Civil engineering

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Tennessee Valley Authority civil

engineers monitoring hydraulics of a scale model of Tellico Dam
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with
the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and
naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges,
canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural
components of buildings, and railways.[1][2]

Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It

is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military
engineering,[3] and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from
military engineering.[4] Civil engineering can take place in the public sector
from municipal public works departments through to federal government
agencies, and in the private sector from locally based firms
to Fortune Global 500 companies.[5]

History
[edit]
Civil engineering as a discipline
[edit]
Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for
solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to
advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics throughout
history. Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several
specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures,
materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environmental
science, mechanics, project management, and other fields.[6]

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and

construction was carried out by artisans, such
as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder.
Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances.
Structures, roads, and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and
increases in scale were incremental.[7]

One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and

mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work
of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes' principle, which
underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such
as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used
arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for
excavation (volume) computations.[8]
Civil engineering profession
[edit]
See also: History of structural engineering
Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human
existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced
between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization,
and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon
a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During
this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the
development of the wheel and sailing.
 Leonhard Euler developed the theory explaining
the buckling of columns.
Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering
and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly
geographical variations referring to the same occupation, and often used
interchangeably.[9] The constructions of pyramids in Egypt (c. 2700–2500
BC) constitute some of the first instances of large structure constructions in
history. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include
the Qanat water management system in modern-day Iran (the oldest is
older than 3000 years and longer than 71 kilometres (44 mi)[10]),
the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian
Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by
General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c.
220 BC)[11] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like
the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura.
The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including
especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads.

A Roman aqueduct [built c. 19 BC], Pont du

Gard, France Chichen Itza was a large pre-

Columbian city in Mexico built by the Maya people of the Post Classic. The
northeast column temple also covers a channel that funnels all the
rainwater from the complex some 40 metres (130 ft) away to a rejollada, a
former cenote.
In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all
things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[4] In 1747, the first
institution for the teaching of civil engineering, the École Nationale des
Ponts et Chaussées, was established in France; and more examples
followed in other European countries, like Spain.[12] The first self-proclaimed
civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone
Lighthouse.[3][11] In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the
Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession
who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some
technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.

John Smeaton, the "father of civil engineering"

In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London,[13] and in
1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The
institution received a Royal charter in 1828, formally recognising civil
engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:

the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and
convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states,
both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads,
bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal
intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours,
moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial
power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and
application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[14]
Civil engineering education
[edit]
The first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States
was Norwich University, founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[15] The
first degree in civil engineering in the United States was awarded
by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[16][17] The first such degree to be
awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton
Blatch in 1905.[18]

In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil
engineering and military engineering (served by the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich), coupled with the demands of the Industrial
Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives: the Class of
Civil Engineering and Mining was founded at King's College London in
1838, mainly as a response to the growth of the railway system and the
need for more qualified engineers, the private College for Civil
Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of
Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840.

Education
[edit]
Main article: Civil engineer
Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering.
The length of study is three to five years, and the completed degree is
designated as a bachelor of technology, or a bachelor of engineering. The
curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project
management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. After taking
basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move on to
specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. While an
undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides successful students
with industry-accredited qualifications, some academic institutions offer
post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further
specialize in their particular area of interest.[19]
 Surveying students with professor at
the Helsinki University of Technology in the late 19th century.
Practicing engineers
[edit]
In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first
step towards professional certification, and a professional body certifies the
degree program. After completing a certified degree program, the engineer
must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam
requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is
designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and
South Africa), a chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), a
chartered professional engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or a
European engineer (in most countries of the European Union). There are
international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow
engineers to practice across national borders.

The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in

the United States and Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may
prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a
public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private
clients."[20] This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the
Engineers Act in Quebec.[21] No such legislation has been enacted in other
countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing of
engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Almost all certifying bodies
maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by.[22]

Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with

other parties. In cases where an engineer's work fails, they may be subject
to the law of tort of negligence, and in extreme cases, criminal charges.
 An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and
[23]

regulations such as building codes and environmental law.

Sub-disciplines
[edit]

The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan,

currently the world's second-longest suspension span.
There are a number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil
engineering. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and
specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement, water
supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply. General
civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil
engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one
usage to another. Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting
with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers apply
the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering,
environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction
engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects
of all sizes and levels of construction.
Coastal engineering
[edit]
Main articles: Coastal engineering and Coastal management
 Oosterscheldekering, a storm surge
barrier in the Netherlands.
Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some
jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense
against flooding and erosion, respectively. Coastal defense is the more
traditional term, but coastal management has become popular as well.
Construction engineering
[edit]
Main article: Construction engineering
Construction engineering involves planning and execution, transportation of
materials, site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural
and geotechnical engineering. As construction firms tend to have higher
business risk than other types of civil engineering firms do, construction
engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, for example,
drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and
monitoring prices of supplies.
Earthquake engineering
[edit]
Main article: Earthquake engineering
Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand
hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering is a sub-
discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake
engineering are[24] to understand interaction of structures on the shaky
ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design,
construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance
with building codes.
Environmental engineering
[edit]
Main article: Environmental engineering

Creek contaminated with water pollution

Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary
engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included
much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation
work covered by environmental engineering. Public health engineering and
environmental health engineering are other terms being used.

Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or

thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of
contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination.
Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant
transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid
waste treatment, recycling, and hazardous waste management.
Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering,
and industrial ecology. Environmental engineers also compile information
on environmental consequences of proposed actions.
Forensic engineering
[edit]
Main article: Forensic engineering
Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures
or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing
personal injury or damage to property. The consequences of failure are
dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with retracing
processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or
machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases,
although it may be of use in criminal law cases. Generally the purpose of a
Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure
with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a
court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve
investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents.
Geotechnical engineering
[edit]
Main article: Geotechnical engineering

A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights

and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids.
Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering
systems. Knowledge from the field of soil science, materials
science, mechanics, and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically
design foundations, retaining walls, and other structures. Environmental
efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a
new area of research called geo-environmental engineering.[25][26]

Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical

engineers. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of
civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete, the material properties and
behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation
on investigation. Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear (stress-
dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated
with application of shear stress), making studying soil mechanics all the
more difficult.[25] Geotechnical engineers frequently work with
professional geologists, Geological Engineering professionals and soil
scientists.[27]
Materials science and engineering
[edit]
Main article: Materials science
Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. It studies
fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with ceramics such as
concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and
steel, and thermosetting
polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.
Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and
finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal
with desired properties. It incorporates elements of applied
physics and chemistry. With recent media attention
on nanoscience and nanotechnology, materials engineering has been at
the forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic
engineering and failure analysis.
Site development and planning
[edit]
See also: Land development and urban planning

Plan draft of proposed mixed-use site

Site development, also known as site planning, is focused on the planning
and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts
from permitting issues and environmental challenges.[28]
Structural engineering
[edit]
Main article: Structural engineering
Duration: 4 minutes and 10 seconds.4:10Burj Khalifa animation of
construction processDuration: 29 seconds.0:29Shallow
foundation construction example
Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural
analysis of buildings, bridges, towers, flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off
shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, aerostructure and other
structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure
and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those
loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist
those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead
load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from
temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to
be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are
designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading
conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged,
including wind engineering and earthquake engineering.[29]

Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the

structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or
self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or
transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other
considerations include cost, constructibility, safety, aesthetics
and sustainability.
Surveying
[edit]
Main articles: Surveying and Construction surveying
Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions
that occur on or near the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment such
as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular
deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation,
electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and
laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments.
Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical
representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map. This information
is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from,
build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and
positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent
structures.

Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and

licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of
surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems.
Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways,
roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such
as harbors, before construction.

Land surveying
In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most
Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate
and distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers,
and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements.
The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for
boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal
description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a
parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate
the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally
referred to as Cadastral surveying.

BLM cadastral survey marker from 1992 in San

Xavier, Arizona.
Construction surveying
Construction surveying is generally performed by specialized technicians.
Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status.
Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:

 Surveying existing conditions of the future work site, including

topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground
infrastructure when possible;
 "lay-out" or "setting-out": placing reference points and markers that will
guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings;
 Verifying the location of structures during construction;
 As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction
project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the
specifications set on plans.
Transportation engineering
[edit]
Main article: Transportation engineering
Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods
efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This
involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation
infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems,
airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation
design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban
engineering, queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent
Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.
Municipal or urban engineering
[edit]

The engineering of this roundabout in Bristol,

England, attempts to make traffic flow free-moving
Main article: Urban engineering

Lake Chapultepec
Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This
involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining
streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal
solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk
materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public
parks and cycling infrastructure. In the case of
underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits
and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and
telecommunications services. It can also include the optimization of waste
collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with
other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses
on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they
are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal
authority. Municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large
buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e. access roads, parking lots,
potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site
drainage, etc.)
Water resources engineering
[edit]
See also: Hydraulic engineering and Hydrology

Hoover Dam
Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and
management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore
combines elements of hydrology, environmental
science, meteorology, conservation, and resource management. This area
of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the
quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above
ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers
analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the
amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility.
Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.

Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids,

principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the
design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including
bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals.
Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid
pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.
 The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland
Civil engineering systems
[edit]
Civil engineering systems is a discipline that promotes the use of systems
thinking to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within its
wider public context. It posits that the proper development of civil
engineering infrastructure requires a holistic, coherent understanding of the
relationships between all of the important factors that contribute to
successful projects while at the same time emphasizing the importance of
attention to technical detail. Its purpose is to help integrate the entire civil
engineering project life cycle from conception, through planning, designing,
making, operating to decommissioning.[30][31]