IMS Engineering College

NH-09, Adhyatmik Nagar, Near Dasna, Distt. Ghaziabad, U.P.

Tel: (0120) 4940000

Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities

ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY: BAS104 / BAS204

Unit-4

[Current Environmental Issues of Importance; Global Warming, GreenHouse Effects, Climate

Change, Acid Rain, Ozone Layer Formation and Depletion, Population Growth and Automobile
pollution, Burning of paddy straw.]

Global Warming

Green house gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb infrared radiation (IR).
These gases allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and are absorbed by the earth surface. This
sunlight is radiated back as IR which is absorbed by gases. As a result the earth surface and lower
atmosphere becomes warm. This is called global warming.

Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature due to
human activities that release greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere. The primary
mechanism of global warming involves the greenhouse effect, which occurs as follows: Greenhouse
Gas Emissions: Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy,
deforestation, industrial processes, and agricultural practices, release large quantities of greenhouse
gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N 2O), and fluorinated gases,
into the atmosphere.

The impacts of global warming on the environment are profound and wide-ranging:

1. Rising Temperatures: Global warming leads to increases in average temperatures

worldwide,causing heatwaves, extreme weather events (such as hurricanes, droughts, and
floods), andshifts in climate patterns. Warmer temperatures also contribute to the melting of
polar ice caps and glaciers, leading to rising sea levels.
2. Melting Ice and Sea-Level Rise: The melting of ice caps, glaciers, and polar ice sheets,
alongwith thermal expansion of seawater due to warmer temperatures, contributes to rising
sealevels. This poses risks to coastal communities, habitats, and infrastructure, leading to
erosion,inundation, and saltwater intrusion.
3. Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Global warming alters precipitation patterns, leading
tochanges in the frequency, intensity, and distribution of rainfall and snowfall. This can
 result inmore frequent and severe droughts in some regions and increased precipitation and
flooding inothers, disrupting ecosystems, agriculture, and water resources.
4. Loss of Biodiversity: Global warming threatens biodiversity by altering habitats,
disruptingecosystems, and driving species extinction. Many plant and animal species are
unable to adaptor migrate fast enough to keep pace with rapid changes in temperature and
climate, leading toloss of habitat, changes in species distributions, and shifts in ecological
relationships.
5. Impacts on Human Health: Global warming poses risks to human health through heat-
relatedillnesses, increased air pollution, spread of vector-borne diseases, food and water
insecurity,and displacement due to climate-induced migration and conflicts.
Measures to check global warming:

1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel.

2. Plant more trees.

3. Shifting from coal to natural gas.

4. Stabilize population growth.

5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks.

6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae

Green House Effects

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the earth's surface. It occurs when certain
gases in the atmosphere, known as greenhouse gases, trap heat from the sun, preventing it from
escaping back into space. This process is essential for maintaining Earth's temperature within a
range suitable for supporting life.

Importance:
1. Temperature Regulation: The greenhouse effect helps regulate Earth's temperature by
trapping a portion of the sun's energy in the atmosphere. Without this effect, Earth's average
temperature would be much colder, making it inhospitable for most forms of life. The
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and
water vapour, act like a blanket, preventing heat from escaping into space and keeping the
planet warm.
2. Life Support System: The greenhouse effect creates a stable climate that supports the
growth of plants and sustains diverse ecosystems. It provides the necessary conditions for
photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert sunlight into energy, which is
fundamental for the production of oxygen and food.
3. Water Cycle: The greenhouse effect plays a crucial role in the Earth's water cycle by
influencing evaporation rates from oceans, lakes, and rivers. Warmer temperatures enhance
evaporation, leading to the formation of clouds and precipitation. This process is essential
for replenishing freshwater sources and supporting terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
4. Climate Stability: While an excessive buildup of greenhouse gases can lead to global
warming and climate change, a certain amount is necessary to maintain a stable climate. The
greenhouse effect helps to balance incoming solar radiation with outgoing infrared radiation,
preventing extreme temperature fluctuations that could disrupt ecosystems and impact
human societies.
5. Protection from Harmful Radiation: The Earth's atmosphere, including greenhouse gases,
acts as a shield against harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Without this
protective layer, UV radiation would reach the Earth's surface in higher intensities, causing
damage to DNA, increasing the risk of skin cancer, and harming marine organisms.
6. Energy Balance: The greenhouse effect contributes to the Earth's energy balance by
redistributing heat across the planet. This redistribution helps drive atmospheric circulation
 patterns, ocean currents, and weather systems, which are essential for maintaining climate
zones, distributing nutrients, and supporting life.
However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), deforestation,
and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). This
enhanced greenhouse effect is causing global warming and climate change, leading to rising
temperatures, shifts in weather patterns, melting ice caps and glaciers, rising sea levels, and other
environmental impacts.

Climate Change

Climate- It is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather condition, seasonal variations
of the region. The average of such conditions for a long period is called climate.

Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the earth's climate patterns over an
extended period. While climate has naturally varied throughout earth's history due to factors such as
volcanic eruptions, changes in solar radiation, and variations in earth's orbit, the term "climate
change" primarily refers to the rapid and unprecedented changes observed in recent decades, largely
driven by human activities.

Causes of climate changes:

1. Global Warming: The increase in Earth's average surface temperature due to the enhanced
greenhouse effect caused by human activities, primarily the emission of greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).

2. Depletion of ozone layer increases the global temperature.

Effects of climate change:

 Rising Temperatures: Global warming is causing temperatures to rise across the planet,
leading to heatwaves, particularly in urban areas, and contributing to more frequent and
intense heat-related illnesses and deaths.
 Melting Ice and Glaciers: Rising temperatures are causing glaciers and ice caps to melt at an
accelerated rate. This contributes to sea-level rise, which threatens coastal communities and
ecosystems and exacerbates coastal erosion and flooding.
 Sea-Level Rise: As oceans warm and glaciers melt, sea levels are rising, which increases the
risk of coastal flooding and erosion. Low-lying coastal regions, islands, and densely
populated coastal cities are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise.
 Extreme Weather Events: Climate change is leading to an increase in the frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, storms, floods, droughts, and
 wildfires. These events can cause significant damage to infrastructure, property, agriculture,
and ecosystems and pose risks to human lives and livelihoods.
 Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Climate change is altering precipitation patterns, leading
to changes in the frequency, intensity, and distribution of rainfall and snowfall. This can
result in more frequent and severe droughts in some regions and increased rainfall and
flooding in others.
 Loss of Biodiversity: Climate change is a major driver of biodiversity loss, as it alters
habitats, disrupts ecosystems, and increases the risk of species extinction. Many species are
struggling to adapt to rapid changes in temperature, precipitation, and other environmental
conditions.
 Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security: Changes in temperature and precipitation
patterns, as well as increased frequency of extreme weather events, are affecting agricultural
productivity and food security. Crop yields are declining in some regions due to heat stress,
water scarcity, and changes in pest and disease dynamics, leading to food shortages and
price volatility.
 Ocean Acidification: Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are being
absorbed by the oceans, leading to ocean acidification. This can harm marine ecosystems,
including coral reefs, shellfish, and other marine life, with cascading impacts on fisheries
and coastal communities.
 Health Impacts: Climate change poses risks to human health through increased heat-related
illnesses, respiratory problems due to poor air quality, the spread of vector-borne diseases
such as malaria and dengue fever, and mental health issues associated with displacement,
loss of livelihoods, and social disruption.
 Social and Economic Disruptions: Climate change can exacerbate existing social and
economic inequalities, leading to displacement, migration, conflicts over resources, and
disruptions to economies and livelihoods, particularly in vulnerable and marginalized
communities.
ACID RAIN

Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of CO2 present in the atmosphere
gets dissolved in it. Because presence of SO2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in the atmosphere. The
pH of the rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of water is called acid rain.

Formation:

Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power plants
industries and vehicles release NO2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the burning of coal and oil.
These gases reacts with water vapour in the atmosphere and from acids like HNO 3,H2SO4.These
acids descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain water.

a)

SO2 ----SO3

SO3+ H2O----- H2SO4

b)

NO+ O3--NO2+O2

NO2+O3--NO3+O2

NO2+NO3---N2O3

N2O5 +H2O-- 2HNO3

c)

CO2+H2O---H2CO3

Reason of acid rain:

Acid rain is formed due to the following reasons:

1. Anthropogenic sources
2. Pollutants generated from supersonic jets, automobiles, exhausts, etc. can cause acid rain
3. Pollutants emitted from thermal power plants and other industries are responsible for acid rain
4. Pollutants generated from burning of fossil fuels are responsible for acid rain
Effects:

1. Effect on human being:

Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid rain.It cause
premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.It causes irritation, skin
diseases, throat infection, chest pain, etc.
 2. On building:
It decolorizes paints. Rate of corrosion of metals increases due to acid rain. At present Taj Mahal in
Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura refinery.Acid rain corrodes houses,
monuments, statues,bridges and fences.

Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.

3. Terrestrial and lake Ecosystem.

Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation. It decolorizes leaves. It
damages vegetation

Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potato, carrot,spinach. Acid rain reduces fish
population,black flies, mosquitoes,deer flies occurs largely which causes number of complications
in ponds, rivers and lakes.

Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water. The dead materials
are not rapidly decomposed. Hence the nutrients like N,P are locked up in dead matter.

Effect on Environment

 Acid rain causes water pollution.

 It decreases the pH level of soil and reduces the soil fertility and also causes soil pollution.
 Effect on Architecture. Example, the fumes of Mathura refinery are responsible for causing
the acid rain in Agra, attacking Taj Mahal..
Control of acid rain:

Emission of NO2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by following
measures:

 Clean Air Regulations: Implementing and enforcing regulations that limit emissions of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from industrial facilities, power plants, vehicles, and
other sources is essential. These regulations may include emission standards, pollution
permits, and requirements for the installation of pollution control technologies such as
scrubbers and catalytic converters.
 Switching to Cleaner Fuels: Transitioning from high-sulfur coal to low-sulfur coal or
cleaner alternative energy sources such as natural gas, renewable energy (solar, wind,
hydroelectric), and nuclear power can help reduce sulfur dioxide emissions from power
plants and other industrial facilities.
 Pollution Control Technologies: Installing pollution control technologies, such as flue gas
desulfurization (FGD) systems for removing sulfur dioxide and selective catalytic reduction
 (SCR) systems for reducing nitrogen oxide emissions, can significantly reduce the amount
of pollutants released into the atmosphere.
 Energy Efficiency Improvements: Promoting energy efficiency measures and technologies
can help reduce overall energy consumption and, consequently, emissions of sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides. This includes improving industrial processes, upgrading infrastructure,
and promoting energy-efficient appliances and vehicles.
 International Cooperation: Acid rain can be a transboundary issue, affecting not only the
country where pollutants are emitted but also neighboring regions and countries downwind.
Therefore, international cooperation and agreements are crucial for addressing acid rain
effectively. Initiatives such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) and regional agreements on air quality management facilitate
collaboration among nations to reduce emissions and mitigate the impacts of acid rain.
 Public Awareness and Education: Increasing public awareness about the causes and effects
of acid rain can help mobilize support for policies and actions to address the problem.
Education campaigns, outreach programs, and environmental advocacy efforts can raise
awareness about the importance of reducing emissions and protecting air quality.
 Monitoring and Research: Continuous monitoring of air quality, deposition of acidifying
pollutants, and the ecological impacts of acid rain is essential for assessing the effectiveness
of control measures and identifying areas where additional action may be needed. Research
into new technologies, pollution control methods, and the ecological effects of acid
deposition can also inform policy decisions and management strategies.
Ozone Layer Formation and Depletion
French Physicist Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson discovered ozone in the year 1913. Ozone layer/
shield is a region present in the stratosphere of the earth’s atmosphere and this region absorbs majority
sun’s UV radiation. Mainly found in the lower region of stratosphere almost 20 to 30 kilometres above
Earth.
The thickness of the layer differs according to the season and geographic region. The Earth’s
stratosphere contains high concentrations of this compound. However, it is still a small portion in
comparison to other gases present in Earth’s atmosphere. United Nations General Assembly declared
International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer on September 16th.
Importance of Ozone Shield
The stratosphere of the earth’s atmosphere contains a significant amount of O3. Thus, this gaseous
compound protects living organisms including humans from the harmful UV radiations (λ = 255 nm).
Excessive exposure to the UV radiation for a longer period of time can cause melanoma or skin cancer
in humans. It has the potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming
from the sun that can damage life on earth. If the ozone layer was absent, millions of people would
develop skin diseases and may have weakened immune systems.
Overall excessive UV radiation is a threat to any living organism. Hence, it is essential to maintain and
protect the ozone layer.
Formation of Ozone
The reaction of UV radiation with O2 or dioxygen molecules results in the formation of O3. The UV
radiation splits the oxygen molecule into the free oxygen or O atoms. These O atoms combine with
molecular form of oxygen to form ozone (O3). It is thermodynamically an unstable compound and has
a tendency to decompose into molecular oxygen. Therefore, a constant dynamic equilibrium is present
between the production and decomposition of O3 molecules.
O2(g) → O(g) + O(g)
(in presence of UV Radiation)
O(g) + O2(g) ↔ O3(g)
(in presence of UV Radiation)
Depletion of Ozone Layer
Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere. This
happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact with ozone and
destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is destroyed
more quickly than it is created.
Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to high ultraviolet light, which then
contributes to ozone layer depletion. Such compounds are known as Ozone Depleting Substances
(ODS).
The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include chlorofluorocarbon, carbon
tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-depleting
substances that contain bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro bromofluorocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. CFC compounds are non-
inflammable, non-toxic, nonreactive organic molecules. Hence, it is used in air conditioners,
refrigerators, plastic foam production, cleaning computer parts, etc.
However, these chemicals mix with normal atmospheric gases and finally reach the stratosphere. Thus,
these compounds break down into free chlorine radicals in the presence of powerful UV radiation in
the stratosphere.
CF2Cl2 (g) → Cl(g) + CF2Cl(g)
(in presence of powerful UV Radiation)
The chlorine radicals combine with the stratospheric O3 thereby forming molecular oxygen and
chlorine monoxide radicals.
Cl(g) + O3(g) → ClO(g) + O2(g)
Chlorine monoxide radicals will further react with atomic oxygen to form more chlorine radicals.
ClO(g) + O(g) → Cl(g) + O2(g)
This process will continue and constantly regenerate chlorine radicals. This, in turn, will lead to the
breakdown of ozone. Hence, CFCs are transporting agents that are responsible for damaging the ozone
layer.
Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and import of ozone-depleting
substances and minimise their concentration in the atmosphere to protect the ozone layer of the
earth.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors. The main
causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed below:
 Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These are
released by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet
radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.
 Unregulated Rocket Launches
Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more depletion of
the ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the
ozone layer by the year 2050.
 Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for the depletion
of the ozone layer.
 Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such as Sun-
spots and stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer
depletion.
The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Following is the list of some main ozone-depleting substances and the sources from where they are
released:

Ozone-Depleting Substances Sources

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Refrigerators, air-conditioners, solvents, dry-cleaning agents, etc.

Halons Fire-extinguishers

Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers, solvents

Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons fire extinguishers, air-conditioners, solvents

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us see the major
effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.
 Effects on Human Health
Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the
depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans, such
as skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.
 Effects on Animals
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.
 Effects on the Environment
Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants.
The forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.
 Effects on Marine Life
Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher
in the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in the food
chain are also affected.
Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion
The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programmes have been launched by
the government of various countries to prevent it. However, steps should be taken at the individual
level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.
Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global level:
 Avoid Using ODS
Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators
and air conditioners, replacing the halon based fire extinguishers, etc.
  Minimise the Use of Vehicles
The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as
ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.
 Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a
way into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer. These should be substituted with natural
products to protect the environment.
 Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited
The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is
adversely affecting the ozone layer. People should be made aware of the harmful effects of
nitrous oxide and the products emitting the gas so that its use is minimised at the individual
level as well.

London and Los Angeles Smog

London smog is primarily caused by coal combustion, resulting in a sulphurous smog, while Los
Angeles smog is photochemical, caused by vehicle emissions.
London smog, also known as "pea soup fog," is a type of smog that was prevalent in London,
particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was caused by the burning of large amounts
of coal within the city. This released sulphur dioxide and smoke particles into the air, which
combined with the city's naturally damp, foggy conditions to create a thick, yellowish-black smog.
This type of smog is also known as industrial or grey smog. It is characterised by high
concentrations of sulphur dioxide, particulate matter, and a variety of other pollutants. The Great
Smog of 1952 in London is a well-known example of this type of pollution, which resulted in
thousands of premature deaths and led to significant changes in environmental policy. The impact
of this pollution on health and the environment has led to significant changes in air quality
management, as discussed in Impact of Pollution.
On the other hand, Los Angeles smog, also known as photochemical smog, is a different type of air
pollution. It is primarily caused by vehicle emissions, which release nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds into the atmosphere. These pollutants react in the presence of sunlight to form
secondary pollutants, including ground-level ozone and particulate matter. This type of smog is also
known as summer or brown smog, due to its tendency to occur during warm, sunny weather and its
brownish hue. It is characterised by high concentrations of ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and a variety of
other pollutants. The smog in Los Angeles is a significant environmental issue, contributing to poor
air quality and health problems for the city's residents.
Population Growth
Population growth is the increase in the number of people living in a particular area. Since
populations can grow exponentially, resource depletion can occur rapidly, leading to specific
environmental concerns such as global warming, deforestation and decreasing biodiversity. The
global population is still increasing at an alarming rate with an annual addition of over 8 cores (81
million) people per year.

An increase in the number of people that reside in a country, state, city etc. or the net change in
population between two point of time expressed as percentage of population at a given period of
time is called growth rate of population.

To determine whether there has been population growth, the following formula is used:

(Birth rate + immigration) – (Death rate + emigration)

Three components behind population growth are

 Fertility: The natural capability to produce offspring.

 Mortality: The state of being mortal, or susceptible to death.
 Migration: Movement of people to a new area or country in order to find work or better
living conditions.

Causes of population growth:

 Decrease in the death rate due to improved medical facilities with the birth rate remaining
the same is one of the major causes of population growth in India.
 Illiteracy prevalent in major parts of India make people believe that 'children are god's
blessings' hence making them against the concept of ‘family planning’. Many of the Indian
families are superstitious about the fact that ‘children are a sign of prosperity’. People of
India follow different religions of which some of them do not advocate the concept of
‘family planning’.
 As most of the families in rural areas are below the poverty line, they think having a large
family will increase their source of income by sending children to work.
 Decrease in infant mortality rate due to improved medical facilities.
 Average life span of people has increased due to control of epidemics by immunization
programs.
 Indian families believe that a male child is responsible to continue one's lineage and the
constant attempt to have a male child results in number of female children.

Effects of Population Growth on our Environment

One of the factors responsible for environment degradation is population growth or population
density. In particular, population density plays the most important role in shaping the socio-
economic environment. Its effects are felt on the natural environment also.
1. Generation of Waste: Due to his destructive activities, man has dumped more and more
waste in environment. As the man-made waste is not transformed, it causes degradation and
the capacity of environment to absorb more waste is reduced. Further, waste leads to air and
water pollution.
2. Threat to Biodiversity: Due to his destructive activities, man has extracted more and more
minerals from the earth. Animals have been hunted and plants have disappeared. There has
been loss of biodiversity. These have led to ecological imbalance.
3. Strain on Forests: Man has established new housing colonies. National highways and
hydropower projects have been built and forests have been wiped out. These destructive
activities have increased and led to ecological imbalance.
4. Urbanization: Rapid growth of population has led to urbanization which has adversely
affected environment. Due to population pressure, natural resources in the cities are depleted
at a fast rate due to population pressure. Moreover, population does not have proper
sanitation facilities and pure drinking water. As a result, the health of the people is adversely
affected. No doubt, urbanization reduces pressure on the rural environment, but it brings
with if environmental damages through industrial growth, emissions and wastes.
5. Industrialisation: Underdeveloped countries are following the policy of heavy
industrialisation which is causing environmental degradation. The establishment of such
industries as fertilizers, iron and steel, chemicals and refineries have led to land, air and
water pollution.
6. Land Degradation: Intensive farming and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides have led
to over-exploitation of land and water resources. These have led to land degradation in the
form of soil erosion, water logging and salination.
7. Transport Development: Environmental degradation is also due to transport development in
the different parts of the world. The automobiles release huge quantities of poisonous gases
such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. The development of ports and
harbours have led to oil spills from ships adversely affecting fisheries, coral reefs,
mangroves and landscapes.
8. Climatic Change: Climatic changes are irregular due to green house gases. The thin skin of
air that surrounds the planet is being affected by human activities as never before. Urban
people are still being exposed to unaccepted levels of toxic pollutants. Further, forests are
still being degraded by acid deposition generated by faraway industries, and greenhouse
gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere.
9. Productivity: Environmental degradation not only harms health but also reduces economic
productivity. Dirty water, inadequate sanitation, air pollution and land degradation cause
serious diseases on an enormous scale in developing countries like India. These, in turn,
reduce the productivity levels in the country. To take specific instances, water pollution has
led to declining fisheries in rivers, ponds and canals in both urban and rural areas. Water
shortages have reduced economic activity in towns, and cities and villages. Soil and
hazardous wastes have polluted ground water resources which cannot be used for
agricultural and industrial production. Soil degradation leading to soil erosion, drought, etc.
have led to siltation of reservoirs and blocking of river and canal transport channels.
 Deforestation has led to soil erosion and consequent loss of sustainable logging potential.
Loss of bio-diversity has resulted in the loss of genetic resources. Last but not the least,
atmospheric changes have given rise to disruption of marine food chain, damages to coastal
infrastructure due to sea-rise and regional changes in agriculture productivity due to
hurricanes in seas. Thus, environmental degradation undermines economic productivity of a
nation.
10. Technology: Presently, environmental pollution is caused by old technology which releases
gases and pollutants causing chemical and industrial pressure on environment. Impact of
Environment on Population: Polluted environment also affects adversely the health of
people.

Ways to tackle the problem of population growth

Birth rate is mainly responsible for rapid population growth. Hence measures which can reduce the
birth rate should be adopted. These measures can be classified into 3 categories.
1. Social Measures
 Minimum age of marriage: The problem of child marriage is highly prominent in certain
countries with high population like India, Pakistan or Bangladesh. A marriage at a tender
age leads to a long span for giving birth. Also young age marriage devoid people of the
education and awareness required to be sensitive towards and understand the
consequences of raising too many children.
 Raising the status of women: There is still discrimination to the women. They are
confined to four walls of the house. They are still confined to rearing and bearing
children. So women should be given opportunities to develop socially and economically.
Free education should be given to them.
 Spread of Education: The spread of education changes the outlook of people. The
educated men prefer to delay marriage and adopt small family norms. Educated women
are health conscious and avoid frequent pregnancies and thus help in lowering birth rate.
 Adoption: Some parents do not have any child, despite costly medical treatment. It is
advisable that they should adopt orphan children. It will be beneficial to orphan children
and children couples. Government should also provide incentives for adopting.
 Social Security: More and more people should be covered under-social security
schemes. So that they do not depend upon others in the event of old age, sickness,
unemployment etc. with these facilities they will have no desire for more children.
2. Economic Measures
 More employment opportunities: The first and foremost measure is to raise employment
avenues in rural as well as urban areas. Generally in rural areas there is disguised
unemployment. So efforts should be made to migrate unemployed persons from the rural
side to the urban side. When their income is increased they would improve their standard
of living and adopt small family norms. Another method to check the population is to
provide employment to women. Women should be given incentive to give services in
different fields. Women are taking an active part in competitive examinations. As a result
their number in teaching, medical and banking etc. is increasing rapidly.
  Providing incentives: Incentives have proved to be an efficient policy measure in
combating most development issues including population. Providing a health, educational
or even financial incentive can be a highly effective population measure. There are certain
incentive policies like paying certain money to people with not more than two kids or free
or discounted education for single children etc. which are in place in most developing
countries facing population related challenges and has also proved to be a useful measure.
3. Other Measures
 Medical Facilities: One big drawback of developing countries is that of limited and
highly centric medical facilities. Because of the high rural-urban divide in developing
countries, availability of good hospitals and doctors is limited to urban centers thus
resulting in high infant mortality rate in rural areas. Rural people, in order to ensure that
at least some of their kids survive, give birth to more and more kids thus contributing to
the population growth. If provided with optimum medical facilities population rate will
almost certainly decline.
 Legislative Actions: Not much result can be achieved from these if family planning and
use of contraception remains optional instead of mandatory. Strict legal steps are
required for child marriage, education, abolition of child labor and beggary and family
planning to reap significant benefits from it. Proper enforcement of laws related to child
labour, slavery and beggary will ensure that parents don’t sell their children or send them
out to work thus forcing them to raise lesser number of kids.
 Spreading awareness: People need to be told and made to understand the consequences
of having too many children. Government and non-government institutions can carry
awareness campaigns informing people how they will be unable to provide good
nutrition, education or medical facilities to their children if they have too many.
Population is also a reason for illiteracy and diseases and malnutrition and the negative
effects of it are required to be communicated to the general public to expand their
reasoning and understanding.
Automobile Pollution
Automobile pollution refers to the harmful emissions produced by vehicles powered by internal
combustion engines. These emissions include a variety of pollutants, such as carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and
greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2). With the exponential increase in the number of
vehicles globally, automobile pollution has become a fast growing problem of serious dimensions
in almost all the major cities and towns in developing countries.
Automobile pollution arises from several processes associated with the operation of vehicles. The
primary sources of this pollution include exhaust emissions, evaporative emissions, and wear and
tear of vehicle components. Each source contributes different pollutants to the atmosphere,
affecting air quality and public health.
1. Exhaust Emissions
Exhaust emissions are the primary source of pollution from automobiles, generated during the
combustion of fuel in the engine.
The primary source of energy for our automotive vehicles is crude oil from underground which
typically contains varying amounts of Sulphur. Much of the Sulphur is removed during refining of
automotive fuels. Thus the final fuel is hydrocarbon with only a small amount of Sulphur. If we
neglect Sulphur and consider complete combustion, only water and carbon dioxide would appear in
the exhaust.
Water is not generally considered undesirable and therefore it is not considered as a pollutant.
Likewise, carbon dioxide is also not considered as pollutant in earlier days. But due to increase in
global warming due to CO2 which is a greenhouse gas, now a days CO2 is also considered as
unwanted one. Then apart from this we get Sulphur dioxide a pollutant which is a product of
complete combustion. Apart from this all the compounds currently considered as pollutants are the
result of imperfect or incomplete combustion.
Key pollutants from exhaust emissions include:
 Carbon Monoxide (CO): Produced by incomplete combustion of fuel.
 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Formed at high temperatures during combustion.
 Hydrocarbons (HC) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Result from incomplete
combustion and fuel evaporation.
 Particulate Matter (PM): Composed of tiny particles of soot and other substances formed
during combustion.
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2): A greenhouse gas produced by the complete combustion of fossil
fuels.
 Lead Compounds: Lead compounds were primarily generated in automobile pollution
through the use of tetraethyl lead as an anti-knock (knocking is premature ignition of the
fuel-air mixture in the engine) agent in gasoline. The combustion of leaded gasoline released
lead oxides and other lead compounds into the atmosphere, leading to widespread
environmental contamination and significant public health risks. This is highly toxic in
nature.
Detailed Breakdown:
 Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs): Both gasoline and diesel engines emit significant
amounts of pollutants. Gasoline engines tend to emit more VOCs and CO, while diesel
engines emit higher levels of NOx and PM.
 Two-Stroke Engines: Common in motorcycles and small machinery, these engines are less
efficient in burning fuel, leading to higher emissions of HC and PM.
2. Evaporative Emissions
Evaporative emissions occur when fuel evaporates and escapes into the atmosphere without being
burned in the engine. This can happen through several mechanisms:
 Fuel Tank Venting: Fuel tanks can release vapors, especially during refueling.
 Permeation: Fuel can slowly permeate through rubber and plastic components of the fuel
system.
 Running Losses: Fuel vapors can escape from the fuel system when the engine is running,
due to heat and pressure.
 Hot Soak Emissions: Occur when a hot engine is turned off and fuel vapors are released
from the engine and fuel system components.
Detailed Breakdown:
 Refueling: The process of filling a vehicle’s fuel tank can release significant amounts of
VOCs into the air.
 Diurnal Emissions: Fuel evaporation caused by daily temperature changes can lead to
continuous VOC emissions from parked vehicles.
3. Wear and Tear of Vehicle Components
The wear and tear of various vehicle components also contribute to pollution. This includes:
 Tire Wear: As tires wear down, they release tiny particles of rubber and other materials into
the air.
 Brake Wear: The friction from braking wears down brake pads, releasing metal particles and
other materials.
 Road Dust: Dust and particles from the road surface can be stirred up by passing vehicles,
contributing to airborne particulate matter.
Detailed Breakdown:
 Microplastics: Wear from tires contributes to the release of microplastics, which can have
environmental and health impacts.
 Heavy Metals: Brake pads often contain heavy metals like copper, which can be harmful
when released into the environment.
4. Secondary Sources
Secondary sources of automobile pollution involve the indirect emissions associated with vehicle
use. These include:
 Fuel Production and Distribution: The extraction, refining, and transportation of fuel involve
emissions of CO2, VOCs, and other pollutants.
  Manufacturing and Disposal: The production and disposal of vehicles involve energy
consumption and the release of various pollutants.
Detailed Breakdown:
 Energy Consumption: Significant amounts of energy are used in the manufacturing process
of vehicles, contributing to CO2 and other emissions.
 End-of-Life Disposal: Vehicles contain various materials that can release pollutants when
they are disposed of or recycled improperly.
Major Pollutants from Automobiles
1. Carbon Monoxide (CO):
o Sources: Incomplete combustion of fuel in vehicle engines.
o Effects: Binds with hemoglobin in blood, reducing oxygen transport and causing
respiratory and cardiovascular issues.
2. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx):
o Sources: High-temperature combustion processes in engines.
o Effects: Contribute to smog formation and respiratory problems; react with water
vapor to form acid rain.
3. Particulate Matter (PM):
o Sources: Combustion processes and wear and tear of vehicle parts (e.g., tires,
brakes).
o Effects: Penetrate deep into the lungs, causing respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases; linked to cancer.
4. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs):
o Sources: Evaporation of fuel and incomplete combustion.
o Effects: Contribute to ground-level ozone formation, which causes respiratory
problems and other health issues.
5. Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
o Sources: Complete combustion of fossil fuels.
o Effects: Major greenhouse gas contributing to global warming and climate change.
Environmental Impact of Automobile Pollution
1. Air Quality Degradation:
o Urban Smog: High concentrations of NOx and VOCs lead to the formation of
ground-level ozone, resulting in smog, which reduces visibility and harms human
health.
o Particulate Pollution: PM from vehicles contributes significantly to urban air
pollution, impacting both health and visibility.
 2. Climate Change:
o Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Automobiles are a significant source of CO2, a major
greenhouse gas. The increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is driving
global climate change, leading to extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and
disruptions in ecosystems.
3. Acid Rain:
o Formation: NOx emissions react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form nitric
acid, which falls as acid rain.
o Effects: Acid rain damages forests, soils, and aquatic ecosystems, and corrodes
buildings and infrastructure.
4. Impact on Biodiversity:
o Habitat Degradation: Pollution from automobiles can lead to habitat degradation,
affecting plant and animal species.
o Health Effects on Wildlife: Airborne pollutants can cause respiratory issues and
other health problems in wildlife, similar to those experienced by humans.
Public Health Implications
1. Respiratory Diseases:
o Asthma and Bronchitis: Increased exposure to pollutants like NOx, CO, and PM can
exacerbate asthma and bronchitis, particularly in children and the elderly.
o Lung Cancer: Long-term exposure to certain pollutants, such as diesel exhaust
particulates, has been linked to lung cancer.
2. Cardiovascular Diseases:
o Heart Attacks and Strokes: Air pollution, particularly fine PM, has been associated
with increased risks of heart attacks and strokes due to its ability to penetrate the
bloodstream and cause inflammation.
3. Premature Deaths:
o Global Health Burden: The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that
millions of premature deaths annually are attributable to air pollution, with a
significant portion resulting from automobile emissions.
Mitigation Strategies
1. Technological Advances:
o Electric Vehicles (EVs): Transitioning from internal combustion engines to electric
vehicles can drastically reduce emissions.
o Hybrid Vehicles: Combining internal combustion engines with electric propulsion to
reduce fuel consumption and emissions.
o Fuel Efficiency Improvements: Developing more fuel-efficient engines and
promoting the use of cleaner fuels.
2. Regulatory Measures:
 o Emission Standards: Implementing stringent emission standards for vehicles to limit
the output of harmful pollutants.
o Incentives for Clean Vehicles: Providing tax rebates and subsidies for the purchase
of EVs and hybrids.
3. Urban Planning:
o Public Transportation: Investing in efficient and accessible public transportation to
reduce the number of private vehicles on the road.
o Non-Motorized Transport: Promoting cycling and walking through the development
of dedicated lanes and pedestrian zones.
4. Behavioral Changes:
o Carpooling and Ride-Sharing: Encouraging carpooling and the use of ride-sharing
services to reduce the number of vehicles on the road.
o Eco-Driving Practices: Educating drivers on eco-friendly driving techniques that
minimize fuel consumption and emissions.
Burning of Paddy Straw or Stubble Burning
Stubble burning is the intentional burning or setting on fire of crop residue to remove them from the
field in order to sow the next crop.
 Leaving stubble on the field will invite termites and other pests which can damage the
subsequent crop.
 In Punjab and Haryana, farmers burn the stubble (rice chaff) left after the rice harvest so that
the field may be readied for the next Rabi (winter) crop like wheat.
 In these areas, it begins around October, the same time at which the southwest monsoon
withdraws.
 Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) makes stubble burning a crime. Additionally, it
was notified as an offence under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
 Despite being banned, the practice continues in India, where farmers cite a lack of viable
alternatives to clear their fields of stubble.
Why do farmers burn stubble?
Stubble burning has been practised by farmers from all over the world although many governments
have prohibited the practice to various degrees. In this section, we will see why farmers in northern
India burn stubble.
 In the 1960s, as part of the Green Revolution, farmers in Punjab and Haryana were
encouraged to do wheat-paddy crop rotation to make India self-reliant in grain production.
 As a result and because of assured procurement of rice and subsidies, rice acreage
increased.
 The Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act (2009) made it mandatory for farmers to
transplant paddy late during the Kharif season to prevent loss of water.
 This gives the farmers very little time between harvesting the rice crop and preparing the
field for the next winter crop.
 Hence, stubble burning is a quick, cheap and easy way to clear the field of any rice chaff
residue.
 One reason for the large quantity of rice stubble left behind after harvesting is the increased
modernisation and mechanisation of agriculture. Mechanised harvesting extracts the rice
grains only leaving behind a huge residue. Manual harvesting is not an option for farmers
because of the huge labour charges and the increased time taken.
 Earlier, the stubble used to be used by farmers as hay to keep animals or homes warm, and
even for cooking. However, these uses of stubble have now become outdated.
 Also, rice straw is not considered suitable as fodder for animals because of its high silica
content (this is true for the non-basmati variety of rice).
 Despite the Punjab government making available tractor-mounted ‘happy seeders’ to cut
down the rice stubble and sow wheat seeds simultaneously, many farmers find the prices of
these machines or their rents prohibitive. So, they continue to burn stubble.
 To use a ‘happy seeder’ machine, farmers have to shell out Rs.1000 per acre of land
as machine rent and a further Rs.2000 for diesel.
A few other machines/devices have been introduced by the government. However, many farmers
cite suitability as an issue.
Also, stubble burning requires only a matchbox whereas the adoption of these machines incurs
additional costs for the farmers.
Advantages of Stubble Burning
 It is the cheapest and quickest way to deal with crop waste.
 It destroys weeds including those that are resistant to herbicides.
 It kills other pests also, such as slugs.
 It can decrease nitrogen tie-up.
What are the effects of stubble burning?
Stubble burning has very adverse effects on the environment.
 Pollution: According to a study, the burning of crop residue released about 149 million
tonnes of carbon dioxide, more than 9 million tonnes of carbon monoxide, 0.25 million
tonnes of oxides of sulphur (SOX), 1.28 million tonnes of particulate matter (PM) and 0.07
million tonnes of black carbon. As evident, it contributes to a lot of greenhouse
gas emissions.
 In particular, the stubble burning across Punjab and Haryana contributes to the
winter haze in Delhi where about 40% of the near-surface PM can be attributed to
the stubble burning.
 It also contributes to the winter smog seen in these parts of the country.
Soil fertility: Burning stubble also adversely affects soil fertility. It destroys the soil’s nutrients
making it less fertile. This is because the heat generated during the burning kills the bacterial and
fungal populations which are crucial for fertile soil.
Stubble burning can also cause an increase in ‘enemy’ pests because, during the burning, many
microorganisms in the air are killed. The loss of these organisms leads to an increase in pests, in
turn, causing increased diseases in crops.
Loss of wealth from stubble
Another ill-effect of stubble burning is the loss of ‘wealth’ from the stubble.
 High-grade organic fertilizers can be prepared by mixing the stubble with cow dung and
some natural enzymes.
 This has been initiated by the Chhattisgarh government which has set up gauthans in
many villages. In these, gauthans, farmers bring their stubble to a ‘gauthan’ where it
is mixed with cow dung and enzymes to obtain organic fertilizer. This initiative also
provides employment to the rural youth.
A lot of nitrogen, potassium, sulphur, phosphorous as well as organic carbon are destroyed every
year on account of stubble burning. They should ideally be used to make organic manure. This will
also reduce the dependency on and use of chemical fertilizers.
Straw can also be used in electricity generation.
Measures to curb stubble burning
The administration has taken several measures to curb the practice of stubble burning by farmers.
 In 2019, the Supreme Court directed the governments of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh
to pay farmers a financial incentive to curb the practice.
 In 2020, the Government of Punjab appointed 8000 nodal officers in villages that grow
paddy in order to put a check on stubble burning.
 Already, penalties for stubble burning are imposed on farmers who break the law and resort
to burning crop residue.
 More than 23,000 crop residue management machines are being given to farmers for on-site
management of straw.
 The state had been demanding the Centre to give ₹100 per quintal to farmers for managing
the paddy straw without burning. However, the Environment Pollution (Prevention and
Control) Authority or EPCA had said that this was not viable.
 Under a 100% centrally-funded scheme, in-situ residue management machines are given to
individual farmers at a 50% subsidy and to CHCs (custom hiring centres) at an 80%
subsidy.
 The states of Punjab and Haryana are also providing such machines and setting up more
CHCs.
 In October 2020, the Centre informed the Supreme Court that it would bring in a law to curb
stubble burning.
 The SC had also decided to form a one-man committee chaired by Justice Madan Lokur to
monitor/prevent stubble burning in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. This order has been
kept in abeyance as of 28 October 2020.
Solutions to stubble burning problem
A few solutions to the problem of stubble burning are discussed below.
 Incentivise farmers for not burning the stubble and provide economic value for the crop
residue. The stubble can be converted into fodder or organic fertilizer or fuel. The
government should also subsidise or incentivise the industries that are engaged in converting
stubble into economically viable products.
 Efforts should be made to improve the combine harvester that farmers use to harvest the
crop. The current machine used leaves behind a huge residue. Improvement should be made
in the technology used in such machines so that minimal residue is left behind.
 Encourage and incentivise the farmers to go for early paddy, so as to give them enough time
to harvest and thereafter prepare their fields for the next Rabi crop.
 Encourage farmers to sow alternate crops and shift them away in the long run from paddy to
maize, fruits, vegetables and cotton.
 Use the following alternatives
o In-Situ Treatment of Stubble: For example, crop residue management by zero-
tiller machine and Use of bio-decomposers.
o Ex-Situ (off-site) Treatment: For example, Use of rice straw as cattle fodder.
 o Use of Technology- For example Turbo Happy Seeder (THS) machine, which
can uproot the stubble and also sow seeds in the area cleared. The stubble can
then be used as mulch for the field. The government should make these machines
available and economically viable for farmers.
 Penalise farmers that indulge in stubble burning. Despite penalties, many farmers engage in
this practice because they find it cheaper to pay the fines rather than incur the expenses for
the alternatives for stubble burning. The government can also consider reinterpreting
the MSP scheme to disallow the benefits of the scheme to farmers who practice crop residue
burning.
 The government has to increase monetary incentives for avoiding stubble burning and also
make machines that counter stubble burning an affordable, viable and accessible option for
farmers.
 Farmers have a difficult time unlearning the practice of stubble burning and they should be
educated about its ill effects and also offered attractive alternatives.
 Eminent agricultural scientist M.S. Swaminathan has suggested that the Delhi, Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh governments could set up ‘Rice Bio Parks’, where farmers could convert
stubble into products including paper, cardboard and animal feed.