Science Quarter 3: Volcano Reviewer point of the mantle, and melting it to form

VOLCANOES magma.
 Volcano - a natural opening in the surface of the - The molten rock rises through the plate above
Earth where molten rocks, hot gases, and it and can burst out of the surface of the Earth
smoke, are ejected. as lava, gradually forming a volcano.
- Volcanoes are described according to their
type of eruption and cone shape.  Parts of a Volcano:
- Volcanoes originate from the rock beneath the  Crater - is a funnel-shaped opening at the top
surface of the Earth that melts of a volcano
Note: A typical volcano usually has a summit,  Caldera - is formed when a part of the wall
slope, and base. collapses after an explosive eruption.
 How Volcanoes Form  Magma – the melted rock that comes from the
 Island Arc: Earth’s Mantle
- is a type of subduction zone volcano. - molten materials that are still inside the
- Subduction allows water from the subducting volcano
plate to be driven upward, off the subducting  Magma chamber – a cavity where magma
plate, and into the mantle wedge. accumulates beneath a volcano and where

- This lowers the melting point of the mantle, large deposits of magma are located.

and it melts to form magma.  Vent – opening of a volcano or where lava and

- This magma will rise and leak into the crust clouds of ash can be ejected

forming a volcano.
- This process can create a chain of volcanic
islands.
 Hot Spots:
- Magma rises from the hot spots and erupts as
lava through cracks in the Earth's surface
forming volcanoes.
- As a plate moves slowly across a hot spot, a
chain of volcanoes or volcanic islands can
form.
 Spreading Centers:
 What Volcano Releases:
Rift Volcanos: are formed in spreading
 Lava – made of molten materials (magma) that
centers
reach the surface of the earth.
- Plates move away from each other, the
Contains:
pressure on the underlying mantle, allowing it
 Silica: which greatly influences the lava’s
to rise and melt, forming magma.
viscosity and determines the volcano’s
- Spreading centers can be found under the
explosiveness
sea or on land.
 Potassium and Phosphorus: This has a
 Continental Arc:
positive effect on farming because it promotes
- Heat from deep in the Earth melts rock in the
soil fertility.
descending plate. At the same time, water is
 Smoke - is a mix of different gases like water
driven from the subducting slab into the
vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and
overlying mantle wedge, lowering the melting
hydrogen supplied.
 Contains: the groundwater or surface water.
 Sulfur dioxide: can cause global cooling - This eruption tears down surrounding rocks
 Carbon dioxide: can cause an increase in and can produce ash columns, but do not
the atmospheric temperature contributing include new magma.
to global warming. - Taal Volcano which erupted last January 12,
 Tephra – Volcanic ash which is made of tiny 2020 is an example of this type.
fragments of rock and minerals b) Phreatomagmatic – a violent and explosive
 Volcanic Bombs – large rock particles resulting from the interaction of new magma
 Pyroclastic flows and surges or lava with water.
Pyroclastic – dust or hot ashes and small - It results in a large column of very fine ash,
pieces of rocks that were thrown into the high-speed and sideway emission of
atmosphere during an eruption by highly pyroclastic.
viscous lava and then fall to the ground
Flow – flatten, burn, and bury everything in c) Strombolian- a least violent type of
their path. explosive eruption characterized by a
Surges – contain larger amounts of gases and fountain of lava fragments.
are faster than pyroclastic flows - Eruptions are weak to a little more violent
- some of the most dangerous events which has thicker lava flows and small
associated with volcanic eruptions explosions.
 Volcanic Mudflows – are violent, fast-moving d) Vulcanian - small to moderate explosive
suspensions of water, ash, rocks, and other eruptions characterized by tall columns
debris that reach up to 20km high with
- also called lahar pyroclastic flow and ashfall tephra.
 Volcanic Eruption - happens when magma, - They have larger explosions of rocks and
gases, and other molten materials are ashes which rise in dark clouds lasting for
discharged from the opening. seconds to minutes.
- are caused by magma expelled onto the - The Paricutin Volcano eruption in Mexico is
earth’s surface an example of this type.
 Nonexplosive eruption – effusive e) Plinian - an excessively explosive type of
eruption where the thick, sticky lava quietly eruption of gas and pyroclastic like that of
and steadily flows out of a volcano Mount Pinatubo eruption in 1991.
 Explosive eruption – where fragmented - The explosive eruptions, lasting for seconds
lava violently explodes out of a vent. to minutes
 Volcanic Landforms
 Viscosity – the resistance of a liquid material, Factors Affecting the Viscosity of the Magma
such as lava to flow.  Viscosity - the property of the material’s
 Low viscosity: Lava flows smoothly, resistance to flow.
forms low slopes, and non-explosive Note: The more viscous and thicker the magma
 High viscosity: lava does not flow is, the greater its resistance to flow.
easily, forms a steep slope, and can 1. Temperature - The higher the temperature of
erupt explosively magma, the lower its viscosity.
 Types of Volcanic Eruptions - If the temperature of magma is lower, the
a) Phreatic or hydrothermal – is a steam- higher is its viscosity so the lava does not
blast small eruption as hot rocks heat travel far.
 2. Chemical composition - Magma with high - Although small, they are also destructive since
silica content is more viscous than those with they release high amounts of pyroclastic
low silica content. materials.
- It is too viscous so it does not travel far, and - Mt. Paricutin in Mexico which erupted in 1943,
tends to break up as it flows. and Taal Volcano in Batangas are examples of
- The magma that contains less silica is this type.
relatively fluid, so it travels far before
How do volcanic eruptions affect the society? It
solidifying.
can have a devastating effect on people and the
3. Amount of dissolved gases it contains. -
environment
When magma has a high amount of gas
(mainly water vapor), lava flow is less
viscous and increases its ability to flow.
- Magma has high viscosity when it has a low
amount of gas as it rises.
- The ability of the lava to flow decreases, so it Advantages and Disadvantages of Volcanic Eruption
piles up at a vent resulting in a columnar or a
Advantages:
dome.
 Types of Volcanoes  Soil Fertility- It supplies nutrients to the soil.
a) Shield Volcanoes – formed from explosive - Volcanic ash usually holds minerals that are
eruptions useful to the plants.
- formed by the pileup of non-viscous lava - The fertility of the soil is due to the release of
that oozes out from the volcano. potassium and phosphorous
- Largest type of volcano  Atmospheric Cooling - As a volcano erupts it
- Resembles a warrior’s shield since lava can releases ash and Sulphur gas into the
flow freely, a broad, slightly domed structure stratosphere.
is formed that - The presence of these materials in the
- Mauna Loa Volcano in Hawaii is an example atmosphere results in cooling of the
of this type. atmosphere which is desirable for the people.
b) Composite Volcanoes - are formed due to  Land Formation - When a volcano erupts it
alternating solidification of both lava and releases lava from the earth's surface
pyroclastic deposits which make it nearly a - When these materials cool off and solidify,
perfect sloped structure. they form different spectacular landforms.
- A large cone-shaped is formed  Tourism- The spectacular scenery created by
- Pyroclastic flows occur when these volcanic eruptions attracts Tourists.
volcanoes erupt.  Brings income to an area
- Mount Saint Helens in Washington, Mt.  Raw material- Volcanic material can be made
Vesuvius in Italy, and Mt. Mayon in the into blocks for construction purposes.
Philippines are examples of this type. - People became creative also by making pots
c) Cinder Cone Volcanoes - are formed from out of the ashfall from the volcanic eruption
alternating ejected lava fragments and ash.
Disadvantages:
- They have a steep slope, and a wide crater on
top and are the most abundant of the three  Pollution- Volcanoes produce a wide variety of
major volcano types. hazards that can kill and damage any life forms.
 This includes air pollution, water pollution, and - Comes from deep in the earth’s core.
land pollution. - Geo: Earth, and Thermal: Heat in Greek
 Geothermal power plants: converts heat to
 Land pollution: mechanical energy and then to electricity
 Death - Many lives can be lost as a result
Examples:
of a volcanic eruption
 Destruction- Lava flows at different areas  Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant in Tiwi, Albay
near the volcano, and extremely damage  Mak-Ban (Makiling-Banahaw) Geothermal
properties, destroying crops plantations, Power Plant in Calawang, Laguna
and natural landscapes are destroyed  Palinpinon Geothermal Power Plant in
forever. Valencia, Negros Oriental
 Water pollution  Bac-Man (Bacon-Manito) Geothermal Power
 Tsunami- During a volcanic eruption Plant in Bacon, Sorsogon
earthquake happens, and this might trigger
a tsunami especially the fault line near the  Basic understanding of how a geothermal
ocean floor. plant works:
 Water contamination 1. First, the wells 1 or 2 miles deep are drilled to
 Air Pollution pump out the hot water or steam under high
 Respiratory Problem- Ash and smoke pressure.
can lead to irritation of the respiratory tract. 2. When the water reaches the surface, it is
 Global Warming - During volcanic turned into steam with a drop in the pressure.
eruption mixture of greenhouse gases is 3. This steam then spins a turbine connected
expelled into the air. These gases directly to a generator producing electricity.
influence to heating of the earth's surface 4. Later, a cooling tower transforms the steam
which results in global warming. back to the water state.
5. This cooled water is then sent back
underground to begin the process again 1- or
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 2-mile-deep wells
 Types of Geothermal Power Plants
 Geothermal Energy - The energy coming from
 Dry Steam - harnesses energy from
the volcanoes which can be tapped for human
geothermal reservoirs that produce dry
use.
saturated steam or superheated steam at very
- A renewable resource that can be harnessed
high pressure to make the turbine spin.
to produce electricity

- requires the highest temperature among the

three because water needs to have enough
heat to be converted into steam

- Uses the least amount of liquid water to - Once on the surface, the water goes into a
operate since it operates with the help of flash tank that lowers its boiling point to
steam. convert it into steam.
 Flash Cycle Steam - more common and - The steam is then used to turn the turbine.
requires less temperature - The excess water from this station is then
- the water from beneath the earth is directed injected back into the Earth.
to the plant through a large pipe
  Binary Cycle - Can be found in areas where - The steam from this liquid is then used to
there is a lower temperature of water rising turn the turbine.
from the surface as compared to the other two - Common liquids that are used in this are
types the pentane and isobutane due to their low
- The water from the surface of the earth is boiling temperature.
used to heat another liquid with lower
boiling and flash point.

 PHIVOLCS – Philippine Institute of Volcanology

and Seismology
- The agency in the Philippines in charge
of monitoring volcanic activities
Science Reviewer Q3 Climate Change  Though the sun shines bright on the mountain,
it is still cold in the area
 Weather -the day-to-day condition of the
atmosphere 3. Prevailing Winds – global winds that always blow
 Climate – average weather condition in a locality in the same direction
over a long period of 30 years or more according
to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).  Influenced by latitude and rotation of the earth
 In the northern part of the earth called the
The climate in any place on Earth is determined by two northern hemisphere, the current flows in a
basic elements: Temperature and precipitation clockwise direction.
 In The southern part called the southern
FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE
hemisphere, the current flows in a counter-
1. Latitude clockwise direction.
2. Altitude  Coriolis effect – the cause of the clockwise
3. Prevailing winds and counterclockwise of ocean currents and
4. Ocean currents the prevailing winds blowing diagonally rather
5. Topography than straight north to south or east to west.
6. Bodies of Water  Trade Winds – the prevailing winds in the low
latitudes that blow from NE toward the equator
from latitude 30 degrees north from SE about
1. Latitude - how far north or south of the equator a 30 degrees south.
place is located.  Westerlies – winds that blow in the middle
latitude
Based on latitude, the climates of the world are - Blow diagonally from west to east
classified into three types. They are: between 30 degrees north and 60
degrees north and between 30 degrees
 Tropical climate or torrid zone (at the equatorial
south and 60 degrees south
belt)
 Polar easterlies – blow diagonally from east
- Region between the Tropic of Cancer and
to west and push cold air to the middle latitude
the Tropic of Capricorn
 Wind belts – in between the prevailing wind
- Low altitude which receives direct rays of
which are narrow bands of calm air that
the sun all year round causing warm to hot
encircles the Earth.
climate.
- Are generally windless
 The temperate climate or temperate zone
(Found in the areas away from the equator)  Doldrums or ITCZ (Intertropical
Convergence Zone) – along the equator at 0
- Middle altitude between the Tropic of
degrees latitude which is the belt of calm and
Cancer and Arctic Circle in the Northern
light winds
Hemisphere, and between the Tropic of
Capricorn and Antarctic Circle in the - Doldrums: inactive and coined by sailors
Southern Hemisphere. when the trading ships were propelled by
wind
- Range from fairly hot to fairly cold because
of the changing seasons
 Polar climate or frigid zone (at the North and
South Poles)  Horse Latitude - 30 degrees North and South,
- High latitude that receives continuous but which is also a region of calm and light winds
indirect rays of the Sun where winds blow from high pressure to low
- Continuous daylight is experienced for pressure
almost six months - the sailors got stranded, they threw their
loads including horses into the water to
lighten their ship and be propelled by the
light wind.
2. Altitude - the height above sea level.
 Circumpolar low – other narrow bands with
 Great influence on climate because of its effect pressure where violent storms occur during
on temperature. winter
 As elevation (distance above sea level)  Polar high – other narrow bands which is a
increases, the air becomes thinner so less permanent icecap
heat is absorbed
 Temperature decreases as altitude increases
 Sunlight is bright at higher altitudes because a 3. Ocean Currents - is part of the ocean in which the
thinner atmosphere filters less amount of water flows in a definite direction
sunlight.
  The movement of warm and cold water in the  In areas where warm oceans lie near cooler
ocean is influenced by the same factors that land, humid air with a lot of moisture blows
create the wind patterns inland causing abundant precipitation
 As ocean current circulates, cold water from  Oceans are the primary source of moisture
the poles moves toward the equator warms the  The eastern side of the Philippines facing the
water in the Tropics, and forms warm ocean Pacific Ocean experiences et seasons
current throughout the year
 The warm water moves away from the equator
to become the cold ocean current
 Cold ocean current cools the land nearby while GLOBAL CLIMATE PATTERNS
warm ocean current brings warm temperature
 El Nino and La Nina phenomena are  Global Climate Temperature and rainfall provide a
brought about by ocean currents. clue to the global climate phenomenon and its
distinct effect on each region related to the amount
of solar energy that Earth absorbs
- Temperature and rainfall provide a clue to
 El Nino – warm ocean, winter time, Jet
the global climate phenomenon and its
stream, Blow the warm water, Hot
distinct effect on each region
- Abnormal and lengthy part of the Pacific
Ocean
 Tropical Climates (Equatorial and Tropical
- Intervals: Seven Years or two years at
Latitudes) – No winter
most
- are observed in the equator from about
- Starts at the end of the year during
20°N to 20°5
Christmas Season
- have consistently warm temperatures
- Trade winds move from west to east
due to constant solar insolation.
 La Nina-cold Ocean
- The ITCZ brings rains as it shifts
- Cold conditions in tropical
seasonally with the high sun, warm ocean
- Sometimes follow El Nina events temperatures, and unstable air masses.
- Triggered by the cooling of the eastern - between the Tropics of Cancer and
part of the Pacific Ocean Capricorn
- trade winds that move from east to west - Tropical climates are experienced in the
once strengthened north of Florida, south-central Mexico,
4. Topography - the arrangement of the natural and Central India Southeast Asia, and
artificial physical features of an area. southward to Northern Australia,
Madagascar, Central Africa, and Southern
 The surface features of the Earth, like Brazil.
mountain ranger and bodies of water greatly  The Philippines - has a tropical climate and does
affect climate not have a winter season.
 Large bodies of water cool and heat slowly
 The temperature of the water is more uniform  Mesothermal Climates (Midlatitudes)-mild
and constant than land which makes coastal winters
areas experience less changeable weather - "Middle temperature": describes
compared with inland areas these warm and temperate climates.
 Winds from the ocean that are warm have high - More than half of the world's
moisture content rise through the mountain population-approximately 55% - resides
 Windward side – the rising air cools and in places with mesothermal climates.
releases precipitation on this side of the
mountain which faces the wind. People living in the midlatitudes experience the
following:
 Leeward side – After rain is released, winds
become warmer and dry as they move down 1. Shifting moist and dry air masses of maritime
the opposite side of this mountain and continental origin
 Rain shadow effect – an effect that causes 2. Changeable weather conditions and fronts
the hot and dry air to have less rain (warm and cold) due to migrating low and
- Usually causes dry areas like deserts that high-pressure systems
develop on the leeward side of the 3. Cooler temperature along the west coasts and
mountain warmer along the east coasts. The
temperature of the oceans greatly affects the
5. Bodies of Water – oceans affect precipitation in
air mass temperature.
areas near the coast
4. Summer transition is evident from hot to warm
to cool as you move away from the tropics.
Climates are humid except where subtropical
 high pressure produces dry summer - These regions occupy more than 35% of the
conditions. earth's land area and are the most extensive
climates over land.
 Microthermal Climates (mid-and high-latitudes) - The mountains, rock strata, long vistas, and
- cold winters resilient struggle for life are magnified by the
- An area having this type of climate has a dryness.
winter season with some summer - Sparse vegetation leaves the landscape bare;
warmth. water demands exceed the precipitation water
- "Microthermal": implies temperature supply in arid and semiarid climates, creating
measurements that range from cold to very permanent water deficits, which distinguish
cold. deserts from steppe climatic regions.
- Temperature decreases with increasing
Important climatic features in these dry lands include:
latitude and toward the interior of
continental landmasses, resulting in 1. Dry, subsiding air in subtropical high-pressure
intensely cold winters. system dominates
- experienced only in the highlands of the 2. Deserts and steppes form on the leeward side of
Southern Hemisphere mountains, those regions to the lee of
- This is explained by the fact that the precipitation-intercepting mountains
Southern Hemisphere does not have 3. Moist air masses hardly reach the continental
landmasses that are as expansive as those interiors
in the Northern Hemisphere. 4. Shifting subtropical high-pressure systems
produce semiarid steppes around the periphery of
People in the mid-and high latitudes experience the
arid deserts
following:

1. Increasing seasonality (varying length of

daytime and angle of the sun's direct rays), THE PHILIPPINE CLIMATE
and large temperature ranges
2. Westerly winds that bring warmer air  Philippines - has a tropical rainforest climate due
northward and colder air southward to its geographic location
3. Dry winter pattern that is enhanced in the east - It has high temperature, high humidity, and
of the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean and high rainfall
eastern Asia - The country has a high humidity because
4. Short spring and fall seasons with winters that a high temperature can absorb a great
range from cold to very cold amount of moisture from surrounding
bodies of water.
- High temperature and humidity make the
climate uncomfortable during the months
 Polar Climates (polar regions)
of March to May when humidity is highest.
- These climates have no true summer like
those in the lower latitudes. * Humidity - the moisture content of air.
- At the poles of the Arctic and Antarctic Circles,
the length of day increases in summer until Four Types of Climates in the Philippines
daylight becomes continuous.
- There are four climate types in the Philippines
- average monthly temperatures never rise
according to the Modified Corona's Classification
above 10°C (These temperature conditions are
of Climate
not suitable for growing vegetation)
- This system of climate classification was
The principal climatic factors in these frozen and systematically arranged by Fr. J. Corona in 1920.
barren regions include the following:
 Type I - dry from November to April and wet
1. Extremes in the lengths of days between throughout the rest of the year.
winter and summer determine the amount of - The western parts of Luzon, Mindoro, Negros,
insolation received. and Palawan experience this climate.
2. Relatively low sun altitude even during the - These areas are shielded by mountain ranges
long summer days is the principal climatic but are open to rains brought about by habagat
factor. Extremely low humidity produces low and tropical cyclones.
precipitation in these frozen desserts.
 Arid and Semiarid Climates - moisture deficit  Type II - absence of a dry season but with a very
- Dry climates are experienced in the world's pronounced maximum rain period from November
arid deserts and semiarid regions, with their to January.
unique plants, animals, and physical features. - Regions with this climate are along or very
near the eastern coast (Catanduanes,
 Sorsogon, eastern part of Albay, eastern and intensify with an increase in atmospheric carbon
northern parts of Camarines Norte and Sur, dioxide,
eastern part of Samar, and large portions of - the atmosphere allows a large percentage of
Eastern Mindanao). the rays of visible light from the sun to reach
the earth’s surface and heat it.
 Type III - seasons are not very pronounced but are - A part of this energy is radiated by the
relatively dry from November to April and wet earth’s surface in the form of long-wave
during the rest of the year. infrared radiation, much of which is
- Areas of this type include the western part of absorbed by molecules of carbon dioxide
Cagayan, Isabela, parts of Northern and water vapor in the atmosphere and
Mindanao, and most of Eastern Palawan. which is reflected to the surface as heat.
- These areas are partly sheltered from
The Greenhouse Gases:
Tradewinds but are open to habagat and are
frequented by tropical cyclones  Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- one of the major pollutants in the atmosphere.
 Type IV - a more or less even distribution of rainfall Major sources of CO2 are fossil fuel burning
throughout the year. and deforestation.
- Areas with this climate include Batanes,  Sulfur and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Northeastern Luzon, Southwest Camarines - Sulfur dioxide is reduced by the combustion of
Norte, west of Camarines Sur, Albay, Northern sulfur-containing fuels, such as coal and fuel
Cebu, Bohol, and most of Central, Eastern, and oils.
Southern Mindanao. - Also, in the process of producing sulfuric acid
 Habagat (southwest monsoon) - is the wind that and in a metallurgical process involving ores
brings heavy rainfall that results in floods during that contain sulfur.
the wet season.
 N20 – nitrous oxide
- Comes from nitrogen-based fertilizers,
deforestation, and biomass burning
GLOBAL WARMING  Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 Global Warming – long-term warming of the - also known as Freon which is a substance
planet's overall temperature used in refrigeration and air conditioning
- Unusually increase in Earth’s average - is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global
surface temperature warming.
- Due to federal human activities  Methane (CH4)
- Methane emission results from livestock and
A global warming occurs when: other agricultural practices and the decay of
organic waste in solid waste landfills.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants,
 Ozone
greenhouse gases collect in the atmosphere and
- is a natural gas composed of three atoms of
absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have
oxygen. Its chemical symbol is O3.
bounced off the earth’s surface.
- It is blue in color and has a strong odor.
 Normally, this radiation would escape into space,
Environmental scientists have classified O3
but these pollutants, which can last for years to
into two: Good Ozone
centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and
- (Filter ultraviolet rays) and Bad Ozone (as
cause the planet to get hotter.
pollutants)
That is what’s known as the greenhouse effect.

Effects of Global Warming:

CLIMATE CHANGE
 Climate Change
 Climate Change - significant changes in global
 Altered precipitation pattern
temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and
 More food, more drought other measures of climate that occur over several
 El Nino decades or longer.
 Threats to the Ecosystem - As climate changes, organisms living in the
 Spread of disease area are affected. This makes the organisms
 Melting of Ice adapt to the new environment or migrate to
another place, or worst go extinct.
 Climatologists - study climate change, climate
GREENHOUSE EFFECT variability, and the effects of climate on the
biosphere.
 Greenhouse effect - is the warming of the earth’s
surface and lower atmosphere that tends to
 Through fossil examination, they found out that the  Actions that help lessen the effect of Climate
Earth was much warmer than it is today. Change
- Fossils of plants and animals that lived in a 1. Reduce carbon emission - practice walking in
warm environment in the past have been found short distances
at higher latitudes than where they originally - use sustainable transportation such as bicycle
existed. or public transportation
 the Earth's temperature decreased causing an 2. Conservation of energy - cut down on
enormous increase in ice sheets and glaciers. unimportant use of energy at home, and unplug
- Scientists claim that we are in an interglacial appliances when not in use.
period when warm temperatures cause the ice 3. Implementation of the 3Rs (Reduce, recycle,
caps to melt. They predict that glaciers may and Reuse)
come again after many centuries. - Reduce, recycle, and reuse recyclable
 Glacial Till - Scratching and scarring deposited materials, not all trash at home will be sent
sediments into the incineration plant or dumped into
- These sediments sometimes form natural hills dumping sites
called moraines. 4. Adopt a plant-based diet - increase your food
 Little Ice Age -climate change that lasted only a and vegetable consumption
few hundred years, with its peak during the 16th - livestock is one of the biggest contaminators
and 17th centuries. of the atmosphere so not eating meat
- During this time, average global temperatures products/ reducing meat consumption, can
were 1° to 1.5°C cooler than they are today. lessen carbon emission
- an analysis of the rings of trees that are more 5. Use of renewable energy at home
than 300 years old - renewable energy often referred to as clean
- The thickness of tree rings is related to the energy comes from natural sources or
amount of the tree's annual growth. This in turn processes such as installing solar panels on
is related to climate change. During times of your roof to generate electricity
drought or cold, trees cannot grow as much 6. Preservation of Forest -avoid illegal logging
instead plant more trees, remember that the forest
CAUSES & EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE is considered the home of some organisms,
throughout their lives a single tree can absorb up
 Atmospheric changes - one of the reasons why to a ton of CO2
the climate changes. 7. Educate People - All efforts done to lessen the
- An example is the climate change brought effect of climate change will be useless if people
about by El Niño which is greatly influenced don’t know how to take care of our environment,
by winds and ocean currents. the best way is to educate them about the dangers
 The change in the tilt of the Earth's axis of climate change and how to act against it.
- has something to do with climate change. 8. Energy efficient homes -having an energy
- The 100 000-year cycles of ice age are most efficient home is beneficial since it offers a lot
likely related to changes in the tilt of Earth's opportunities like it can save money, energy and
axis and the shape of its orbit around the Sun. reduce greenhouse emission
- These factors change slowly over time and 9. Stop Overpopulation -Since carbon emission is
affect the amount of solar energy received in being measured per capital so overpopulation
several parts of the world during different must be stopped/controlled because bigger
seasons. population will also mean greater emission of
carbon
STARS AND CONSTELLATIONS - Star gets bigger because of the
interaction of other elements but as it
 Star - Objects that heat and light the planets in a
gets bigger hydrogen runs out
system’
 Sizes of stars:
- Ban of plasma had together by its own gravity
 Red dwarfs – smallest stars
- Nuclear reactions occur
Ex. Proxima Centauri -closest star to earth
 Star Energy – enormous pressure and heat in a
 Sun – an average-sized star
star’s core converts matter into energy
 Blue super giants – stars that are larger than the
- The more they flare up the more they lose
sun
energy
 Apparent motion – optical illusion in which
 Nuclear fusion – hydrogen atoms fuse to form
stationary objects viewed in quick succession
helium atoms
- In relation to moving objects appear to be
- Mass is lost and energy is released
in motion
 Characteristics of stars that are used to
- Apparent movement
classify them:
 Diurnal motion – daily motion of stars and other
- Color
celestial bodies across the sky in night
- Temperature
 Circumpolar constellations – never rise nor set
- Size
- Composition Evolution of Stars:

- Brightness  Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram

 Constellations – a group of stars in a fixed star
Stages in the evolution of the stars
pattern s in space that seems to cross through the
sky because of the rotation of the Earth 1. Protostar Stage
 Luminosity of Stars - the amount of light energy 2. Main Sequence Stage
released by a star from its surface 3. Red Giants and White Dwarfs
 Can describe the brightness of stars in terms 4. Super giants
of: 5. And Supernovas
o Apparent magnitude – how bright a star 6. Neutron Stars and Black Holes
appears from earth
- Not the real brightness of the star
because it depends on the observer’s
location and distance.
o Absolute magnitude - describes how bright the
star appears at a standard distance of 32.6
light-years or 10 parsecs.
 Color of stars – depends on its surface
temperature and the Temperature of Stars
 Mass and Composition – the star is a massive ball
of gases (hydrogen and helium)
Abundant element in stars: hydrogen which gives
energy to stars
- Biggest star more mass (direct
relationship between size and mass