened to rap and heavy metal
c) 13 listened to heavy metal and alternative rock
d) 12 listened to rap and alternative rock
e) 17 listened to rap
f) 24 listened to heavy metal
g) 22 listened to alternative rock
1) How many people were surveyed?
2) How many people listened to either rap or alternative rock?
3) How many listened to heavy metal only?

Example 9: Academic Services Survey

The Dean of Academic Services surveyed a group of students about which support services they were
using to help them improve their academic performance and found the following results.
a) 5 were using office hours, tutoring, and online study groups to improve their grades
b) 16 were using office hours and tutoring
c) 28 were using tutoring
d) 14 were using tutoring and online study groups
e) 8 were using office hours and online study groups but not tutoring
f) 23 were using office hours but not tutoring
g) 18 were using only online study groups
h) 37 were using none of these services
1) How many students were surveyed?
2) How many students were using only office hours?
3) How many students were using online study groups?

Example 9: News Sources Survey

A survey of young adults was taken to determine which of the various sources they use to obtain news.
Of the 36 people who use the internet, 13 use the internet only to learn the news. Of the 48 people who
use the newspaper, 11 use the newspaper only for the news coverage. There are 23 people who use
newspapers, the internet and the television for the news coverage. From this information, determine how
many use both the Internet and television to learn the news.

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