22CDT45A

MODULE-3
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPH THEORY
Introduction- Basic definition – Application of graphs-finite, infinite and bipartite graphs –
Incidence and Degree – Isolated vertex, pendant vertex and Null graph. Paths and circuits –
Isomorphism, sub graphs, walks, paths and circuits, connected graphs, disconnected graphs
and components, Eulerian and Hamiltonian graphs, Travelling salesman problem.

Introduction to Graph Theory

A linear graph (or simply a graph) 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) consists of a set of objects 𝑉 = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … }
called vertices, and another set 𝐸 = {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , … }, whose elements are called edges, such that
each edge 𝑒𝑘 is identified with an unordered pair (𝑣𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 ) of vertices. The vertices 𝑣𝑖 ,
𝑣𝑗 associated with edge 𝑒𝑘 are called the end vertices of 𝑒𝑘 .

Fig. A graph with five vertices and seven edges.

Application of graphs

Konigsberg Bridge Problem

The Konigsberg bridge problem is perhaps the best known example in graph theory. It was a
long standing problem until solved by Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783) in 1736, by means of a
graph. Euler wrote the first paper ever in graph theory and thus became the originator of the
theory of graphs as well as of the rest of topology. The problem is depicted in Fig. a).

Fig.a) Konigsberg bridge problem

Two islands, C and D, formed by the Pregel River in Königsberg (then the capital of East
Prussia but now renamed Kaliningrad and in West Soviet Russia) were connected to each other
and to the banks A and B with seven bridges, as shown in Fig.a). The problem was to start at
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any of the four land areas of the city, A, B, C, or D, walk over each of the seven bridges exactly
once, and return to the starting point (without swimming across the river, of course).
Euler represented this situation by means of a graph, as shown in Fig. b). The vertices represent
the land areas and the edges represent the bridges. Euler proved that a solution for this problem
does not exist.

Fig.b) Graph of Königsberg bridge problem

Utilities Problems

Fig. c) Three-utilities problem

There are three houses (Fig. c) 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 and 𝐻3 , each to be connected to each of the three utilities
– water (W), gas (G), and electricity (E) –by means of conduits. Is it possible to make such
connections without any crossovers of the conduits?

Fig. d) Graph of three-utilities problem

Fig. d) shows how this problem can be represented by a graph-the conduits are shown as edges
while the houses and utility supply centers are vertices. The graph in Fig.d) cannot be drawn
in the plane without edges crossing over. Thus, the answer to the problem is no.
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Seating Problems

Nine members of a new club meet each day for lunch at a round table. They decide to sit such
that every member has different neighbors at each lunch. How many days can this arrangement
last? This situation can be represented by a graph with nine vertices such that each vertex
represents a member, and an edge joining two vertices represents the relationship of sitting next
to each other. Fig.e) shows two possible seating arrangements—these are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
(solid lines), and 1 3 5 2 7 4 9 6 8 1 (dashed lines). It can be shown by graph-theoretic
considerations that there are only two more arrangements possible. They are 1 5 7 3 9 2 8 4 61
and 1 7 9 5 8 3 6 2 4 1. In general, it can be shown that for n people the number of such possible
𝑛−1 𝑛−2
arrangements is 2 if n is odd and 2 if n is even.

Fig.e) Arrangements at a dinner table.

Graphs

A Graph is a pair (V,E) where V is a nonempty set and E is a set of unordered pairs of elements
taken from the set V.
For a graph (V,E), the elements of V are called vertices (or points or nodes) and the
elements of E are called edges. The set V is called the vertex set and the set E is called the edge
set.
A directed graph (or a digraph) is a pair (V, E), where V is a nonempty set and E is a set of
ordered pairs of elements taken from set V.

Null graph
A graph containing no edges is called a null graph.

Trivial graph
A null graph with only one vertex is called a trivial graph.

Order and size

The number of vertices in a graph is called the order of the graph, denoted by n or |V| and the
number of edges in it is called its size, denoted by m or |E|.
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The vertices of a graph is denoted by A,B,C, etc or 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , etc. and we denote the edges of
a graph by 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 , and so on.

End vertices
If 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑣𝑗 denote two vertices of a graph and if 𝑒𝑘 denotes an edge joining 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑣𝑗 , then 𝑣𝑖
and 𝑣𝑗 are called the end vertices (or end points) of 𝑒𝑘 .

Loop
If in a graph, an edge 𝑒𝑘 has the same vertex 𝑣𝑖 as both of its end vertices, such edge 𝑒𝑘 is
called a loop.

Parallel edges
If in a graph, two edges 𝑒𝑘 and 𝑒𝑙 have same end vertices 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑣𝑗 , such edges are called
parallel edges.

Multiple edges
If in a graph, there are two or more edges with the same end vertices, the edges are called
multiple edges.

Simple graph
A graph which does not contain loops and multiple edges is called a simple graph.

Loop-free graph
A graph which does not contain a loop is called a loop-free graph.

Multigraph
A graph which contains multiple edges but no loops is called a multigraph.

General graph
A graph which contains multiple edges or loops (or both) is called a general graph.

Complete graph
A simple graph of order ≥ 2 in which there is an edge between every pair of vertices is called
a complete graph and is denoted by 𝐾𝑛 .
1
A complete graph 𝐾𝑛 with n vertices, has ⬚𝑛 𝐶2 = 2 𝑛 (n − 1) edges.
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Finite and infinite graph

A graph with a finite number of vertices as well as a finite number of edges is called a finite
graph. Otherwise, it is an infinite graph.

Fig: Portions of two infinite graphs

Bipartite graphs

Suppose a simple graph G is that its vertex set V is the union of two of its mutually disjoint
nonempty subsets 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 which are such that each edge in G joins a vertex in 𝑉1 and a vertex
in 𝑉2. Then G is called a bipartite graph.
If E is the edge set of this graph, the graph is deno;ted by G= (𝑉1, 𝑉2 ; 𝐸), or G = G(𝑉1, 𝑉2 ; 𝐸).
The sets 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are called bipartites (or partitions) of the vertex set V.
For example,
Consider the graph G shown in Figure 1.20 for which the vertex set V = {A,B,C,P,Q,R,S} and
the edge set is E={AP, AQ, AR, BR, CQ, CS}. Note that the set V is the union of two of its
subsets 𝑉1 = {A,B,C} and 𝑉2 = {P,Q,R,S} which are such that (i) 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are disjoint, (ii)
every edge in G joins a vertex in 𝑉1 and a vertex in 𝑉2, (iii) G contains no edge that joins two
vertices both of which are in 𝑉1 or 𝑉2.
This graph is a bipartite graph with 𝑉1 ={A,B,C} and 𝑉2 = {P,Q,R,S} as bipartices.

Figure 1.20
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Complete Bipartite graph

A Bipartite graph G= (𝑉1 , 𝑉2 ; 𝐸) is called a complete bipartite graph if there is an edge between
every vertex in 𝑉1 and every vertex in 𝑉2.
A complete bipartite graph G= (𝑉1, 𝑉2 ; 𝐸) in which the bipartites 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 contain r and s
vertices respectively, with r ≤ s, is denoted by 𝐾𝑟,𝑠 . In this graph, each of r vertices in 𝑉1is
joined to each of s vertices in 𝑉2 . Thus, 𝐾𝑟,𝑠 has r + s vertices and r s edges; that is 𝐾𝑟,𝑠 is of
order r + s and of size rs; it is therefore a (r + s, r s) graph.
Figures 1.21(a) to 1.21(d) depict some complete bipartite graphs. Observe that in figure 1.21(a),
the bipartites are 𝑉1 = {A} and 𝑉2 = {P,Q,R}; the vertex A is joined to each of the vertices
P,Q,R by an edge. In figure 1.21(b), the bipartites are 𝑉1 = {A} and 𝑉2={M,N,P,Q,R}; the
vertex A is joined to each of the vertices M,N,P,Q,R, by an edge.

Figures 1.21
In figure 1.21(c), the bipartites are 𝑉1 {A,B} and 𝑉2 = {P,Q,R}; each of the vertices A and B
is joined to each of the vertices P, Q, R by an edge. In Figure 1.21(d), the bipartices are 𝑉1
{A,B,C} and 𝑉2 = {P,Q,R}; each of the vertices A,B,C is joined to each of the vertices P,Q,R.

Problem 1: Draw a diagram of the graph G=(V,E) in each of the following cases:
(i) V= {A,B,C,D}, E = {AB, AC, AD, CD}
(ii) V = {𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣4 𝑣5 }, E = {𝑣1 𝑣2 , 𝑣1 𝑣3, 𝑣2 𝑣3, 𝑣4 𝑣5 }
(iii) V= {P,Q,R,S,T}, E = {PS, QR, QS,}
(iv) V = {𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3 , 𝑣4 , 𝑣5, 𝑣6 }, E = {𝑣1 𝑣4 , 𝑣1 𝑣6, 𝑣4 𝑣6, 𝑣3 𝑣2, 𝑣3 𝑣5, 𝑣2 𝑣5, }
Sol: The required diagrams are shown below:
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Problem 2: Which of the following graphs is a simple graph? a multigraph? a general graph?

Sol: (i) General graph

(ii) Simple graph
(iii) Multigraph

Problem 3: Which of the following is a bipartite graph?

Sol: (a) Bipartite graph with 𝑉1 = {𝑃, 𝑆} and 𝑉2 = {𝑄, 𝑅}.

(b) Not a bipartite graph.

Problem 4: (a) How many vertices and how many edges are there in the complete bipartite
graphs K 4,7 and K 7,11?
(b) If the graph K r,12 has 72 edges, what is r ?

Sol: The complete bipartite graph 𝐾𝑟,𝑠 has r + s vertices and r s edges.
(a)The graph 𝐾4,7 has 4+7 =11 vertices and 4 × 7 =28 edges, and the graph 𝐾7,11 has 18
vertices and 77 edges.
(b) If the graph 𝐾𝑟,12 has 72 edges, we have 12 r = 72 so that r =6.

Problem 5: Verify that the following are bipartite graphs. What are their bipartites?

Sol: (a) For the given graph, the vertex set 𝑉 = {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅} and the edge set is E={AB,
AP, AR, CB, CP, CR, QB, QP, QR}. The set V is the union of two of its subsets 𝑉1 = {A,C,Q}
and 𝑉2 = {B,P,R} which are such that (i) 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are disjoint, (ii) every edge in G joins a
vertex in 𝑉1 and a vertex in 𝑉2, (iii) G contains no edge that joins two vertices both of which
are in 𝑉1 or 𝑉2.
This graph is a bipartite graph with 𝑉1 = {A,C,Q} and 𝑉2 = {B,P,R} as bipartites.
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Problem 6: State whether the following graphs can exist or cannot exist.
1) Simple graph of order 3 and size 2.
2) Simple graph of order 5 and size 12.
3) Complete graph of order 5 and size 10.
Sol: 1) Given n=3 and m=2.
1
For n=3, for connected graph 𝑚 = 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 3, but given 𝑚 = 2<3. Hence, graph of order
3 and size 2 can exist.

2) Given n=5 and m=12.

1
For n=5, for connected graph 𝑚 = 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 10, but given 𝑚 = 12>10. Hence, graph of
order 5 and size 12 cannot exist.

3) Given n=5 and m=10.

1
For n=5, for connected complete graph 𝑚 = 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 10, but given 𝑚 = 10. Hence, a
complete graph of order 5 and size 10 can exist.

Homework:

1. Which of the following are complete graphs ?

2. Verify that the following are bipartite graphs. What are their bipartites?

3. Which of the graphs shown below are bipartite graphs ?

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4. State whether the following graphs can exist or cannot exist.

1) Bipartite graph of order 4 and size 3.
2) Bipartite graph of order 4 and size 3.
3) Complete bipartite graph of order 4 and size 4.

Incidence and degree

When a vertex 𝑣𝑖 is an end vertex of some edge 𝑒𝑗 , then 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑒𝑗 are said to be incident with
(on or to) each other. In Fig. 1.1, for example, edges 𝑒2 , 𝑒6 , and 𝑒7 are incident with vertex
𝑣4 . Two non parallel edges are said to be adjacent if they are incident on a common vertex.
For example 𝑒2 and 𝑒7 in Fig. 1.1 are adjacent.
The number of edges incident on a vertex 𝑣𝑖 , with self-loops counted twice, is called the
degree, 𝑑(𝑣𝑖 ) or 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑣𝑖 ) of vertex 𝑣𝑖 .
In Fig. 1-1, for example, 𝑑(𝑣1 ) = 𝑑(𝑣3 ) = 𝑑(𝑣4 ) = 3 , 𝑑(𝑣2 ) = 4, and 𝑑(𝑣5 ) = 1.

Fig. 1-1 A graph with five vertices and seven edges.

Isolated vertex
A vertex in a graph which is not an end vertex of any edge of the graph is called an isolated
vertex. Isolated vertex has degree zero.

Pendant vertex
A vertex of degree 1 is called a pendant vertex.

Pendant edge
An edge incident on a pendant vertex is called a pendant edge.

Fig. Graph containing isolated vertices, and a pendant vertex.

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Regular graph
A graph in which all the vertices are of the same degree k is called a regular graph of degree
k, or a k-regular graph.

In particular, a 3 – regular graph is called a cubic graph.

The graphs shown in Figures a) and b) are 2-regular and 4-regular graphs respectively.

a) b)

Handshaking property

Let us now consider a graph G with e edges and n vertices 𝑣𝑖 , 𝑣2 , ….𝑣𝑛 . Since each edge
contributes two degrees, the sum of the degrees of all vertices in G is twice the number of edges
in G. That is, ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑( 𝑣𝑖 ) = 2𝑒.

Taking Fig. 1-1 as an example,

Fig. 1-1 A graph with five vertices and seven edges.

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑( 𝑣𝑖 ) = 𝑑(𝑣1 ) + 𝑑(𝑣2 ) + 𝑑(𝑣3 ) + 𝑑(𝑣4 ) + 𝑑(𝑣5 ) = 3 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 1 = 14

= twice the number of edges.

Theorem: The number of vertices of odd degree in a graph is always even.

Proof: If we consider the vertices with odd and even degrees separately, the quantity in the left
side of Eq. (1-1)
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑( 𝑣𝑖 ) = 2𝑒 Eq. (1-1)
can be expressed as the sum of two sums, each taken over vertices of even and odd degrees,
respectively, as follows:
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑( 𝑣𝑖 ) = ∑⬚ ⬚
𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑( 𝑣𝑗 ) + ∑𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑑( 𝑣𝑘 ) Eq. (1-2)
Since the left-hand side in Eq. (1-2) is even, and the first expression on the right-hand side is
even (being a sum of even numbers), the second expression must
∑⬚𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑑( 𝑣𝑘 ) = an even number Eq. (1-3)
Because in Eq. (1-3) each 𝑑(𝑣𝑘 ) is odd, the total number of terms in the sum must be even to
make the sum an even number. Hence the theorem.
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Problem 1: For the graph shown in Figure, indicate the degree of each vertex and verify the
handshaking property:

Sol: The degree of its vertices are as given below:

deg(a) = 3, deg(b) = 2, deg(c) = 4,
deg(d) = 2, deg(e) = 0, deg( f ) = 2,
deg(g) = 2, deg(h) = 1.
We note that e is an isolated vertex and h is a pendant vertex.
Further, the sum of the degrees of vertices is equal to 16. Also, the graph has 8 edges.
Thus, the sum of the degrees of vertices is equal to twice the number of edges.
This verifies the handshaking property for the given graph.

Problem 2: Can there be a graph consisting of the vertices A, B,C,D with deg(A) = 2, deg(B)
=3, deg(C)=2, deg(D)=2?
Sol: In every graph, the sum of the degrees of the vertices has to be an even number. Here, this
sum is 9 which is not even. Therefore, there does not exist a graph of the given kind.
Problem 3: Can there be a graph with 12 vertices such that two of the vertices have degree 3
each and the remaining 10 vertices have degree 4 each?
Sol: Here, the sum of the degrees of vertices is (3×2) + (4×10) = 46. Therefore, if m=23, we
have 2m=46 and the handshaking property holds. Hence there can be a graph of the desired
type (whose size is 23).
Problem 4: Determine |𝑉| for the following graphs or multigraphs 𝐺.
(a) 𝐺 has nine edges and all vertices have degree 3.
(b) 𝐺 is regular with 15 edges.
(c) 𝐺 has 10 edges with two vertices of degree 4 and all others of degree 3.
Sol: We know that for a G = (V, E) an undirected graph or multigraph, ∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg(𝑢) = 2|𝐸|.
(a) Consider, ∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg(𝑢) = 2|𝐸|
3 |𝑉| = 2(9)
∴ |𝑉| = 6.
(b) Consider, ∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg(𝑢) = 2|𝐸|
𝑘 |𝑉| = 2(15) = 30
For 𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30, we get |𝑉| = 30, 15, 10, 6, 5, 3, 2, 1.
(c) Consider, ∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg(𝑢) = 2|𝐸|
2(4) + 3𝑥 = 2(10) where |𝑉| = 4 + 𝑥
3 𝑥 = 20 − 8 = 12
𝑥=4
∴ |𝑉| = 4 + 𝑥 = 4 + 2 = 6.
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Homework

1. Draw all simple graphs of one, two, three, and four vertices.
2. Draw graphs representing problems of (a) two houses and three utilities; (b) four houses
and four utilities, say, water, gas, electricity, and telephone.
3. Draw graphs of the following chemical compounds: (a) CH4 , (b) C2H6, (c) C6H6, (d) N2O3.
(Hint: Represent atoms by vertices and chemical bonds between them by edges.)
4. Find the degrees of all the vertices of the graph shown in Figure a). Also, verify the
handshaking property for this graph.

Fig a) Fig b)
5. Verify the handshaking property for the graph shown in Figure b).
6. Are the following graphs regular?

7. How many vertices will the following graphs have, if they contain
i. 16 edges and all vertices of degree 4?
ii. 21 edges, 3 vertices of degree 4, and other vertices of degree 3?
iii. 12 edges, 6 vertices of degree 3, and other vertices of degree less than 3.

Isomorphism

Two graphs G and G’ are said to be isomorphic (to each other) if there is a one-to-one
correspondence between their vertices and between their edges such that the incidence
relationship is preserved.

Fig. 2-1 Isomorphic graphs.

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For example, the two graphs in Fig. 2-1 are isomorphic. The correspondence between the
graphs is as follows : The vertices a, b, c, d, and e correspond to 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 𝑣3 , 𝑣4 , and 𝑣5 ,
respectively. The edges 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 correspond to 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 , 𝑒4 , 𝑒5 , and 𝑒6 , respectively.

It is immediately apparent by the definition of isomorphism that two isomorphic graphs must
have.
1. The same number of vertices.
2. The same number of edges.
3. An equal number of vertices with a given degree.

Problems:
1. Prove that the two graphs shown below are isomorphic.

Sol: Consider the following one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of these two
graphs: A ↔ P, B ↔ Q, C ↔ R, D ↔ S.
Under this correspondence, the edges in the two graphs correspond with each other, as
indicated below:
{A, B} ↔ {P, Q}, {A, C} ↔ {P, R}, {A, D} ↔ {P, S},
{B, C} ↔ {Q, R}, {B, D} ↔ {Q, S}, {C, D} ↔ {R, S}
These represent one-to-one correspondence between the edges of the two graphs under which
the adjacent vertices in the first graph correspond to adjacent vertices in the second graph and
vice-versa.
Accordingly, the two graphs are isomorphic.

2. Prove that the two graphs shown below are isomorphic.

Sol: We first observe that the both graphs have four vertices and four edges. Consider the
following one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the graphs:
𝑢1 ↔ 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 ↔ 𝑣4 , 𝑢3 ↔ 𝑣3 , 𝑢4 ↔ 𝑣2 .
This correspondence gives the following correspondence between the edges:
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{𝑢1 , 𝑢2 } ↔ {𝑣1 , 𝑣4 }, {𝑢1 , 𝑢3 } ↔ {𝑣1 , 𝑣3 },

{𝑢2 , 𝑢4 } ↔ {𝑣4 , 𝑣2 }, {𝑢3 , 𝑢4 } ↔ {𝑣3 , 𝑣2 },
These represent one-to-one correspondence between the edges of the two graphs under which
the adjacent vertices in the first graph correspond to adjacent vertices in the second graph and
vice-versa. Accordingly, the two graphs are isomorphic.

3. Verify that the two graphs shown below are isomorphic.

Sol: Let us consider the one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the two graphs
under which the vertices A, B, C, D, P, Q, R, S of the first graph correspond to the vertices 𝐴′ ,
𝐵 ′ , 𝐶 ′ , 𝐷′ , 𝑃′ , 𝑄 ′ , 𝑅 ′ , 𝑆 ′ respectively of the second graph and vice-versa. In this
correspondence, the edges determined by the corresponding vertices correspond so that the
adjacency of vertices is retained. As such, the two graphs are isomorphic.

4. Show that the following two graphs are isomorphic.

Sol: The graphs have six vertices each of degree three, and nine edges.
Consider the correspondence between the edges as shown below.
{𝑢1 , 𝑢4 } ↔ {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 }, {𝑢1 , 𝑢5 } ↔ {𝑣1 , 𝑣3 }, {𝑢1 , 𝑢6 } ↔ {𝑣1 , 𝑣6 }
{𝑢2 , 𝑢5 } ↔ {𝑣4 , 𝑣3 }, {𝑢2 , 𝑢4 } ↔ {𝑣4 , 𝑣2 }, {𝑢2 , 𝑢6 } ↔ {𝑣4 , 𝑣6 },
{𝑢3 , 𝑢6 } ↔ {𝑣5 , 𝑣6 }, {𝑢3 , 𝑢4 } ↔ {𝑣5 , 𝑣2 }, {𝑢3 , 𝑢5 } ↔ {𝑣5 , 𝑣3 },
These yield the following correspondence between the vertices:
𝑢1 ↔ 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 ↔ 𝑣4 , 𝑢3 ↔ 𝑣5 ,
𝑢4 ↔ 𝑣2 , 𝑢5 ↔ 𝑣3 , 𝑢6 ↔ 𝑣6 .
We observe that the above correspondences between the edges and the vertices are one-to-one
correspondences and that these preserve the adjacency of vertices. In view of the existence of
these correspondences, we infer that the two graphs are isomorphic.
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5. Show that the following graphs are not isomorphic.

Sol: The first graph has 4 vertices and 6 edges and the second graph has 4 vertices and 7 edges.
As such, one-to-one correspondence between the edges is not possible. Hence the two graphs
are not isomorphic.

6. Which if any, of the pairs of graphs shown in Fig are isomorphic. Justify.

Sol:
(i) Graphs (a) (c) (d) are regular (ie, each vertex has the same degree). But (b) is not regular
since one vertex has degree 5, while the remaining vertices have degree 3.
(ii) Graphs (a) and (c) have each two cycles of length 3 whereas (d) has no cycle of length 3.

(iii) So compare graphs (a) and (c) only. (a) and (c) have the same number of six vertices and
the same number of nine edges. The two cycles in each graph are {a,b,f} and {c,d,e}. Also
{b,c,e,f} is a cycle of length 4. Thus the two graphs (a) and (c) are isomorphic.
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7. Draw all non-isomorphic, cycle-free, connected graphs having six vertices.

Sol:

The graph in Fig. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) are cycle free, connected graphs each having six vertices.
Further they are all non-isomorphic. For example (a) and (b) are non-isomorphic since there is
a vertex in (b) having degree 5 which (a) does not have.
Again (c) has a vertex of degree 3, which (a) does not have. Since (c) has a vertex of degree 3
which (b) has a vertex of degree 5, (c) and (b) are not isomorphic and so on.

Homework:

1. Show that the following graphs are isomorphic.

2. Show that the following graphs are isomorphic.

 22CDT45A

3. Show that the following graphs are isomorphic.

4. Show that the following graphs are not isomorphic.

5. Show that the following graphs are not isomorphic.

6. Verify that the following graphs are isomorphic.

 22CDT45A

Subgraphs

A graph g is said to be a subgraph of a graph G if all the vertices and all the edges of g are in
G, and each edge of g has the same end vertices in g as in G.

For instance, the graph in Fig. 2-5(b) is a subgraph of the one in Fig.2-5(a) .

Fig. 2-5 Graph (a) and one of its sub graphs (b)

The symbol from set theory, g ⊂ G, is used in stating “ g is a subgraph of G.”

Spanning Subgraph

Given a graph G = (V,E), if there is a subgraph 𝐺1 = (𝑉1, 𝐸1 ) of G such that 𝑉1 = V, then 𝐺1 is

called a spanning subgraph of G.
In other words, a subgraph 𝐺1 of a graph G is a spanning subgraph of G whenever 𝐺1 contains
all vertices of G.
For example, for the graph shown in Figure 1.69 (a), the graph shown in Figure 1.69(b)
is a spanning subgraph whereas the graph shown in Figure 1.69(c) is a subgraph but not a
spanning subgraph.

Figure 1.69

Induced Subgraph

Given a graph G = (V,E), suppose there is a subgraph 𝐺1 = (𝑉1, 𝐸1 ) of G such that every edge
{A,B} of G, where A, B ∈ 𝑉1 is an edge of 𝐺1 also. Then 𝐺1 is called an induced subgraph of
G (induced by 𝑉1 ) and is denoted by < 𝑉1 >.
For example, for the graph shown in the Figure 1.70(a), the graph shown in Figure
1.70(b) is an induced subgraph – induced by the set of vertices 𝑉1 = {𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3 , 𝑣5, }, whereas
the graph shown in Figure 1.70(c) is not an induced subgraph.
 22CDT45A

Figure 1.70
Problem 1: Consider the graph G shown in Figure 1.73(a).
a) Verify that the graph G1 shown in Figure 1.73(b) is an induced subgraph of G. Is this
spanning subgraph of G?
b) Draw the subgraph G2 of G induced by the set V2 = {v3, v4, v6 , v8, v9 }.

Figure 1.73

Sol: (a) The vertex set of the graph 𝐺1 , namely 𝑉1 = {𝑣1, 𝑣3, 𝑣4 , 𝑣6, 𝑣7 }, is a subset of the vertex
set V ={ 𝑣1, 𝑣2, ……. 𝑣9 } of G.
Also, all the edges of 𝐺1 are in G, Further, each edge in 𝐺1 has the same end vertices in G as
in 𝐺1 . Therefore, 𝐺1 is a subgraph of G.
Further every edge { 𝑣𝑖, 𝑣𝑗, } of G where 𝑣𝑖, 𝑣𝑗, ∈ 𝑉1 is an edge of 𝐺1 . Therefore, 𝐺1 is an induced
subgraph of G. Since 𝑉1 ≠ V, 𝐺1 is not a spanning subgraph of G.

(b) The subgraph 𝐺2 = < 𝑉2 > is shown in Figure 1.73(c):

Figure 1.73(c)

Problem 2: Consider the graph G shown in Figure 1.74(a). Verify that the graphs G1 and
G2 shown in Figures 1.74(b) and 1.74(c) are induced subgraphs of G whereas the graph G3
shown in Figure 1.74(d) is not an induced subgraph of G.
 22CDT45A

Figure 1.74

Sol: We note that the vertex sets of 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 and 𝐺3 are all subsets of the vertex set of G. Further,
all edges in each of 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 have the same end vertices in G as in these. Therefore, all of 𝐺1 ,
𝐺2 , 𝐺3 are subgraphs of G.
Further every edge in G whose end vertices belong to 𝐺1 is an edge in 𝐺1 .
Therefore, 𝐺1 is an induced subgraph of G. In fact, 𝐺1 is induced by the set {𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣4 , 𝑣5, }.
Similarly, 𝐺2 is an induced subgraph of G, induced by the set { 𝑣2, 𝑣3, 𝑣5 , 𝑣6, }.
The subgraph 𝐺3 of G is not an induced graph of G. Because, for example, {𝑣1, 𝑣5, } is an edge
in G whose end vertices belong to 𝐺3 , but {𝑣1, 𝑣5, } is not an edge in 𝐺3 .

Homework
1. Let G be the graph shown in Figure 1.77. Verify whether 𝐺1 = (𝑉1, 𝐸1 ) is a subgraph of G in
the following cases:
𝑉1 = {𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑆}, 𝐸1 = {(𝑃𝑄, 𝑃𝑆)},
𝑉1 = {𝑄}, 𝐸1 = Φ, the null set
𝑉1 = {𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅}, 𝐸1 = {𝑃𝑄, 𝑄𝑅, 𝑄𝑆},

Figure 1.77
2. Three graphs 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 are shown in Figures 1.78(a), (b), (c) respectively. Are 𝐺2 and 𝐺3
induced subgraphs of 𝐺1 ? Are they spanning subgraphs?

Figures 1.78
 22CDT45A

Complement of a Simple graph

If G is a simple graph of order n, then the complement of G in 𝐾𝑛 is called the complement of
G; it is denoted by 𝐺.

(a) G (b) 𝐺̅

Problem 1: a) Let G be an undirected graph with n vertices. If G is isomorphic to its own

complement 𝐺̅ (such a graph is called self –complementary), how many edges must G have?
b) Give examples of self – complementary graphs of (i) four vertices (ii) five vertices.
Sol: a) Let 𝑒1 be the number of edges in G and 𝑒2 be the number of edges in 𝐺̅ . For any loop
free undirected graph G, we have the number of edges in 𝐾𝑛 as 𝑒1 + 𝑒2 = ⬚𝑛 𝐶2. Since G is
1 1 𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)
self-complementary, 𝑒1 = 𝑒2 so 𝑒1 = 2 ⬚𝑛 𝐶2 = = .
2 2 4
b) (i) Example of self – complementary graph with four vertices.

(ii) Self – complementary graph with five vertices.

 22CDT45A

Homework:
1. For the graph G and its subgraph 𝐺1 , and 𝐺2 shown below, find 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 .

2. Find the complement of each of the following simple graphs.

3. Draw diagrams of a self complementary graph G with five vertices and its complement 𝐺1 .
4. Find the complement of the complete bipartite graph 𝐾3,3.

Walk and their classifications

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 be (not necessarily distinct) vertices in an undirected graph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸). An 𝑥 − 𝑦 walk
in 𝐺 is a (loop free) finite alternating sequence
𝑥 = 𝑥0 , 𝑒1 , 𝑥1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑥2 , 𝑒3 , … , 𝑒𝑛−1 , 𝑥𝑛−1 , 𝑒𝑛 , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑦
of vertices and edges from 𝐺, starting at a vertex 𝑥 and ending at a vertex 𝑦 and involving the
𝑛 edges 𝑒𝑖 = {𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 }, where 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛.

The length of this walk is 𝑛, the number of edges in the walk.

When 𝑛 = 0, there are no edges, 𝑥 = 𝑦, and the walk is called trivial.

Any 𝑥 − 𝑦 walk where 𝑥 = 𝑦 (and 𝑛 > 1 ) is called closed walk. Otherwise, the walk is called
open walk.

Consider any 𝑥 − 𝑦 walk in an undirected graph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸).

a) If no edge in the 𝑥 − 𝑦 walk is repeated, then the walk is called an 𝑥 − 𝑦 trail. A closed
𝑥 − 𝑥 trail is called a circuit.
b) If no vertex of the 𝑥 − 𝑦 walk occurs more than once, then the walk is called an 𝑥 − 𝑦 path.
When 𝑥 = 𝑦, the term cycle is used to describe such a closed path.

Connected
Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) be an undirected graph. 𝐺 is connected if there is a path between any two
distinct vertices of 𝐺. A graph that is not connected is called disconnected.
 22CDT45A

Components
The fig 1.1, is an undirected graph on 𝑉 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}. This graph is not connected
because there is no path from 𝑎 to 𝑒. However, the graph is composed of pieces,
𝑉1 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝑉2 = {𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}. These pieces are called the components of the graph.
For any graph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), the number of components of 𝐺 is denoted by 𝜅(𝐺).

fig 1.1
Distance
The length of the shortest path from a vertex ′𝑎′ to a vertex ′𝑏′ is the distance between two
distinct vertices ′𝑎′ and ′𝑏′ in a connected undirected graph and is denoted by 𝑑(𝑎, 𝑏).

The following facts are to be emphasised.

1. A walk can be open or closed. In a walk (closed or open), a vertex and/or an edge can
appear more than once.
2. A trail is an open walk in which a vertex can appear more than once but an edge cannot
appear more than once.
3. A circuit is a closed walk in which a vertex can appear more than once but an edge
cannot appear more than once.
4. A path is an open walk in which neither a vertex nor an edge can appear more than
once. Every path is a trail, but a trail need not be a path.
5. A cycle is a closed walk in which neither a vertex nor an edge can appear more than
once. Every cycle is a circuit; but, a circuit need not be a cycle.

Problem:

1. Determine which of the following sequences in the graph in Fig. 1.1 are walk, trail, path,
circuit and cycle with its length.

Fig. 1.1
(i) {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑏, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑒}, {𝑒, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑏}.
(ii) 𝑏 → 𝑐 → 𝑑 → 𝑒 → 𝑐 → 𝑓.
(iii) {𝑓, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑒}, {𝑒, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑎}.
(iv) {𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑏}.
 22CDT45A

(v) {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑏, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑒}, {𝑒, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑎}.
(vi) {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑎}.
Sol:
(i) {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑏, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑒}, {𝑒, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑏}: This is an 𝑎 − 𝑏 walk of length 6.
(ii) 𝑏 → 𝑐 → 𝑑 → 𝑒 → 𝑐 → 𝑓: This is an 𝑏 − 𝑓 walk and a 𝑏 − 𝑓 trail of length 5.
(iii) {𝑓, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑒}, {𝑒, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑎}: This is an 𝑓 − 𝑎 walk, 𝑓 − 𝑎 trail and 𝑓 − 𝑎 path
of length 4.
(iv) {𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑏}: This is an 𝑏 − 𝑏 closed walk of length 3.
(v) {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑏, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑒}, {𝑒, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑎}: This is an 𝑎 − 𝑎 circuit of length 6.
(vi) {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑐, 𝑑}, {𝑑, 𝑎}: This is an 𝑎 − 𝑎 cycle of length 4.

2. Determine which of the following sequences in the graph in Fig. are walk, closed walk,
closed trail, path and cycle.
(a) b,e,f,g (b) a,b,e,f,d,a,c,d,b (c) d,f,d (d) a,b,e,f,d,c,a (e) a,c,d,f,e,b,d,a
(f) a,b,d,f,e,b,d,c

Sol: (a) none (b) walk, trail (c) walk, closed walk (d) walk, closed walk, trail, closed trail,
cycle (e) walk, closed walk, trail, closed trail, (f) walk.

3. Determine (a) a walk from b to d that is not a trail (b) a b-d trail that is not a path (c) a path
from b to d (d) a closed walk from b to b that is not a circuit (e) a circuit from b to b that is not
a cycle and (f) a cycle from b to b.

Sol:
(a) {b, e}, {e, f}, {f, g}, {g, e) , {e, b}, {b, c}, {c, d} is a walk but not a trail because the edge
{b,e} is repeated.
(b) {b, e}, {e, f}, {f, g}, {g, e) , {e, d}, is a trail but not a path since vertex e, is repeated.
(c) {b, c}, {c, d} is a path since no vertex and no edge is repeated.
(d) {b, e}, {e, f}, {f, g}, {g, e) , {e, b} is a closed walk (starting and ending at b) but is not a
circuit because the edge {b, e} is repeated.
(e) {b, e}, {e, f}, {f, g}, {g, e) , {e, d},{d, c}, {c, b} is a circuit but not a cycle because the vertex
e is repeated.
(f) {b, e}, {e, d}, {d, c}, {c, a) , {a, b} is a cycle where no vertex and no edge is repeated (and
sequence starts and closes at b).
 22CDT45A

4. Find the distances from 𝑑 to (each of) the other vertices.

Sol: 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑎):1, 𝑑(𝑑, ℎ):1, 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑒):1, 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑖): 2, 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑏):2, 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑐):3, 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑓):3, 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑔):
4, 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑗): 3, 𝑑(𝑑, 𝑘): 4.

5. For the graph shown in figure 1.103, indicate the nature of the following walks.
i) 𝑣1 𝑒1 𝑣2 𝑒2 𝑣3 𝑒2 𝑣2
ii) 𝑣4 𝑒7 𝑣1 𝑒1 𝑣2 𝑒2 𝑣3 𝑒3 𝑣4 𝑒4 𝑣5
iii) 𝑣1 𝑒1 𝑣2 𝑒2 𝑣3 𝑒3 𝑣4 𝑒4 𝑣5
iv) 𝑣1 𝑒1 𝑣2 𝑒2 𝑣3 𝑒3 𝑣4 𝑒7 𝑣1
v) 𝑣6 𝑒5 𝑣5 𝑒4 𝑣4 𝑒3 𝑣3 𝑒2 𝑣2 𝑒1 𝑣1 𝑒7 𝑣4 𝑒6 𝑣6

figure 1.103
Sol:
i) Open walk which is not a trail. (The edge 𝑒2 is repeated).
ii) Trail which is not a path.(The vertex 𝑣4 is repeated).
iii) Trail which is a path.
iv) Closed walk which is a cycle.
v) Closed walk which is a circuit but not a cycle. (The vertex 𝑣4 is repeated)

Homework

1. For the graph in fig 1.1, determine (a) a walk from 𝑏 to 𝑑 that is not a trail; (b) a 𝑏 − 𝑑 trail
that is not a path; (c) a path from 𝑏 to 𝑑; (d) a closed walk from 𝑏 to 𝑏 that is not a circuit;
(e) a circuit from 𝑏 to 𝑏 that is not a cycle; and (f) a cycle from 𝑏 to 𝑏.

fig 1.1
2. If 𝑎, 𝑏 are distinct vertices in a connected undirected graph 𝐺, the distance from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is
defined to be the length of a shortest path from 𝑎 to 𝑏. For the fig. 1.2, find the distance from
𝑑 to (each of) the other vertices in G.
 22CDT45A

fig. 1.2

3. For the graph shown in figure 1.109, find the nature of the following walks:
(i) ABEFDACDB (ii) ABEFDCA (iii) ACDFEBDA (iv) ABDFEBDC

figure 1.109

Euler circuits and Euler trails

Consider a connected graph G. If there is a circuit in G that contains all the edges of G, then that
circuit is called an Euler circuit (or Eulerian line, or Euler tour) in G. If there is a trail in G that
contains all the edges of G, then that trail is called an Euler trail (or unicursal line) in G.
A connected graph that contains an Euler circuit is called an Euler graph (or Eulerian graph).
A connected graph that contains an Euler trail is called a semi- Euler graph (or semi Eulerian
graph).

For example, in graph shown in Figure 1.119 the closed walk

𝑃 𝑒1 𝑄 𝑒2 𝑅 𝑒3 𝑃 𝑒4 𝑆 𝑒5 𝑅 𝑒6 𝑇 𝑒7 P is an Euler circuit. Therefore, this graph is an Euler
graph.

Figure 1.119

It may be seen that in the graph in Figure 1.120 the trail 𝐴𝑒1 𝐵𝑒2 𝐷𝑒3 𝐶𝑒4 𝐴𝑒5 D is an Euler trail.
This graph is therefore a semi-Euler graph.
 22CDT45A

Figure 1.120

Problem 1: Find an Euler circuit in the graph shown below.

Sol: The Euler circuit is 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣9 𝑣10 𝑣2 𝑣11 𝑣7 𝑣10 𝑣11 𝑣6 𝑣4 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣4 𝑣5 𝑣6 𝑣7 𝑣8 𝑣9 𝑣1 .

Theorem 1. A connected graph G has an Euler circuit (that is, G is an Euler graph) if and
only if all vertices of G are of even degree.
Proof: First suppose that G has an Euler circuit. While tracing this circuit we observe that every
time the circuit meets a vertex v it goes through two edges incident on v(- with the one through
which we enter v and the other through which we depart from v). This is true for all vertices
that belong to the circuit. Since the circuit contains all edges, it meets all the vertices at least
once. Therefore, the degree of every vertex is a multiple of two (i.e. every vertex is of even
degree)
Conversely, suppose that all the vertices of G are of even degree. Now we construct a
circuit starting at an arbitrary vertex v and going through the edges of G such that no edge is
traced more than once. Since every vertex is of even degree, we can depart from every vertex
we enter, and the tracing cannot stop at any vertex other than v. In this way, we obtained a
circuit q having v as the initial and final vertex. If this circuit contains all the edges in G, then
the circuit is an Euler circuit. If not, let us consider the subgraph H obtained by removing from
G all edges that belong to q. The degrees of vertices in this subgraph are also even. Since G is
connected, the circuit q and the subgraph H must have at least one vertex, say 𝑣 ′ , in common.
Starting from 𝑣 ′ , we can construct a circuit 𝑞 ′ in H as was done in G. The two circuits q and 𝑞 ′
together constitute a circuit which s and ends at the vertex v and has more edges than q. If this
circuit contains all the edges in G, then circuit is an Euler circuit. Otherwise, we repeat the
process until we get a circuit that starts from v and ends at v and which contains all edges in
G. In this way, we obtain an Euler circuit in G.
This completes the proof of the theorem.
 22CDT45A

Homework:
1. Show that the graph shown below is an Euler graph.

2. Show that the following graph contains an Euler trail.

Hamilton cycles and Hamilton paths

Let G be a connected graph. If there is a cycle in G that contains all the vertices of G, then that
cycle is called a Hamilton cycle in G.
A Hamilton cycle (when it exists) in a graph of n vertices of consists of exactly n edges,
because, a cycle with n vertices has n edges.
A graph that contains a Hamilton cycle is called a Hamilton graph (or Hamilton graph).

For example, in the graph show in Figure 1.127, the cycle shown in thick lines is a Hamilton
cycle. (Observe that this cycle does not include the edge BD). The graph is therefore a Hamilton
graph.

Figure 1.127

A path(if any) in a connected graph which includes every vertex (but not necessarily every
edge) of the graph is called a Hamilton path (or Hamilton graph) in the graph.

For example, in the graph shown in Figure 1.128, the path shown in thick lines is a Hamilton
path.
 22CDT45A

Figure 1.128

In the graph shown in Figure 1.129, the path ABCFEDGHI is a Hamilton path.

Figure 1.129

Problem 1: Show that the Petersen graph has a Hamilton path.

➢ The Petersen graph is a 3-regular graph with 10 vertices and 15 edges. The graph is shown
below with the vertices labeled as A, B, C, D, E, L, M, N, P, Q.

We note that the edges AB, BC, CD, DE, EQ, QM, MP, PL, LN form a path and this path
includes all vertices. This path is therefore a Hamilton Path.
Thus, the Petersen graph does have a Hamilton path in it.

Problem 2: Show that the graph shown in Figure 1.132 is a Hamilton graph.

Figure 1.132
 22CDT45A

➢ By examining the given graph, we notice that in the graph there is a cycle
AELSMNPQRCDFBA which contains all the vertices of the graph. This cycle is a
Hamilton cycle. Since the graph has a Hamilton cycle in it, the graph is a Hamilton
graph

Problem 3: Exhibit the following:

a) A graph which has both an Euler circuit and a Hamilton cycle.
b) A graph which has an Euler circuit but no Hamilton cycle.
c) A graph which has a Hamilton cycle but no Euler circuit.
d) A graph which has neither a Hamilton cycle nor an Euler circuit.

➢ The graphs (a) –(d) shown below are the required graphs in the desired order.

Homework:

1. Show that the following graphs are Hamiltonian graphs:

2. Which of the following are Euler graphs? Hamilton graphs?

The Traveling Salesman Problem

A problem closely related to the question of Hamiltonian circuits is the traveling-salesman

problem, stated as follows: A salesman is required to visit a number of cities during a trip.
Given the distances between the cities, in what order should he travel so as to visit every city
precisely once and return home, with the minimum mileage travelled?
 22CDT45A

Representing the cities by vertices and the roads between them by edges, we get a graph. In
this graph, with every edge 𝑒𝑖 there is associated a real number (the distance in miles, say),
𝑤(𝑒𝑖 ). Such a graph is called a weighted graph; 𝑤(𝑒𝑖 ) being the weight of edge 𝑒𝑖 .
In our problem, if each of the cities has a road to every other city, we have a complete weighted
graph. This graph has numerous Hamiltonian circuits, and we are to pick the one that has the
smallest sum of distances (or weights).
The total number of different (not edge disjoint, of course) Hamiltonian circuits in a complete
graph of n vertices can be shown to be (n − l)!/2. This follows from the fact that starting from
any vertex we have n − 1 edges to choose from the first vertex, n − 2 from the second, n − 3
from the third, and so on. These being independent choices, we get (n − 1)! possible number
of choices. This number is, however, divided by 2, because each Hamiltonian circuit has been
counted twice.
Theoretically, the problem of the traveling salesman can always be solved by enumerating all
(n − l)!/2 Hamiltonian circuits, calculating the distance travelled in each, and then picking the
shortest one. However, for a large value of n, the labor involved is too great even for a digital
computer (try solving it for the 50 state capitals in the United States; n = 50).
The problem is to prescribe a manageable algorithm for finding the shortest route. No efficient
algorithm for problems of arbitrary size has yet been found, although many attempts have been
made. This problem has applications in operations research. There are also available several
heuristic methods of solution that give a route very close to the shortest one, but do not
guarantee the shortest.

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