TGPSC - Group-1 Mains - 2024

HIT (HIGH IMPACT THEMES)

SEASON 3
INDIAN HISTORY (Day – 03)
MATERIAL WITH
DAILY PRACTICE QUESTIONS before EXAM
Establishment of British Colonial Rule in India
The English East India Company
• Establishment: The English East India Company was established in 1600, with a Charter
issued by Queen Elizabeth of England.
• Early Attempts: Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court in 1609 to seek permission
to establish an English trading center at Surat, which was initially refused due to Portuguese
pressure.
• First Factory: In 1612, Jahangir issued a farman allowing the English to establish a trading
factory at Surat in 1613.
• Sir Thomas Roe: Came to India in 1615 as an ambassador of James I and obtained
permission to establish English factories in Agra, Ahmedabad, Baroda, and Broach by
1619.
• Expansion: The Company acquired Bombay from Charles II and founded Madras in 1639,
with Fort St. George being built. Calcutta was established in 1690 by Job Charnock, leading
to the construction of Fort William.

The Carnatic Wars

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First Carnatic War (1746-1748):
• Background: England and France were on opposite sides in the Austrian War of
Succession, leading to conflict in India.
• Course: French governor Dupleix attacked the English in 1746. The English sought
help from the Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar Uddin, but faced opposition from Chanda
Sahib, allied with the French.
• Result: The English defeated the French at the Battle of Adyar. The war ended with the
Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle in 1748.
Second Carnatic War (1749-1754):
• Background: Internal politics saw the French supporting Muzafar Jang for Nizam of
Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib for Nawab of Arcot against the British-backed Anwar
Uddin.
• Course: The British commander Robert Clive captured Arcot and defeated the French
at Kaveripakkam. Chanda Sahib was captured and killed.
• Result: The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.
Third Carnatic War (1758-1763):
• Background: The outbreak of the Seven Years War in Europe led to renewed conflict.
• Course: British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated French Commander Count de Lally
at Wandiwash in 1760.
• Result: Pondicherry was captured and destroyed. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ended the
Seven Years War, confining French activities to Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe, and
Yenam.

Establishment of British Power in Bengal

Battle of Plassey (1757)
Background:
• The conflict arose between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula, and the English East
India Company.
• Causes of conflict included the Company's unauthorized fortification of Calcutta,
misuse of trade privileges, and the general antagonism of the Nawab towards the
growing power of the British.
• The immediate trigger was the Black Hole of Calcutta incident, where British prisoners
were allegedly mistreated and many died under Siraj-ud-Daula’s orders.
Course:
• The British forces were led by Robert Clive.
• On June 23, 1757, the battle was fought near the village of Plassey.
• Key to British victory was the defection of Mir Jafar, the commander of Siraj-ud-
Daula’s army, who was bribed by the British and promised the position of Nawab.

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 • The Nawab’s forces, expecting support from Mir Jafar, were outmaneuvered and
decisively defeated by Clive’s smaller but better-organized force.
Result:
• The victory at Plassey marked the foundation of British rule in India.
• Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab of Bengal, acting as a puppet for the British.
• The British gained significant control over Bengal’s resources, laying the groundwork
for further expansion.
Battle of Buxar (1764)
Background:
• After the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar's rule proved unsatisfactory to the British, leading
to his replacement by Mir Qasim.
• Mir Qasim's attempts to assert independence led to conflicts with the British.
• A coalition was formed against the British consisting of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula
(Nawab of Oudh), and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
Course:
• The battle took place on October 22, 1764, near the town of Buxar.
• British forces, led by Hector Munro, faced the combined armies of Mir Qasim, Shuja-
ud-Daula, and the Mughal Emperor.
• Despite being outnumbered, the British forces were highly disciplined and used
superior military tactics to win the battle.
Result:
• The decisive British victory at Buxar established their military superiority in India.
• The Treaty of Allahabad was signed in 1765, by which:
o The Mughal Emperor granted the Diwani rights (right to collect revenue) of Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa to the English East India Company.
o This gave the Company control over the region’s finances and administration.
• The Treaty firmly established British power in India, allowing them to collect revenue
directly and fund their expansion across the subcontinent.
• Robert Clive, who returned to India as the Governor of Bengal, implemented the Dual
System of Administration, which further consolidated British control.

Anglo-Mysore Wars

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 War Background Course of War Outcome

First • Haider Ali became the • War continued without • Treaty of Madras
Anglo- de facto ruler of conclusion for a year- signed.
Mysore Mysore in 1761. and-a-half. Exchange of
War (1767- • Threatened British • Haider appeared before prisoners and
69) interests due to Madras causing panic, conquered areas. -
proximity with the leading to the Treaty of English promised to
French and control Madras (April 4, assist Haider if
over Malabar trade. 1769). attacked.
• British, Nizam of • Treaty provided for
Hyderabad, and exchange of prisoners
Marathas allied against and conquered areas,
Haider Ali. and English promised
• Haider diplomatically help to Haider if
turned Marathas neutral attacked.
and Nizam into an ally.

Second • British failed to adhere • Haider allied with • Treaty of

Anglo- to the Treaty of Madras Marathas and Nizam. Mangalore signed
Mysore when Mysore was • Haider attacked (March 1784).Both
War (1780- attacked by the Carnatic, captured sides returned
84) Marathas in 1771. Arcot, and defeated captured territories.
• Haider Ali accused British under Colonel
British of breach of Baillie (1781).
faith and allied with the • British detached
French. Marathas and Nizam
• British attempted to from Haider.
capture French-held • Haider suffered defeat
Mahe under Haider's at Porto Novo but
protection. regrouped and defeated
British.
• Haider died in 1782;
Tipu Sultan continued
the war.

Third • Treaty of Mangalore • Tipu defeated British • Treaty of

Anglo- did not resolve under General Seringapatam
Mysore conflicts between Tipu Meadows (1790). signed.
Sultan and the British.

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 War Background Course of War Outcome

War (1790- • Tipu attacked • Lord Cornwallis led • Nearly half of

92) Travancore, an ally of British forces, Mysorean territory
the British. capturing Bangalore ceded to British,
• British, Nizam, and and attacking Nizam, and
Marathas allied against Seringapatam. Marathas.
Tipu. • Tipu offered serious • Tipu paid war
opposition but was damages, and his
defeated. two sons taken as
• War concluded with hostages.
Treaty of Seringapatam
(1792).

Fourth • Tipu aimed to avenge • War began on April 17, • Tipu Sultan killed.
Anglo- his defeat and recoup 1799, and ended on • British took
Mysore losses. May 4, 1799. - Tipu possession of key
War (1799) • Lord Wellesley, defeated by British territories.
concerned about Tipu's under General Stuart
• Mysore handed
ties with French, forced and General Harris.
over to Wodeyars
him into submission • Arthur Wellesley also under British
through Subsidiary participated. subsidiary alliance.
Alliance. • Marathas and Nizam • French influence in
• Tipu accused of assisted British. Deccan
plotting against British. • Tipu died in the battle, permanently
- War began. and all treasures eliminated.
confiscated by British.
• British chose a boy
from earlier Hindu
royal family as ruler
and imposed
Subsidiary Alliance.

Anglo-Maratha Wars

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The Anglo-Maratha Wars were a series of three significant conflicts between the British East
India Company and the Maratha Empire, marking the struggle for supremacy in India during
the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

War Background Course of War Result

First Anglo- • After Madhavrao I's • Raghunathrao signed the Treaty of Salbai
Maratha death in 1772, his Treaty of Surat (1775) (1782) signed.
War (1775- brother Narayanrao with the British, ceding
82) became the Peshwa. territories for military
• British retained
• Narayanrao’s uncle support. Salsette.
Raghunathrao had him • The British Calcutta
• Marathas
assassinated and Council condemned the regained other
declared himself treaty and made a new territories.
Peshwa. treaty (Treaty of
• Peshwa and
• Twelve Maratha chiefs Purandar, 1776)
British agreed
(Barabhai) led by Nana annulling the previous
not to support
Phadnavis supported one.
enemies.
Narayanrao’s son, • Nana Phadnavis violated
Sawai Madhavrao, as the treaty by granting the
the rightful Peshwa. French a port, leading to
• Raghunathrao sought renewed conflict.
help from the British. • Marathas, under Mahadji
Sindhia, trapped the
British and forced them
to sign the Treaty of
Wadgaon (1779).
• Warren Hastings sent
reinforcements,
capturing key territories.

Second • After Peshwa • Peshwa Bajirao II signed • Marathas were

Anglo- Madhavrao Narayan’s the Treaty of Bassein defeated and
Maratha suicide in 1795, Bajirao (1802), accepting British reduced to
War (1803- II became Peshwa. protection and ceding British
05) • Nana Phadnavis’ death territories. vassalage.
in 1800 weakened • Sindhia and Bhonsle • Treaty of
Maratha unity. resisted but were Bassein gave
• Bajirao II sought British defeated by British British strategic
support against Maratha forces under Arthur advantages.
rivals. Wellesley.

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 War Background Course of War Result

• Holkar attempted to form • Marathas

a coalition against the signed separate
British but failed. subsidiary
treaties with the
British.

Third • Lord Hastings sought to • Peshwa attacked the • Signed Treaty

Anglo- impose British British Residency at of Poona
Maratha paramountcy. Poona. (1817),
War (1817- • Maratha chiefs rallied • Appa Sahib of Nagpur • Treaty of
19) under Peshwa Bajirao II attacked the residency at Gwalior (1817),
against the British. Nagpur. • Treaty of
• Pindari raids provided a • Holkar prepared for war. Mandasor
pretext for British • British forces decisively (1818).
intervention. defeated Maratha chiefs. • Peshwa Bajirao
Peshwaship abolished. - became a
Maratha Confederacy British retainer.
dissolved. • Satara formed
under Pratap
Singh, a
descendant of
Shivaji.

Annexation of Punjab by the British Empire

Introduction
The annexation of Punjab by the British Empire followed a series of conflicts and diplomatic
maneuvers, culminating in the Anglo-Sikh War of 1845-1846 and its subsequent annexation in
1849. These events reshaped the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent, marking the
end of Sikh sovereignty in Punjab and the extension of British control over a vast territory.
Consolidation of Punjab Under the Sikhs
• Banda Bahadur’s Rebellion: During Bahadur Shah’s reign, a group of Sikhs led by
Banda Bahadur rose up in rebellion against the Mughals following the death of Guru
Gobind Singh, the last Sikh guru.
• Sikhs under Bhai Mani Singh: Farrukhsiyar defeated Banda Bahadur in 1715 and
executed him in 1716, leaving the Sikhs leaderless and divided into two groups: Bandai
(liberal) and Tat Khalsa (orthodox). Bhai Mani Singh ended the rift and united the two
factions in 1721.

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 • Establishment of the Dal Khalsa: In 1784, Kapur Singh Faizullapuria established the
Dal Khalsa, politically, culturally, and economically uniting the Sikhs. The Khalsa
population was divided into Taruna Dal (army of the youth) and Budha Dal (army of
the veterans).
Ranjit Singh and the English
• Misls: Ranjit Singh was born on November 2, 1780, when there were twelve significant
misls. The misl system was essentially a political, social, and economic system.
• Governor of Lahore: Ranjit Singh, the leader of Sukarchakiya misl, became the de
facto ruler of Lahore in 1799 and later the ruler of Punjab’s political capital, Lahore,
and religious capital, Amritsar.
• Treaty of Amritsar (1809): This treaty denied Ranjit Singh’s ambition to expand over
the whole Sikh population, establishing the Sutlej River as the boundary between his
domain and the British territory.
• Tripartite Treaty: Political pressure forced Ranjit Singh to sign the Tripartite Treaty
with the British in June 1838, though he refused British military passage to attack the
Afghan Amir, Dost Mohammad.

Anglo-Sikh Wars
War Background Course of War Result

First • Sikh army crossed • British engineered • Treaty of Lahore

Anglo-Sikh the River Sutlej on internal treachery, (1846): British resident
War (1845- Dec 11, 1845. causing Sikh defeats. established at Lahore.
46) • Post-Ranjit Singh • Lahore fell to the • Jalandhar Doab
chaos led to power British without a fight annexed. - Sikh Army
struggle. in 1846. reduced.
• English military • Daleep Singh
operations in recognized as ruler.
Afghanistan and • Kashmir sold to Gulab
annexation of Sindh Singh.
raised suspicions.
• Increased English
troop presence near
Lahore's border.

Second • Terms of Lahore • Lord Dalhousie • Annexation of Punjab

Anglo-Sikh and Bhairowal annexed Punjab after completed.
War (1848- treaties insulted battles at Ramnagar,
49) Sikhs.

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 War Background Course of War Result

• Inhumane treatment Chillhanwala, and • Three-member board

of Rani Jindan. Gujarat. set up for Punjab
• Multan’s Governor • Sikh army governance.
Mulraj rebelled and surrendered at • John Lawrence became
killed two English Rawalpindi. first chief commissioner
officers. in 1853.
• Earl of Dalhousie
recognized and
promoted.

British Agrarian Policy

• India's predominant reliance on agriculture as its economic backbone is well-
recognized. The livelihood of the vast majority of the Indian population was intricately
tied to agriculture. The country's prosperity hinged on the success of its crops, while
poor harvests often resulted in famine and suffering.
Historical Balance of Agriculture and Handicrafts
• Until the 18th century, India maintained a delicate balance between agriculture and
cottage industries. The nation excelled not only in the agricultural domain compared to
many other nations but also played a prominent role globally in the production of
handicrafts.
Impact of British Rule on Handicrafts
• The British colonial rulers initiated profound changes in India, dismantling the nation's
flourishing handicraft industry. Simultaneously, they introduced far-reaching
modifications to the agrarian landscape of the country through innovative land tenure
systems and revenue administration policies.
Economic Dependence on Agriculture
• India's overall economic landscape, including national income, foreign trade, and
industrial growth, was intrinsically tethered to its agricultural sector. British policies
were primarily oriented towards maximizing land revenue without significant regard
for the welfare of Indian cultivators.
Introduction of New Land Tenure Systems
• Following their arrival, the British introduced four types of land tenure systems in India.
Notably, the Zamindari System or the Permanent Settlement was implemented in
around 19% of the territory under British control, encompassing regions such as
Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, the Northern Western Provinces, and northern Karnataka.

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 • The second revenue system, known as the Mahalwari Settlement, was introduced
across roughly 30% of British-controlled regions, spanning significant portions of the
North Western Provinces, Central Provinces, and the Punjab, albeit with certain
regional variations.The Ryotwari System was extended over approximately 51% of
British-administered territory, including parts of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies,
Assam, and other specific areas of British India.
Izaredari System:
• The British obtained the Diwani rights, allowing them to collect revenue in Bengal.
Robert Clive secured these rights, initiating annual revenue settlements.
• In 1773, Warren Hastings introduced the Izaredari system in Bengal, asserting state
ownership of all land. It was the British's first land tenure system in India.
• Under Izaredari, revenue collection rights for specific areas were auctioned to the
highest bidder. Peasants, shopkeepers, and merchants paid taxes to the Izaredar, who
then paid the company, often after extracting significant profits.
• Hastings initially shifted revenue assessments from annual to five-year periods, later
reverting to annual settlements.
• The Izaredar acted as a contractor focused on maximizing profits from peasants, with
little regard for their welfare or interests.

The Permanent Settlement

One of the most prominent landmarks in British agrarian policy was the Permanent Land
Revenue Settlement of Bengal, which was subsequently extended to Bihar and Orissa. Lord
Cornwallis, who played a pivotal role in this development, was entrusted with the task of
devising a lasting solution to the land revenue system's issues. Cornwallis initiated an
exhaustive examination of the prevailing practices, tenures, and rents in Bengal. Following
extensive deliberations with colleagues like Sir John Shore and James Grant, he chose to
abandon the annual lease system in favor of a decennial (ten-year) settlement, later declared
as continuous.
Key Features of the Permanent Settlement:
• Zamindars in Bengal were officially acknowledged as landowners, granted they paid
the revenue to the East India Company on a regular basis.
• The land revenue to be paid by the zamindars was unequivocally fixed and would not
be increased under any circumstances. In essence, the East India Company secured
89%, leaving the remainder to the zamindars.
• Ryots, who were regarded as the tillers of the land, were considered tenants.
• This settlement led to the removal of administrative and judicial functions from the
zamindars.
• Zamindars were required to submit 10/11th of the revenue to the East India Company,
retaining only 1/11th for themselves.

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 • The landlord's estate was considered their property, which could be divided among their
dependents upon their death. However, this system entrenched feudalism among the
upper classes and perpetuated economic hardship among lower classes.
• The fixation of land revenue limited government income, preventing them from
benefiting from increased land values and agricultural production. Many zamindars
prioritized revenue collection over improving agricultural land, which led to the
prevalence of Absentee Landlordism as zamindars moved to urban areas.
Ryotwari Settlement
• The Ryotwari settlement was primarily implemented in regions such as Madras, Berar,
Bombay, and Assam. Sir Thomas Munro introduced this system in the Madras
Presidency. Under the Ryotwari settlement, individual peasants were acknowledged as
landowners. Notably, there was no intermediary figure, like a Zamindar, between the
peasants and the government. As long as the peasants paid their land revenue promptly,
they were not subject to eviction from the land.
• During this period, land revenue terms were fixed for thirty years, after which
reassessment and re-settlement would occur based on updated conditions. The
government's share was set at 55% of the produce, the highest ever recorded.
• Cultivators were granted rights to sub-let, transfer, mortgage, or sell their land holdings.
They were also protected from eviction by the government as long as they paid their
state demand for land revenue.
• However, while cultivators gained security of tenure, the heavy land revenue duty
imposed often left them with little incentive to cultivate their lands.
Fixed Period Land Revenue
• Land revenue rates were established for specific periods, ranging from 20 to 40 years
at a time. Each peasant bore the direct responsibility for land revenue payment to the
government.
Challenges of the Ryotwari Settlement
• Despite its initial promise, the Ryotwari system encountered issues in systematic
revenue collection. Revenue officials often resorted to severe measures to enforce
payment, including punitive actions against those who defaulted or delayed their
payments.
Mahalwari Settlement
• In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in regions such as the Punjab, the
Central Provinces, and portions of the North Western Provinces.
• The Mahalwari System was implemented by the British starting in the early 19th
century. It was based on the recommendations of Holt Mackenzie and was formalized
through regulations such as the Regulation of 1822.
• This system established the village or Mahal as the fundamental unit for revenue
settlement. As village lands were jointly owned by the community, the collective

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 Mahal or village community assumed the responsibility for paying the land revenue.
This settlement required a comprehensive land measurement of the entire village during
revenue assessment.
• The administration of the Mahalwari System was carried out through the village
headman (Lambardar) or other local representatives. They acted as intermediaries
between the government and the villagers, overseeing revenue collection and ensuring
compliance.
• Although the Mahalwari system eliminated intermediaries between the government and
the village community and improved irrigation infrastructure, the primary beneficiaries
were the government. The system's success was largely advantageous to the
government's revenue collection efforts.

Rise of Landless Agrarian Labour, Famines, and Poverty

Background: Impact of British Rule on Agrarian Relations
During the British rule in India, significant transformations took place in agrarian relations,
largely due to the implementation of new land revenue systems, commercialization of
agriculture, and the decline of traditional village economies.
Destruction of Village Communities:
• Traditional village economies, which were largely self-sufficient, were disrupted.
• Integration into global markets led to the decline of local industries and crafts.
Formation of Land Markets and Rising Rents:
• Land was increasingly seen as a commodity, leading to the emergence of a land market.
• Rents rose as zamindars sought to maximize revenue from their lands.
Indebtedness:
• High land revenue demands forced peasants to borrow money, leading to widespread
rural indebtedness.
• Peasants often had to sell or mortgage their lands to repay debts, creating a class of
landless laborers.
Formation of Layers of Intermediaries:
• Multiple layers of intermediaries between the British government and the actual
cultivators emerged, each extracting a share of the produce.
• This system further impoverished the peasants and increased their dependence on
moneylenders.
Frequent Famines:
• High land revenue demands and commercialization of agriculture reduced food
security.
• Famines became more frequent and severe, exacerbating poverty and starvation.
Impoverishment of the Population:

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 • The combined effects of high rents, indebtedness, loss of land, and frequent famines
led to widespread impoverishment.
• Many peasants were reduced to landless laborers, dependent on seasonal agricultural
work for survival.
Regional Impact:
Eastern India:
• The Permanent Settlement of 1793 in Bengal and Bihar made zamindars the proprietors
of the land, fixing land revenue permanently.
• This led to increased exploitation of peasants and the rise of a landless labor class.
• Frequent famines, like the Bengal Famine of 1770, caused massive loss of life and
widespread poverty.
Northern and Central India:
• The introduction of the Mahalwari system in Punjab and parts of United Provinces
imposed heavy revenue demands on village communities.
• Peasants often had to sell or mortgage their lands, leading to the rise of landless
agricultural laborers.
Western India:
• The Ryotwari system in Bombay and Madras presidencies recognized individual
cultivators as landowners but imposed high revenue demands.
• The commercialization of agriculture led to increased indebtedness and land transfers,
creating a class of landless laborers.
• The Deccan Riots of 1875 were a direct result of peasant indebtedness and exploitation
by moneylenders.
Southern India:
• The introduction of the ryotwari system and Permanent Settlement in parts of Madras
Presidency led to increased revenue demands and landlessness.
• The commercialization of agriculture, particularly cotton, groundnut, and oilseeds, led
to the rise of rich peasants and landless laborers.
• The Great Depression of the 1930s further impoverished the rural population, leading
to increased indebtedness and agrarian distress.

British Policy towards Indian Handicrafts

European companies began arriving on Indian soil during the 16th century. These companies
initially focused on establishing trade and later expanded their aims to secure a monopoly over
Indian trade and its profits. India held a distinct global advantage in traditional handicraft
production and artistry. Indian textiles, such as the renowned muslin of Dacca, carpets of

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Lahore, shawls of Kashmir, and Banaras embroidery, were highly sought after. India's fame
extended to ivory goods, woodworks, jewelry, and more.
Impact of British Rule on Handicrafts
• Despite India's prominence in handicrafts, the policies introduced by the English East
India Company began to detrimentally affect the Indian handicrafts industry. The flood
of inexpensive British manufactured goods into the Indian market led to a decline in
the sale of Indian products, both domestically and abroad.
• The Company promoted the cultivation of raw silk in Bengal in 1769 while imposing
restrictions on the sale of finished Indian silk products. In 1813, strategies were devised
to boost the consumption of British finished goods.
• British commercial interests were promoted through tariff and octroi policy
modifications. For instance, in 1835, an export duty of 15% was imposed on Indian
cotton textiles while only a nominal 2.5% import duty was placed on British
manufactured cotton cloth.
Transition to Machine-Made Goods
• The Industrial Revolution in Europe brought about the invention of new machinery,
replacing handlooms with power looms. This change revolutionized the textile industry
and allowed for more goods to be produced in less time at a lower cost.
Improved Communication and Transport
• Advancements in communication and transportation, such as the introduction of
railways and steamer services, changed the landscape of trade. Concrete roads
connected the country's agricultural hinterland, making transportation more reliable and
efficient. These developments led to an increase in imports of British goods, resulting
in significant job losses among Indian artisans and craftsmen, who lost their primary
means of livelihood.

Reforms under the Governors-General during the Company Rule

Lord Cornwallis (governor-general, 1786-93):
• Lord Cornwallis made several notable contributions to governance during his tenure.
• He organized the civil services, which later became a vital component of the British
colonial administration in India.
• Cornwallis introduced the Cornwallis Code, a set of administrative and legal reforms.
• Under the Cornwallis Code, there was a separation of revenue and justice
administration, providing clarity and structure to the legal system.
• European subjects were brought under the jurisdiction of Indian courts.
• Government officials became answerable to civil courts for actions performed in their
official capacities, emphasizing the principle of the sovereignty of law.
William Bentinck (governor-general, 1828-1833):

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 • Governor-General William Bentinck implemented several reforms during his
leadership.
• He abolished the four Circuit Courts and transferred their functions to Collectors,
streamlining the administration.
• Bentinck established a Sadar Diwani Adalat and a Sadar Nizamat Adalat at Allahabad,
making justice more accessible to the people of the Upper Provinces.
• The English language replaced Persian as the official language of courts, simplifying
legal proceedings.
• Suitor's choice of Persian or vernacular languages in courts was introduced to
accommodate linguistic diversity.
• The codification of laws resulted in the creation of essential legal texts such as the Civil
Procedure Code (1859), the Indian Penal Code (1860), and the Criminal Procedure
Code (1861).
Law Commission:
• The establishment of the Law Commission was a significant step in the codification
and consolidation of Indian laws.
• A fourth regular member, responsible for providing legal expertise in lawmaking, was
added to the Governor-General's Council for India.
• Lord Macaulay was the first individual appointed to the role of the fourth ordinary
Member, playing a pivotal role in the codification of laws, particularly the Indian Penal
Code.

Railroads, Transport, and Communication Network: Telegraph

and Postal Services
Infrastructure in India During British Rule
The period of British rule in India, from the mid-18th century to the mid-20th century, saw
extensive infrastructure development aimed at consolidating British control and maximizing
economic exploitation. This era witnessed the introduction and expansion of railways, roads,
ports, telegraph systems, and postal services, among other infrastructural projects.
Railways
• Construction and Purpose: Railways were constructed primarily to transport raw
materials from the hinterlands to ports for export and to facilitate the movement of British
troops and administrators across India.
• Economic Impact:
o Resource Extraction: Enabled efficient extraction and transportation of raw materials
like cotton, coal, and iron ore to ports for export to Britain, facilitating colonial
exploitation of India’s natural resources.

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 o Market Integration: Integrated regional markets, promoting internal trade and
mobility, but also led to the influx of British goods, undermining local industries.
o Revenue Generation: Generated revenue for the British through taxes and tariffs, but
the financial burden of construction was largely borne by Indian taxpayers.
Roads and Highways
• Construction and Purpose: Roads and highways were developed to improve connectivity
for administrative and commercial purposes, often focusing on connecting strategic
locations.
• Economic Impact:
o Administrative Efficiency: Improved administrative control and quicker mobilisation
of British troops.
o Economic Exploitation: Facilitated movement of agricultural produce and raw
materials from rural areas to urban centres and ports for export, leading to the
commercialisation of agriculture.
o Neglect of Local Needs: Local infrastructure often neglected, leading to disparities in
development and access.
Ports and Harbors
• Modernisation and Purpose: Ports such as Bombay (Mumbai), Calcutta (Kolkata), and
Madras (Chennai) were developed to facilitate trade and commerce, primarily for exporting
raw materials and importing British manufactured goods.
• Economic Impact:
o Trade Facilitation: Enhanced ports allowed for increased export of raw materials and
import of British goods, integrating India into the global trade network to Britain’s
benefit.
o Economic Drain: Focus on export purposes contributed to economic drain from India,
with wealth generated through exports repatriated to Britain.
o Local Industry Decline: Influx of British goods led to the decline of traditional Indian
industries, such as textiles.
Telegraph and Postal Services
• Establishment and Purpose: Telegraph and postal services were established to
revolutionise communication, primarily benefiting British administrative and commercial
operations.
• Economic Impact:
o Administrative Control: Enhanced communication networks allowed for more
efficient administration and coordination, consolidating British control.
o Commercial Benefits: Benefited businesses, especially British-owned enterprises, by
improving commercial operations and decision-making processes.

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 o Limited Local Benefit: Services improved communication for some Indians but
primarily supported colonial interests.
Irrigation and Agriculture
• Projects and Purpose: Major irrigation projects were undertaken to boost agricultural
productivity, particularly for cash crops like cotton, tea, and opium.
• Economic Impact:
o Increased Productivity: Increased agricultural output in certain regions, supporting
export-oriented cash crops.
o Agricultural Displacement: Focus on cash crops often displaced traditional
subsistence farming, leading to food shortages and famines during poor harvests.
o Economic Disparities: Benefits of irrigation projects were unevenly distributed,
favouring regions and farmers producing cash crops for export.

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 QUESTION & ANSWERS
Q.1) Discuss the impact of the British land revenue policies on food security in colonial
India.

Introduction The introduction of British land revenue policies, including the

Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems, played a pivotal role in
reshaping the agricultural landscape of colonial India. These policies not
only altered traditional land tenure systems but also had profound
implications for food security, contributing to the degradation of
agricultural productivity and exacerbating the vulnerability of rural
populations to famines.

Body Impact of British Land Revenue Policies on Food Security:

• Resource Diversion: The British policies, especially the
Permanent Settlement, redirected crucial resources from
agriculture to the colonial coffers, undermining the investment
needed for agricultural improvements and soil conservation.
• Absentee Landlordism: The establishment of the zamindar class,
who often lived in urban luxury and neglected rural development,
led to decreased agricultural productivity and economic stagnation
in rural areas.
• Commercialization of Agriculture: The British emphasis on
cash crops like indigo and cotton shifted focus away from
subsistence farming, reducing the land available for food crops
and impacting local food security.
• Displacement and Destitution: High taxes and rigid revenue
demands displaced many peasants, disrupting food production and
leading to widespread food insecurity among rural populations.
• Neglected Infrastructure: The colonial regime's focus on
revenue collection over agricultural infrastructure investment,
such as irrigation and modern farming techniques, hampered any
significant progress in agricultural productivity.
• Increased Famine Vulnerability: The focus on cash crops and
the neglect of food grains contributed to the agrarian economy's
susceptibility to famines, as evidenced by the catastrophic Bengal
famine of 1770.
• Rural Poverty: The revenue policies trapped farmers in cycles of
debt and poverty, limiting their ability to invest in agricultural
productivity and exacerbating food scarcity.

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 • Military Resource Diversion: Allocating resources to military
endeavors further strained the food supply for India's rural poor,
intensifying the challenges of hunger and famine.

Conclusion The British land revenue systems critically disrupted the agricultural
framework of colonial India, leading to severe food security issues,
periodic famines, and sustained rural poverty. The legacy of these policies
underscores the intricate connection between agricultural practices, land
management, and food security, highlighting the long-term consequences
of colonial exploitation.

Q.2) Examine the social and political factors that played a role in the effectiveness of
the British East India Company's military campaigns in India.

Introduction The British East India Company's military success in India wasn't merely
a result of superior military technology or strategy; it was deeply rooted
in the socio-political landscape of the time. A declining Mughal Empire,
fragmented regional powers, and socio-economic manipulations created
a fertile ground for the Company's expansion.

Body Socio-Political Landscape:

• Decline of the Mughal Empire: The weakening of the Mughal
authority by the late 17th century, marked by internal strife and
financial crisis, provided an opportunity for the British to establish
their foothold.
• Fragmented Indian States: The Indian subcontinent was a
mosaic of conflicting kingdoms and principalities. For instance,
the rivalry between the Hyderabad Nizam and the Nawab of Arcot
during the Carnatic Wars exemplified this division, making it
easier for the British to apply the classic 'divide and rule' strategy.
• Exploiting Social Divisions: The British skillfully exploited
economic vulnerabilities and social divisions, manipulating trade
and imposing unfair tariffs to gain political and military
advantage. Policies like the Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of
Lapse further solidified their control by integrating Indian states
under their indirect rule.
• Military and Technological Superiority: The British military
was not only better equipped with firearms like muskets and
cannons but also benefited from superior discipline and a regular

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 salary system. This contrasted sharply with the mercenary nature
of many Indian forces.
• Administrative Innovations: The Company's administrative
innovations and disciplined civil service stood in stark contrast to
the often nepotistic and caste-based appointments within Indian
administrations.
• Leadership: Leadership played a crucial role, with figures like
Clive, Warren Hastings, and Dalhousie exhibiting exceptional
qualities. Their ability to inspire, coupled with the dedication of
leaders like Sir Eyre Coote and Arthur Wellesley, contrasted with
the often divided and uninspired Indian leadership.

Conclusion In summary, the British East India Company's ascendancy in India was
underpinned by a complex interplay of socio-political factors rather than
mere military might. The decline of central authority, the exploitation of
divisions, superior military technology, innovative administrative tactics,
and effective leadership collectively enabled the Company to establish a
foundation for British colonial rule in India, profoundly altering the
subcontinent's destiny.

Q.3) Examine the impacts of British economic and trade policies on the traditional
industries of India, leading to their decline.

Introduction The advent of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain and the
consequent colonial interests had profound effects on India's economy
and trade. While the introduction of technologies like railways and
telegraph had certain benefits, the overarching colonial policies placed
India at a significant disadvantage, leading to the decline of indigenous
industries.

Body Impact on Indian Indigenous Industries:

• Imposition of High Tariffs: The British levied high tariffs on
Indian exports, particularly textiles. This policy made Indian
goods more expensive and less competitive in the British market,
adversely affecting India's traditional textile industry.
• Preference for British Imports: British imports were favoured
through reduced tariffs and subsidies for British companies,
undermining Indian products in their own market. This made

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 British goods more accessible and affordable, to the detriment of
local industries.
• Exploitative Land Revenue Systems: Systems like Zamindari,
Ryotwari, and Mahalwari maximized British revenue extraction,
leaving Indian farmers with insufficient capital. This economic
strain limited their ability to purchase local goods, weakening the
internal market for Indian industries.
• Disruption of Trade Routes: The British control over traditional
Indian trade routes and dominance in coastal shipping by
European companies severely limited the ability of Indian
merchants and small-scale industries to reach markets.
• Lack of Support for Indian Industries: While British industries
received government support through subsidies and tax breaks,
Indian industries were neglected. Notably, labour laws applied
selectively to protect British economic interests, overlooking the
exploitation in tea and coffee plantations.
• Annexation and Loss of Patronage: British policies like the
Doctrine of Lapse and accusations of maladministration led to the
annexation of states such as Awadh. This dethroned Indian rulers
who were patrons of local arts and industries, eroding support for
artisans and craftsmen.
• Market Competition with Machine-made Goods: The
introduction of cheap, superior quality machine-made goods from
Britain created unfair market competition against more expensive,
hand-made Indian products.

Conclusion The British economic and trade policies in colonial India were primarily
designed to bolster the British economy, with little regard for the welfare
of the Indian economy or its people. The detrimental impact on Indian
indigenous industries was a direct consequence of these policies, leading
to their decline and altering the socio-economic fabric of India.

Q.4) Critically analyse how the Policy of Ring Fence reduced Indian states to a position
of British dependents. Comment on the evolving nature of British policy towards
princely states.

Introduction The British 'Policy of Ring Fence', initiated by Warren Hastings in 1765
and expanded through Wellesley's subsidiary alliance system,

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 fundamentally aimed at transforming Indian princely states into
dependents of the British East India Company. This strategy not only
sought to create buffer zones against potential threats but also to firmly
establish British dominance in the subcontinent.

Body Impact on Princely States:

• Loss of Autonomy: The Ring Fence policy severely
compromised the sovereignty of princely states by limiting their
diplomatic freedom and territorial expansion. This ensured their
dependence on British power for survival.
• Economic Dominance: British economic policies under this
framework exploited princely states through resource extraction,
heavy tributes, and unfair trade practices, crippling their local
economies and enriching the British coffers.
• Political Subjugation: Restrictions on external relations and
military autonomy made the princely states reliant on British
support for defence and foreign policy, diminishing their political
stature.
• Cultural Impact: The imposition of British administrative and
legal systems eroded traditional governance structures and
cultural identities within these states, aligning them more closely
with British interests.
Evolving British Policies:
• Subordinate Isolation (1813–1857): This phase saw princely
states maintaining internal sovereignty but relinquishing external
sovereignty to the British, as evidenced by policy shifts like the
Charter Act of 1833. This era marked the beginning of British
political and economic intervention.
• Subordinate Union (1857–1935): Post-1857, the British Crown
asserted paramountcy over princely states, with the right to
interfere in internal matters. The adoption of titles such as 'Kaiser-
i-Hind' symbolized the absolute supremacy of the British monarch
over Indian territories.
• Equal Federation (1935–1947): The Government of India Act,
1935 proposed a federal structure with princely states as part of a
unified legislative framework. Though never fully implemented,
this policy indicated a shift towards more collaborative
governance, setting the stage for the eventual integration of
princely states into an independent India.

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 Conclusion Over time, British policy transitioned from exercising direct control to
fostering collaboration, which eventually facilitated the integration of
princely states into a sovereign India.

Q.5) Assess the development of transport and communication systems in India during
British rule and their impact on the Indian economy and society.

Introduction The British significantly transformed India's transport and

communication landscape, primarily to facilitate the movement of British
goods into India and export Indian raw materials. This overhaul included
the introduction of railways, steamships, and modern postal and telegraph
systems.

Body Railway Expansion:

• Strategic Implementation: Initiated with the Bombay to Thane
line in 1853, the railway network expanded under the advocacy of
Lord Dalhousie, aiming to connect the interior with ports and
interlink various regions. By 1905, India had nearly 28,000 miles
of railway, primarily designed to transport raw materials to ports
for export, often neglecting the connectivity needs of Indian
industries.
• Economic and Imperial Motives: While railways facilitated
trade and movement, they were strategically laid to serve British
economic interests and imperial ambitions, sidelining the internal
economic development and often imposing discriminatory tariff
policies against local goods.
Road Improvements:
• Infrastructure Development: Efforts to enhance road
connectivity, exemplified by the construction of the Grand Trunk
Road from Calcutta to Delhi in the 1850s, aimed to improve trade
routes but primarily benefited the colonial administration and
military movements.
Postal and Telegraph Systems:
• Modernization Efforts: The establishment of a modern postal
system and the introduction of the telegraph in 1853
revolutionized communication, with the first telegraph line
stretching from Calcutta to Agra. Lord Dalhousie's introduction of
postage stamps and uniform postal rates significantly increased
accessibility and reduced communication barriers.

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 Conclusion While the British efforts in developing transport and communication
systems brought technological advancements to India, these were largely
driven by colonial economic interests and imperial strategies. The primary
aim was to exploit India's resources, with little regard for fostering
indigenous economic growth or catering to the local needs of Indian
society.

Q.6) How will you explain the major political changes that took place during the
eighteenth century in India.?

Introduction The 18th century in India was a period marked by significant political
upheaval and transformation, as it witnessed the decline of the once-
mighty Mughal Empire, the rise of regional powers, and the increasing
influence of European colonial powers.

Body

The major political developments of the 18th century India include:

Dimensions Content with examples

Decline of • Post-Aurangzeb, the weakness & ineffectiveness

Mughal later-Mughal rulers lead the empire to economic,
empire administrative and military issues.
Eg: The Jagirdari crisis of 18th century

Emergence of • Regional governors (subadars) gained greater

regional autonomy, effectively becoming independent
powers rulers in their respective regions.
Eg: Nizam-ul-Mulk established the Hyderabad
state

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 Challenge to • Marathas in western India, the Sikh Confederacy
central in the Punjab, and the Nawabs of Bengal, often
authority challenged the authority of the Mughal Empire
and engaged in territorial expansion.

Entry of the • The establishment of trading posts, treaties, and

Europeans alliances with Indian rulers allowed the
European powers to influence Indian politics.
Eg: Englishmen setting up factories in Surat and
Bengal.

In Deccan & • Powerful states such as Hyderabad under

South India Nizams and Mysore under Hyderali & Tipu
asserted dominance in the regional politics.

Persian • Repeated invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad

invasions Shah Abdali, further weakened the Mughal
empire and disrupted the political landscape.

Conclusion In sum, these changes had far-reaching consequences, setting the stage for
the colonial era and the subsequent struggle for independence

Q.7) Assess the political landscape of 18th century India and its role in creating
conditions conducive to European colonization.

Why this • An analytical understanding of this period, just before the dawn of
question colonialisation, will be helpful in brewing strong points in Modern
India mains questions.

Demand of the Briefly mention the political scenario various part of India in 18th century.
question Present points based on how these developments set stage for the
European colonisation in India.

Introduction The political landscape of 18th century India was marked by a series of
internal conflicts, the decline of the Mughal Empire, and the emergence
of regional powers, all of which played a pivotal role in creating
conditions conducive to European colonization.

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 Body

The political Landscape of 18th Century India witnessed:

Dimensions Content with examples

A declining • Weak and ineffective rulers, internal strife, and

Mughal administrative corruption weakened the empire's
empire central authority.

Rising • Various regional powers began to assert their

regional independence & influence. Notable among them
powers were the Marathas, Sikhs, Nizam of Hyderabad,
and Mysore under Hyder Ali & Tipu.

Arrival of • European colonial powers, primarily the British,

European French, and Portuguese, sought to expand their
powers trading interests in India. They established
trading posts and secured concessions from
weak or willing Indian rulers.
The role of this 18th century political landscape in creating conditions
conducive to European colonization can be explained as:

Dimensions Content with examples

Internal • The disintegration of the Indian subcontinent into

fragmentation multiple small states and regions due to the
Mughal Empire's decline left a power vacuum
that European colonial powers could take
advantage of.

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 Lack of unity • The newly established states, had differing
interests and they constantly conflicted with one
another.

Failure to • The Indian rulers were well deceived by the

recognise the English and French elements, who pushed them
intent of to engage in conflicts, which were essentially
Europeans proxy wars, in the benefit of European powers.

European • European powers signed treaties and alliances

diplomacy with Indian rulers, granting them certain
privileges and territorial control in exchange for
military support or financial aid.

Sub- • Both the rulers and the people, asserted their

regionalism regional identity and ethnicity, which prevented
them to peacefully engage and forge alliances
with neighbouring states, to form a united front.

Conclusion Thus, the dynamics of this period of political transition set the stage for
the colonization that would shape India's history for the centuries to come.

Q.8) Discuss the policies and impact of Lord Wellesley in consolidating British power
in India during the early 19th century.

Why was this (Theme – British Consolidation)

question asked? Evaluate the policies of Lord Curzon and their long-term implications
on the national movements.
In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India.
Elaborate.

Introduction Lord Wellesley’s initiatives and diplomatic maneuvers had a

profound impact on British dominance in the subcontinent.

Body I. Policy of Subsidiary Alliances:

• Implementation of the Subsidiary Alliance System, wherein
local rulers were forced to accept British military protection in
exchange for control over their foreign affairs and the stationing
of British troops.
• The objective was to ensure British supremacy, weaken rival
Indian powers, and expand British influence throughout India.
II. Wars and Expansion:

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 • Anglo-Maratha Wars: Lord Wellesley engaged in a series of
conflicts with the Maratha Empire, defeating their forces and
securing British control over significant territories.
• Mysore Campaign: Wellesley's forces defeated Tipu Sultan of
Mysore, resulting in the Treaty of Srirangapatnam and further
extending British dominion.
III. Administrative Reforms:
• Centralized Administration: Wellesley established a system of
centralized administration to strengthen British control,
including the establishment of British resident officers in
princely states.
• Judicial and Revenue Reforms: He introduced judicial and
revenue reforms to streamline governance and enhance British
influence over economic and legal matters.
IV. Impact on British Power:
• Expansion of British Territories: Lord Wellesley's policies led to
the acquisition of fixed territories, extending British control and
influence in India.
• Consolidation of British Power: The Subsidiary Alliance System
and military victories strengthened British hegemony,
diminishing the power of indigenous rulers and princely states.
• Legacy of Imperialism: Wellesley's policies laid the foundation
for subsequent British imperial rule in India, shaping the course
of Indian history for the next century.

Conclusion Therefore, Lord Wellesley's policies and actions during his

tenure as Governor-General played a pivotal role in consolidating
British power in India during the early 19th century.

Q.9) Critically examine the reasons for non-existence of Permanent settlement in other
parts of India that were annexed by East India Company in 19th century.

Why was this (Theme – British Economic Policies)

question Why was there a sudden spurt in famines in colonial India since the mid-
asked? eighteenth century? Give reasons.

Introduction The Permanent Settlement introduced by the East India

Company in Bengal in 1793 was a significant land revenue policy.
However, its application in other parts of India that were annexed by
the Company in the 19th century was limited or non-existent largely

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 due to following setbacks witnessed in the implementation of
Permanent Settlement.

Body I. Struggle between Local Governments and Zamindars:

• After the implementation of the Permanent Settlement, a struggle
ensued between the local governments and the zamindars, leading
to administrative complications.
• Zamindars often hindered the government's efforts and even
supported criminal activities, resulting in law-and-order
problems.
II. Weakening of Government Authority:
• The system led to a weakening of the bond between the
government and the people, as the focus shifted solely to rent
collection by the zamindars.
• Lack of direct contact with the masses and limited knowledge of
the interior adversely affected the government's control and
authority.
III. Exclusion of Peasants' Interests:
• The Permanent Settlement favored a handful of landowners,
ignoring the interests of the vast mass of peasants who faced
resentment and dissatisfaction.
• The system failed to provide the state with a share in the
increasing rents, leading to the concentration of wealth in the
hands of zamindars.
IV. Absence of Zamindari Class and Financial Implications:
• The absence of a sizable zamindari class in the Madras Presidency
prevented the introduction of the Permanent Settlement in that
region.
• The British Empire sought a unified concept of sovereignty, and
the ryotwari system was favored by administrators like Thomas
Munroe for eliminating overmighty poligars.
V. Financial Burden on the East India Company:
• The Permanent Settlement imposed a fixed revenue payment on
the Company, leading to financial losses in the long run as
expenses escalated due to continuous wars.
In addition to the above factors the following issues constrained
British from implementing Permanent Settlement system in rest of
the Indian parts
VI. Diversity of Land Tenure Systems:

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 • Different land tenure systems existed in different parts of India,
making the implementation of a uniform Permanent Settlement
challenging.
• Regions like the Deccan, Punjab, and Madras Presidency had their
distinct land tenure arrangements deeply rooted in local customs
and traditions.
VII. Political and Administrative Challenges:
• Annexed regions often experienced political instability, making
the implementation of a long-term settlement like the Permanent
Settlement impractical.
• Administrative constraints, such as inadequate knowledge of local
land systems and resistance from local elites, hindered the
extension of the Permanent Settlement.

Conclusion The East India Company therefore recognized the need for
region-specific revenue systems to navigate the complexities of land
ownership and ensure sustainable revenue collection and thus
implemented ryotwari and mahalwari systems in other geographical
regions of the country.

Q.10) Enumerate the major factors that facilitated the arrival of European powers to the
Indian subcontinent since the 15th century.

Why this • It is important to know these factors that pushed western European
question powers to undertake voyages to the Orient or Asia/India, as it will
connect the dots between the Indian & World history events such a as
colonialisation.

Demand of the Enumerate—means that you just list down the points about the topic,
question with a brief description.

Introduction The arrival of European powers to the Indian subcontinent since the 15th
century was facilitated by a complex interplay of several factors, which
played a crucial role in shaping the course of Indian history and the
subsequent colonization of the region.

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 Body

The key factors that contributed to this significant historical development

are:
Dimensions Content with examples

Advancements in • The development of more sea-worthy ships

navigation and innovations in navigation instruments,
allowed European sailors to undertake long
and perilous voyages.

Quest for new sea • The desire to bypass the Ottoman controlled
routes land routes to Asia and establish direct access
to the lucrative Asian markets, especially for
spices & textiles, was a driving force behind
European exploration.

Treaty of • An agreement between Spain &

Tordesillas Portugal (1494) aimed at settling conflicts
over lands newly discovered, divided the
world between these two powers for further
exploration.

Entrepreneurship • European powers sought to tap into the vast

wealth and resources of the Indian
subcontinent. India was known for its
abundance of spices, precious metals,
gemstones, textiles etc..

Rivalry among • Intense competition among European nations,

European powers including Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands,
France, and England, fuelled exploration and
colonization efforts.

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 Exploratory • The expeditions by Columbus to Americas
voyages and Vasco da Gama to India, encouraged
further exploration and the search for new
trade routes.

Conflict with • Since the Arabs monopolised the spice trade

Arabs between India and Europe, a soured
relationship of Europeans with them, led to
supply shortages of Indian commodities in the
west.

Conclusion Thus, these factors converged to enable the Europeans to establish a

presence in India, ultimately leading to the era of European colonialism in
the subcontinent.

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