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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the journal, see Science (journal). For a topical guide, see Outline of
science. For other uses, see Science (disambiguation).

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Science is a strict systematic discipline that builds and

organizes knowledge in the form
of testable hypotheses and predictions about the world.[1][2] Modern science
is typically divided into three major branches:[3] the natural
sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, and biology), which study the physical
world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology),
which study individuals and societies;[4][5] and the formal
sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science),
which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules.[6][7] There is
disagreement whether the formal sciences are scientific disciplines,[8][9][10] as
they do not rely on empirical evidence.[11][9] Applied sciences are disciplines
that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering
and medicine.[12][13][14]

The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the
earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science
dating to Bronze Age Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to
1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine
entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity,
whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in
the physical world based on natural causes, while further advancements,
including the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, were made
during the Golden Age of India.[15]: 12 [16][17][18] Scientific research deteriorated in
these regions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire during the Early
Middle Ages (400 to 1000 CE), but in the Medieval
renaissances (Carolingian Renaissance, Ottonian Renaissance and
the Renaissance of the 12th century) scholarship flourished again. Some
Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded
upon in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age,[19] along with the
later efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts
from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe at the start of
the Renaissance.

The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into
Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "natural philosophy",
[20][21][22]
which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began
in the 16th century[23] as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous
Greek conceptions and traditions.[24][25] The scientific method soon played a
greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that
many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take
shape,[26][27] along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural
science".[28]

New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are

motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.[29]
[30]
Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually
done by teams in academic and research institutions,[31] government
agencies, and companies.[32][33] The practical impact of their work has led to
the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific
enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial
products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental
protection.

Etymology
The word science has been used in Middle English since the 14th century
in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from
the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix -cience, which was borrowed
from the Latin word scientia, meaning "knowledge, awareness,
understanding". It is a noun derivative of the Latin sciens meaning
"knowing", and undisputedly derived from the Latin sciō, the present
participle scīre, meaning "to know".[34]
There are many hypotheses for science's ultimate word origin. According
to Michiel de Vaan, Dutch linguist and Indo-Europeanist, sciō may have its
origin in the Proto-Italic language as *skije- or *skijo- meaning "to know",
which may originate from Proto-Indo-European language as *skh1-ie, *skh1-
io, meaning "to incise". The Lexikon der indogermanischen
Verben proposed sciō is a back-formation of nescīre, meaning "to not
know, be unfamiliar with", which may derive from Proto-Indo-
European *sekH- in Latin secāre, or *skh2-, from *sḱʰeh2(i)- meaning "to
cut".[35]

In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping

with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called
a "natural philosopher" or "man of science".[36] In 1834, William
Whewell introduced the term scientist in a review of Mary Somerville's
book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences,[37] crediting it to "some
ingenious gentleman" (possibly himself).[38]

History
Main article: History of science
Early history
Main article: History of science in early cultures

The Plimpton 322 tablet by

the Babylonians records Pythagorean triples, written in about 1800 BCE
Science has no single origin. Rather, systematic methods emerged
gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years,[39][40] taking different
forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest
developments. Women likely played a central role in prehistoric science,
[41]
as did religious rituals.[42] Some scholars use the term "protoscience" to
label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all
features;[43][44][45] however, this label has also been criticized as denigrating,
[46]
or too suggestive of presentism, thinking about those activities only in
relation to modern categories.[47]
Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent
of writing systems in early civilizations like Ancient
Egypt and Mesopotamia, creating the earliest written records in the history
of science in around 3000 to 1200 BCE.[15]: 12–15 [16] Although the words and
concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual
landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made
contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science:
mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.[48][15]: 12 From the 3rd millennium
BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a decimal numbering system,
[49]
solved practical problems using geometry,[50] and developed a calendar.
[51]
Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural,
such as prayers, incantations, and rituals.[15]: 9

The ancient Mesopotamians used knowledge about the properties of

various natural chemicals for manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap,
metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing.[52] They studied animal
physiology, anatomy, behavior, and astrology for divinatory purposes.
[53]
The Mesopotamians had an intense interest in medicine and the
earliest medical prescriptions appeared in Sumerian during the Third
Dynasty of Ur.[52][54] They seem to have studied scientific subjects which had
practical or religious applications and had little interest in satisfying
curiosity.[52]
Classical antiquity
Main article: Science in classical antiquity

Plato's Academy mosaic, made between 100

BCE to 79 AD, shows many Greek philosophers and scholars
In classical antiquity, there is no real ancient analog of a modern scientist.
Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male
individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they
could afford the time.[55] Before the invention or discovery of
the concept of phusis or nature by the pre-Socratic philosophers, the same
words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows,
[56]
and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god.
For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in
the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention".
[57]

The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school, which was founded
by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his
successors Anaximander and Anaximenes, were the first to attempt to
explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural.
[58]
The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy[59]: 467–68 and
contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science.[59]:
465
The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek
philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus.[60]
[61]
Later, Epicurus would develop a full natural cosmology based on
atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established
physical criteria or standards of scientific truth.[62] The Greek
doctor Hippocrates established the tradition of systematic medical
science[63][64] and is known as "The Father of Medicine".[65]

A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates'

example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including
human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge
itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is
a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found
by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The
Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape
beliefs and scrutinizes them for consistency.[66] Socrates criticized the older
type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-
criticism.[67]

Aristotle in the 4th century BCE created a systematic program

of teleological philosophy.[68] In the 3rd century BCE, Greek
astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first to propose a heliocentric
model of the universe, with the Sun at the center and all the planets orbiting
it.[69] Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to
violate the laws of physics,[69] while Ptolemy's Almagest, which contains a
geocentric description of the Solar System, was accepted through the early
Renaissance instead.[70][71] The inventor and mathematician Archimedes of
Syracuse made major contributions to the beginnings of calculus.[72] Pliny
the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal
encyclopedia Natural History.[73][74][75]

Positional notation for representing numbers likely emerged between the

3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system
made efficient arithmetic operations more accessible and would eventually
become standard for mathematics worldwide.[76]
Middle Ages
Main article: History of science § Middle Ages

The first page of Vienna Dioscurides depicts

a peacock, made in the 6th century
Due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the 5th century saw an
intellectual decline and knowledge of Greek conceptions of the
world deteriorated in Western Europe.[15]: 194 During the period, Latin
encyclopedists such as Isidore of Seville preserved the majority of general
ancient knowledge.[77] In contrast, because the Byzantine Empire resisted
attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior
learning.[15]: 159 John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, started to
question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus.
[15]: 307, 311, 363, 402
His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and
Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later.[15]: 307–308 [78]

During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, natural phenomena were
mainly examined via the Aristotelian approach. The approach includes
Aristotle's four causes: material, formal, moving, and final cause.[79] Many
Greek classical texts were preserved by the Byzantine
empire and Arabic translations were done by groups such as
the Nestorians and the Monophysites. Under the Caliphate, these Arabic
translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists.[80] By
the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighboring Sassanid Empire established the
medical Academy of Gondeshapur, which is considered by Greek, Syriac,
and Persian physicians as the most important medical center of the ancient
world.[81]

The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq,

[82]
where the Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished[83] until the Mongol
invasions in the 13th century. Ibn al-Haytham, better known as Alhazen,
used controlled experiments in his optical study.[a][85][86] Avicenna's
compilation of the Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia, is
considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and
was used until the 18th century.[87]

By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian,[15]: 204 and in
1088, the University of Bologna emerged as the first university in Europe.
[88]
As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew,
[15]: 204
a major contributor to the Renaissance of the 12th century.
Renaissance scholasticism in western Europe flourished, with experiments
done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature.[89] In the
13th century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening
human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human
dissection by Mondino de Luzzi.[90]
Renaissance
Main articles: Scientific Revolution and Science in the Renaissance
 Drawing of the heliocentric model as proposed
by the Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
New developments in optics played a role in the inception of
the Renaissance, both by challenging long-held metaphysical ideas on
perception, as well as by contributing to the improvement and development
of technology such as the camera obscura and the telescope. At the start
of the Renaissance, Roger Bacon, Vitello, and John Peckham each built up
a scholastic ontology upon a causal chain beginning with sensation,
perception, and finally apperception of the individual and universal forms of
Aristotle.[84]: Book I A model of vision later known
as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the
Renaissance. This theory uses only three of Aristotle's four causes: formal,
material, and final.[91]

In the sixteenth century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliocentric

model of the Solar System, stating that the planets revolve around the Sun,
instead of the geocentric model where the planets and the Sun revolve
around the Earth. This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of
the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the center of motion,
which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.[92]

Johannes Kepler and others challenged the notion that the only function of
the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to
the propagation of light.[91][93] Kepler is best known, however, for improving
Copernicus' heliocentric model through the discovery of Kepler's laws of
planetary motion. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and
described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres.
[94]
Galileo had made significant contributions to astronomy, physics and
engineering. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII
sentenced him for writing about the heliocentric model.[95]

The printing press was widely used to publish scholarly arguments,

including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature.
[96]
Francis Bacon and René Descartes published philosophical arguments
in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Bacon emphasized the
importance of experiment over contemplation, questioned the Aristotelian
concepts of formal and final cause, promoted the idea that science should
study the laws of nature and the improvement of all human life.[97] Descartes
emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than
geometry should be used to study nature.[98]
Age of Enlightenment
Main article: Science in the Age of Enlightenment

Title page of the 1687 first edition

of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton
At the start of the Age of Enlightenment, Isaac Newton formed the
foundation of classical mechanics by his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, greatly influencing future physicists.[99] Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics, now used in a new
non-teleological way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects
were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that
different types of things all work according to the same general laws of
nature, with no special formal or final causes.[100]

During this time, the declared purpose and value of science became
producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in
the materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things.
In Bacon's words, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the
endowment of human life with new inventions and riches", and he
discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual
ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the
fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]".[101]

Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific

societies and academies,[102] which had largely replaced universities as
centers of scientific research and development. Societies and academies
were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another
important development was the popularization of science among an
increasingly literate population.[103] Enlightenment philosophers turned to a
few of their scientific predecessors – Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, and Newton
principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day.[104][105]

The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of

medicine[106] and physics;[107] the development of biological taxonomy by Carl
Linnaeus;[108] a new understanding of magnetism and electricity;[109] and the
maturation of chemistry as a discipline.[110] Ideas on human nature, society,
and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish
Enlightenment thinkers developed A Treatise of Human Nature, which was
expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam
Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a
scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures
with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.[111] Modern
sociology largely originated from this movement.[112] In 1776, Adam
Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which is often considered the first
work on modern economics.[113]
19th century
Main article: 19th century in science
 The first diagram of an evolutionary tree made
by Charles Darwin in 1837
During the nineteenth century, many distinguishing characteristics of
contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the
transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of
precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist",
"physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalization of those
studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions
of society; the industrialization of numerous countries; the thriving of
popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals.[114] During
the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from
philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for
psychological research in 1879.[115]

During the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel

Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural
selection in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals
originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's
book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859.[116] Separately, Gregor
Mendel presented his paper, "Experiments on Plant Hybridization" in 1865,
[117]
which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the
basis for modern genetics.[118]
Early in the 19th century, John Dalton suggested the modern atomic
theory, based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles
called atoms.[119] The laws of conservation of energy, conservation of
momentum and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe
where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of
the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution there was an increased
understanding that not all forms of energy have the same energy qualities,
the ease of conversion to useful work or to another form of energy.[120] This
realization led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics, in which
the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining:
the entropy of a closed universe increases over time.[b]

The electromagnetic theory was established in the 19th century by the

works of Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael
Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz. The
new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using
Newton's framework. The discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery
of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie in 1896,[123] Marie Curie
then became the first person to win two Nobel prizes.[124] In the next year
came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron.[125]
20th century
Main article: 20th century in science

A computer graph of the ozone hole made in

1987 using data from a space telescope
In the first half of the century, the development of antibiotics and artificial
fertilizers improved human living standards globally.[126]
[127]
Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean
acidification, eutrophication and climate change came to the public's
attention and caused the onset of environmental studies.[128]
During this period, scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in
scale and funding.[129] The extensive technological innovation stimulated
by World War I, World War II, and the Cold War led to competitions
between global powers, such as the Space Race and nuclear arms race.[130]
[131]
Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed
conflicts.[132]

In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of sex
discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large
gender disparities remained in some fields.[133] The discovery of the cosmic
microwave background in 1964[134] led to a rejection of the steady-state
model of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.
[135]

The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution

became a unified theory in the early 20th-century when the modern
synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.[136] Albert
Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum
mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in
extreme length, time and gravity.[137][138] Widespread use of integrated
circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined
with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology
and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing,
including smartphones. The need for mass systematization of long,
intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the
fields of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific modeling.[139]
21st century
Main article: 21st century § Science and technology

Four predicted images of

the M87* black hole made by separate teams in the Event Horizon
Telescope collaboration.
The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003 by identifying and
mapping all of the genes of the human genome.[140] The first induced
pluripotent human stem cells were made in 2006, allowing adult cells to be
transformed into stem cells and turn to any cell type found in the body.
[141]
With the affirmation of the Higgs boson discovery in 2013, the last
particle predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics was found.
[142]
In 2015, gravitational waves, predicted by general relativity a century
before, were first observed.[143][144] In 2019, the international
collaboration Event Horizon Telescope presented the first direct image of
a black hole's accretion disk.[145]

Branches
Main article: Branches of science
Modern science is commonly divided into three major branches: natural
science, social science, and formal science.[3] Each of these branches
comprises various specialized yet overlapping scientific disciplines that
often possess their own nomenclature and expertise.[146] Both natural and
social sciences are empirical sciences,[147] as their knowledge is based
on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by
other researchers working under the same conditions.[148]
Natural science
Natural science is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two
main branches: life science and physical science. These two branches may
be further divided into more specialized disciplines. For example, physical
science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth
science. Modern natural science is the successor to the natural
philosophy that began in Ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon,
and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were
more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still,
philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often
overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.[149] Systematic data
collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which
emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals,
minerals, and other biotic beings.[150] Today, "natural history" suggests
observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.[151]
Social science
 Supply and demand curve in economics,
crossing over at the optimal equilibrium
Social science is the study of human behavior and functioning of societies.
[4][5]
It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology,
economics, history, human geography, political science, psychology, and
sociology.[4] In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical
perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research
programs such as the functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists in
sociology.[4] Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments
involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists
may adopt other research methods such as the historical method, case
studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is
available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better
understand social relationships and processes.[4]
Formal science
Formal science is an area of study that generates knowledge using formal
systems.[152][6][7] A formal system is an abstract structure used for
inferring theorems from axioms according to a set of rules.[153] It includes
mathematics,[154][155] systems theory, and theoretical computer science. The
formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on
objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are,
however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on
deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their
abstract concepts.[11][156][148] The formal sciences are therefore a
priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether
they constitute a science.[8][157] Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an
important role in the empirical sciences. Calculus, for example, was initially
invented to understand motion in physics.[158] Natural and social sciences
that rely heavily on mathematical applications include mathematical
physics,[159] chemistry,[160] biology,[161] finance,[162] and economics.[163]
Applied science
Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge to attain
practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as
engineering and medicine.[164][14] Engineering is the use of scientific
principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and
technologies.[165] Science may contribute to the development of new
technologies.[166] Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by
maintaining and restoring health through the prevention, diagnosis,
and treatment of injury or disease.[167][168] The applied sciences are often
contrasted with the basic sciences, which are focused on advancing
scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural
world.[169][170]

Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world

situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than
formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of machine
learning and artificial intelligence is becoming a central feature of
computational contributions to science for example in agent-based
computational economics, random forests, topic modeling and various
forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge
as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can
introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform
against humans.[171][172]
Interdisciplinary science
Interdisciplinary science involves the combination of two or more disciplines
into one,[173] such as bioinformatics, a combination of biology and computer
science[174] or cognitive sciences. The concept has existed since the ancient
Greek period and it became popular again in the 20th century.[175]

Scientific research
Scientific research can be labeled as either basic or applied
research. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied
research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this
knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though
sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads
to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.[176]
Scientific method

A diagram variant of scientific method

represented as an ongoing process
Scientific research involves using the scientific method, which seeks
to objectively explain the events of nature in a reproducible way.
[177]
Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are
needed to justify the scientific method: there is an objective reality shared
by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by natural laws;
these laws were discovered by means of systematic observation and
experimentation.[2] Mathematics is essential in the formation
of hypotheses, theories, and laws, because it is used extensively in
quantitative modeling, observing, and collecting measurements.
[178]
Statistics is used to summarize and analyze data, which allows
scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.[179]

In the scientific method, an explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is

put forward as an explanation using parsimony principles and is expected
to seek consilience – fitting with other accepted facts related to an
observation or scientific question.[180] This tentative explanation is used to
make falsifiable predictions, which are typically posted before being tested
by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.[177]: 4–5
[181]
Experimentation is especially important in science to help
establish causal relationships to avoid the correlation fallacy, though in
some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation
might be more appropriate.[182]

When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is modified or discarded.[183] If

the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework
of a scientific theory, a validly reasoned, self-consistent model or
framework for describing the behavior of certain natural events. A theory
typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of observations than
a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically
bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining
various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to
most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may
generate a model, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms
of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new
hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation.[184]

While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a

preference for one outcome over another.[185][186] Eliminating the bias can be
achieved by transparency, careful experimental design, and a
thorough peer review process of the experimental results and conclusions.
[187][188]
After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is
normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the
research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar
experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.[189] Taken in
its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving
while minimizing the effects of subjective and confirmation bias.
[190]
Intersubjective verifiability, the ability to reach a consensus and
reproduce results, is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.
[191]

Scientific literature
Main articles: Scientific literature and Lists of important publications in
science
 Cover of the first issue of Nature, November 4,
1869
Scientific research is published in a range of literature.[192] Scientific
journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in
universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival
record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des sçavans followed
by Philosophical Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time
the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one
estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication
was 11,500.[193]

Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the
research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of
a scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies
that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news,
and ambitions of scientists to a wider population.[194]
Challenges
The replication crisis is an ongoing methodological crisis that affects parts
of the social and life sciences. In subsequent investigations, the results of
many scientific studies are proven to be unrepeatable.[195] The crisis has
long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s[196] as part of
a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an
important body of research in metascience, which aims to improve the
quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.[197]
An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt
to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is
sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science.[198]
[199]
Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult science" for
cases in which researchers believe and at a glance looks like they are
doing science, but lack the honesty allowing their results to be rigorously
evaluated.[200] Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to
fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the
most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones.[201]

There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of

scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized as "bad
science," research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete,
incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term
"scientific misconduct" refers to situations such as where researchers have
intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given
credit for a discovery to the wrong person.[202]

Philosophy of science

For Kuhn, the addition of epicycles in Ptolemaic

astronomy was "normal science" within a paradigm, whereas
the Copernican Revolution was a paradigm shift
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The
most popular position is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created
by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize
observations.[203] Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position
that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of
empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the
predominant ones being Bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive
method.[204][203]
Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally
associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the
human intellect, not by observation.[205] Critical rationalism is a contrasting
20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British
philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism
describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that
theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in
the light of theories: that the only way theory A can be affected by
observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B
were to survive the observation.[206] Popper proposed replacing verifiability
with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction
with falsification as the empirical method.[206] Popper further claimed that
there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the
negative method of criticism, trial and error,[207] covering all products of the
human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.[208]

Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as

instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific
theories as black boxes with only their input (initial conditions) and output
(predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical
structure are claimed to be something that should be ignored.[209] Close to
instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main
criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about
observable entities is true.[210]

Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes
place within a paradigm, a logically consistent "portrait" of the world that is
consistent with observations made from its framing. He
characterized normal science as the process of observation and "puzzle
solving" which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary
science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift.
[211]
Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations.
The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits"
against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A
paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational
anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of
them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations,
even though those observations are made against the background of the
old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social
process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one
of relativism.[212]

Finally, another approach often cited in debates of scientific

skepticism against controversial movements like "creation science"
is methodological naturalism. Naturalists maintain that a difference should
be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be
restricted to natural explanations.[213] Methodological naturalism maintains
that science requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent
verification.[214]

Scientific community
The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conducts
scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in
scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate
within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research
methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.[215]
Scientists

Marie Curie was the first person to be awarded two

Nobel Prizes: Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911[124]
Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance
knowledge in an area of interest.[216][217] In modern times, many professional
scientists are trained in an academic setting and upon completion, attain
an academic degree, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a
Doctor of Philosophy or PhD.[218] Many scientists pursue careers in
various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government,
and nonprofit organizations.[219][220][221]
Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply
scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or
industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and
prestige. In modern times, many scientists have advanced degrees in an
area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such
as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit environments.[222] [223][224]

Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable

exceptions. Women in science faced considerable discrimination in
science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies. For
example, women were frequently being passed over for job opportunities
and denied credit for their work.[225] The achievements of women in science
have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as laborers
within the domestic sphere.[226]
Learned societies

Picture of scientists in 200th anniversary of

the Prussian Academy of Sciences, 1900
Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific
thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance.[227] Many
scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective
scientific discipline, profession, or group of related disciplines.
[228]
Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific
credentials, or conferred by election.[229] Most scientific societies are
nonprofit organizations,[230] and many are professional associations. Their
activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation
and discussion of new research results and publishing or
sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some societies act
as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the
public interest, or the collective interest of the membership.

The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly

enabled by the creation of national distinguished academies of
sciences such as the Italian Accademia dei Lincei in 1603,[231] the
British Royal Society in 1660,[232] the French Academy of Sciences in 1666,
[233]
the American National Academy of Sciences in 1863,[234] the
German Kaiser Wilhelm Society in 1911,[235] and the Chinese Academy of
Sciences in 1949.[236] International scientific organizations, such as
the International Science Council, are devoted to international
cooperation for science advancement.[237]
Awards
Science awards are usually given to individuals or organizations that have
made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by
prestigious institutions, thus it is considered a great honor for a scientist
receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists are often awarded
medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious
award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific
advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.[238]

Society
"Science and society" redirects here. Not to be confused with Science &
Society or Sociology of scientific knowledge.
Funding and policies

Budget of NASA as percentage

of United States federal budget, peaking at 4.4% in 1966 and slowly
declining since
Scientific research is often funded through a competitive process in which
potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising
receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government,
corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding
in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP.[239] In
the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and
technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by
universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain
fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities.
In the lesser-developed nations, government provides the bulk of the funds
for their basic scientific research.[240]

Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research,

such as the National Science Foundation in the United States,
[241]
the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina,
[242]
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization in
Australia,[243] National Centre for Scientific Research in France,[244] the Max
Planck Society in Germany,[245] and National Research Council in Spain.
[246]
In commercial research and development, all but the most research-
oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization
possibilities rather than research driven by curiosity.[247]

Science policy is concerned with policies that affect the conduct of the
scientific enterprise, including research funding, often in pursuance of other
national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote
commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and
environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of
applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public
policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-
being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and
technology can best serve the public.[248] Public policy can directly affect the
funding of capital equipment and intellectual infrastructure for industrial
research by providing tax incentives to those organizations that fund
research.[194]
Education and awareness
Main articles: Public awareness of science and Science journalism

Dinosaur exhibit in the Houston Museum of

Natural Science
Science education for the general public is embedded in the school
curriculum, and is supplemented by online pedagogical content (for
example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science
magazines and blogs. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an
understanding of the scientific method, units and methods
of measurement, empiricism, a basic understanding of statistics
(correlations, qualitative versus quantitative observations, aggregate
statistics), and a basic understanding of core scientific fields such
as physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, and computation. As a
student advances into higher stages of formal education, the curriculum
becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the
curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements
include social and applied science as well.[249]

The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately
depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the
scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give
different sides in a scientific debate may require considerable expertise
regarding the matter.[250] Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and
even beat reporters who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues
may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked
to cover.[251][252]

Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific
American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a
non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable
discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.[253] Science fiction
genre, primarily speculative fiction, can transmit the ideas and methods of
science to the general public.[254] Recent efforts to intensify or develop links
between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry,
include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal
Literary Fund.[255]
Anti-science attitudes
Main article: Antiscience
While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community,
some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are skeptical
about science. Examples are the common notion that COVID-19 is not a
major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021)
[256]
or the belief that climate change is not a major threat to the US (also
held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020).
[257]
Psychologists have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific
results:[258]

 Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or

biased.
 Some marginalized social groups hold anti-science attitudes, in part
because these groups have often been exploited in unethical
experiments.[259]
 Messages from scientists may contradict deeply-held existing beliefs or
morals.
 The delivery of a scientific message may not be appropriately targeted
to a recipient's learning style.
Anti-science attitudes seem to be often caused by fear of rejection in social
groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22%
of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the
left.[260] That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as
a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social
group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than
lose or jeopardize their social status.[261]
Politics
Public opinion on global warming in the United States by political party[262]
Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and
goals. Government, business and advocacy groups have been known to
use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many
factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as anti-
intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business
interests.[263] Politicization of science is usually accomplished when scientific
information is presented in a way that emphasizes the uncertainty
associated with the scientific evidence.[264] Tactics such as shifting
conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalizing on doubt
of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views
that have been undermined by scientific evidence.[265] Examples of issues
that have involved the politicization of science include the global warming
controversy, health effects of pesticides, and health effects of tobacco.[265][266]

See also