SEMINAR EXPECTED RESPONSES

Light and waves

Item 1
(a) Distance = 15𝑐𝑚
Boy A = 3𝑠
Boy B = 4𝑠

For boy A
Distance = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 330 × 3
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 990𝑚

For boy B
Distance = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 330 × 4
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 1320𝑚

The two boys heard the sound at different time intervals because they
were at different distances from the guitar being played by the man on
the floating stage.
(b) The colour of clothes changed due to the effect of the coloured lights
falling on them from the disco lights flashing red, blue and green.
Due to light colour mixing:
 In red, clothes appeared red with black spots.
 In blue, clothes appeared black.
 In green light, the clothes appeared green with black spots.
(c) The laser sources of light produce monochromatic light that is strong
enough to travel longer distances without fading.
(d) For sound waves travelling in air
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
330 = 𝜆 × 440
330
𝜆=
440
𝜆 = 0.75𝑚

For light waves travelling in air

𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
3.0 × 108 = 𝜆 × (4.744 × 1014 )

1
 3.0 × 108
𝜆=
4.744 × 1014
𝜆 = 632.4 × 10−9 𝑚

The wave length of laser light waves travelling in air is smaller than the
wave length of sound waves travelling in air. Implying that the smaller
the wave length the faster the wave in relation to speed and the lower the
wave length the slower the wave in relation to speed.
Item 2
(a) When the stone is dropped in water, a high pitched slapping sound is
heard when the stone makes contact with the water. This is due to the
air between the stone and the water being pushed out as well as the
surface ripples that travel radially in all directions in a to and fro motion.
(b) The soldiers should make a periscope using the small sizable plane
mirrors and torn paper box.

The two plane mirrors face each other and are fixed at 450 angles. Light
from a distant object is turned through 900 at each reflection producing
an upright image. Therefore, instead of sending spies, the soldiers can
use this instrument to spy enemy location behind mountains.
(c) The bright colours in the skies was a rainbow.
The atmosphere has many water droplets when it’s just about to rain or
has just rained. If the sun rises at this moment, rays of light will strike
the water droplets in the air. As soon as light enters a droplet, it splits
into a band of colours. When the band of colours strikes the other edge
of the droplet, it undergoes total internal reflection and moves towards
the first edge of the droplet. This band of colours finally come out of the
rain droplet and is seen as a rainbow.
(d) From the graph;
Period = 4𝑠

2
 1
But 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
1
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 4
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 0.25𝐻𝑧

Solar System, Stars and Galaxies, Satellites and Communication and

Digital Electronics.
Item 3
(a) The occurrence of seasons is due to the combination of two main factors:
1. Earth's Axial Tilt: The Earth rotates on its axis, which is tilted at an angle of
approximately 23.5 degrees relative to its orbital plane around the Sun.
2. Earth's Orbital Path: The Earth orbits the Sun in an elliptical path, which
means its distance from the Sun varies throughout the year.
As the Earth rotates and orbits the Sun, different parts of the planet receive
varying amounts of sunlight, leading to changes in temperature, weather
patterns, and the seasons.
A brief overview of each season is as below:
 Spring: As the Earth continues its orbit, the Northern Hemisphere begins
to tilt towards the Sun, increasing sunlight and temperatures.
 Summer: The Northern Hemisphere is now maximally tilted towards the
Sun, receiving the most direct sunlight and experiencing the longest
days.
 Autumn (Fall): The Northern Hemisphere starts to tilt away from the
Sun, reducing sunlight and temperatures.
 Winter: The Northern Hemisphere is maximally tilted away from the Sun,
receiving the least amount of sunlight and experiencing the shortest
days.
The same process occurs in the Southern Hemisphere, but with the opposite
seasons: when it's summer in the North, it's winter in the South, and vice
versa.
This combination of axial tilt and orbital path creates the cyclical pattern of
seasons, which has a profound impact on our climate, weather, and daily lives.
This is why it was raining in the other place and at the same time shinning in
another hence the places were experiencing different seasons.
b) How the night in that outside country was day in their area at that same
time.

3
Day and night are due to the Earth rotating on its axis, not its orbiting around
the sun.
When the Earth rotates a given part facing the sun, that part experiences day
and when that Earth’s part faces away from the sun, then that part
experiences night.
Daytime is when you can see the sun from where you are, and its light and
heat can reach you.
Night time is when the sun is on the other side of the Earth from you, and its
light and heat don’t get to you. We get day and night because the Earth spins
(or rotates) on an imaginary line called its axis and different parts of the planet
are facing towards the Sun or away from it.

c) how T.V signals broadcast from where the floods were happening reached
them.

TV stations or providers transmit their programs to satellites

directly that are always in a fixed position with respect to the earth.
These satellites receive the signals and retransmit them back to
Earth.

Viewers with satellite dishes and receivers can pick up these signals, the
decoder converts the signals into images & sound and then display the TV
channels on the screens. This technology allowed learners to watch a wide
range of channels and programming options accessible and that is how they
viewed the floods.
Item 4
(a) understand more types of those identified satellites and why they exist
there.
Artificial satellites are classified into various types by their function since they
are launched into space to perform a specific function as listed below:

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1. Communication Satellites:
 Purpose: To transmit and receive signals for communication
purposes.
 Examples: GPS satellites for navigation, weather satellites for
forecasting, and TV satellites for broadcasting programs.
2. . Observation Satellites:
 Purpose: Observe and gather data about Earth's surface, weather
patterns, and environmental changes.
 Examples: Environmental monitoring satellites.
3. Navigation Satellites:
 Purpose: Provide accurate positioning and navigation services.
 Examples: GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites used in
smartphones and navigation devices.

4. Weather Satellites:
 Purpose: Monitor weather patterns, track storms, and provide data for
weather forecasts.
 Examples: GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite)
series used by meteorologists.
5. Spy Satellites:
 Purpose: Gather intelligence and surveillance information for military
and security purposes.
 Examples: KH-11 series used for reconnaissance by governments.

b) Solve the problem of operation of security lights manually.

Challenge: Switching on and off of security lights
Remedy: The remedy here can be to install motion sensors that switch on very
blinding lights and turn on buzzer shortly if a person does not verify
themselves.
Conditions for the operation of the motion sensor

 If no one is detected, lights stay off, alarm system stays off.

 If a person is detected and identity is verified, the alarm system stays off.
 If a person is detected but the identity can’t be verified, then the alarm
system be switched on.
The truth table for the above conditions can be shown below:
 Detecting a person is A, O representing absence while 1 represents a
correct identity.
 Alarm status is C,0 representing off while 1 represents on.

5
Truth table
A B C
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 0

Item 5
(a) The sun generates energy primarily from a nuclear fusion reaction.
In the sun’s core, hydrogen nuclei (lighter nuclei) combine to form a
helium nucleus. (of large nucleus) and this process occurs with release of
the radiant energy called nuclear energy This occurs at extremely high
temperatures and pressure
The sun coverts the nuclear energy to light and heat energy
(b) The energy received from the sun is majorly solar energy. This energy
helps to support natural processes on earth such as photosynthesis,
transpiration, germination, rainfall formation and evaporation.
These processes help in survival of both plants and animals as they
transform energy to food.
Solar energy from the sun can still be harnessed to generate electricity to
run factories, industries and other activities.
(c) The seasons occur due to tilting of the earth on its axis relative to its
orbital plane around the sun there by receiving varying amounts of
sunlight, leading to changes in temperature and weather patterns
The earths orbital path is elliptical hence its position and distance from
the sun varies throughout the year giving rise to seasons.

The likely stages that average stars like the sun may undergo to die as
wished by people are;
Red giant planetary nebula white dwarf
Nuclear models and nuclear process
Item 6
Item 6
(a) Background Radiation =30 counts per minute
Corrected count rate 𝐴𝑂 = (550 − 30) = 520
Half life , 𝑡1 = 25 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
2
520 → 260 → 130 → 65.

6
 New reading from the detector = (65 + 30) = 95 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
The time 𝑇 = (25𝑋3) = 75 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
(b) (i) At the power plant, the nuclear process is nuclear fission. Nuclear fission
is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of a heavy atom splits into two
light nuclei with the release of energy and several neutrons. Fission can be
spontaneous (occurring at random) or stimulated (induced) by bombarding
(hitting) the nucleus by an incident neutron causing it to undergo fission.
(ii) Radiations emitted at nuclear power plant include:
 Alpha particles
 Beta particles
 Gamma rays (electromagnetic radiations)
 Neutrons
Properties of radiations
ALPHA BETA GAMMA RAYS NEUTRONS
 Heavier than beta  Are lighter Have no mass Have a mass of
particles than Alpha 1.67𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔
−27
6.64𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 particles
9. 1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔
 Least penetrating Higher Higher Higher
power penetrating penetrating penetrating
power than power than beta power than
alpha particles particles gamma rays
 Are positively Are negatively Have no charge Have no charge
charged charged
 Are deflected by Are deflected by Are not deflected Are not deflected
both electric and both electric and by both electric by both electric
magnetic field magnetic field and magnetic and magnetic
field field
Have the highest Have a high Lower ionising Have high
ionising power ionising power power than ionising power
than gamma gamma
Travel at a speed of Travel at Travel at a speed Travel at
3𝑥107 different speeds of light in a different speeds
vacuum

(c) Differences between alpha particles ,beta particles ,gamma rays ,neutrons
and X-rays
General properties of X-rays
 Travel at a speed of light
 Have no charge

7
 Not deflected by electric or magnetic fields
 Ionise gases and some metals through which they pass
 Affect photographic films
 Causes photoelectric emissions
 Causes fluorescence of crystals
 Have short wavelength and highly penetrate through materials
Task: Study the properties of the X-rays ,compare them with the
properties of radiations outlined above and generate differences.
(d) Guide was right to stop them because;
 Radiations cause blood  Killing body cells
cancer  Long time of exposure
 Cause skin burn can increase risks of
 Cause sterility heart disease and
 Gene mutation stroke
 Blindness  Killing
 of body cells
Protective measures
 Personal protection by wearing gloves and lead coats
 Minimize time spent, distancing from radiation sources
 Use appropriate shielding materials
 Radiation monitoring by using detectors to monitor exposure level
to ensure they stay in safe limits
 Avoid eating or drinking when the radiation machine is operating
 Administration of treatments such as potassium iodide iodide to
block radioactive iodine uptake by thyroid gland.

Item 7
𝑣
(a) From 𝜆 = 𝑓
3 × 108
𝜆=
6 × 1018
= 5 × 10−11 𝑚
The resolution of the image is high
(b) Relationship between frequency, wavelength and penetrating power
The shorter the wave length the higher the frequency hence high
penetrating power
The longer the wave length the lower the frequency hence low
penetrating power
Choice of setting for the arm and dental exams

8
 Lower frequency (longer wavelength) x-rays may be used to image soft
tissue since they do not penetrate deep into the fresh
But to image the bones and joints in the arm, hard x-rays are
commonly used since they have higher penetrating power and high
energy
The high energy allows for clear images of dense bone structures
Dental imaging
Hard x rays are used dental radiography to capture detailed images of
teeth and jaw.
(b) Precautions taken while using x-ray machines
 Limit time exposure to exposure time as short as possible.
 Use lead shields such as by applying lead apions, gloves to protect
against scatter radiation
 Distance and shielding, the operator should maintain an
appropriate distance from x-ray source when possible
(c) Safety precautions of x-ray machines
 Regularly check and record dosimeter readings to ensure remains
with in safe limits
 Proper positioning. Ensure the patient is correctly positioned to
minimize the number of repeat exposures needed for clear image
 Equipment maintenance. Calibrate the machines periodically to
ensure accurate dosage and image quality. Also ensure regular
inspect and maintain x-ray equipment to ensure it is functioning
correctly and safely.
 Signage and access control. Put warming signs indicating the
presence of x-ray equipment and radiation hazards
 Restrict access to the x-ray room to authorized personnel only
during imaging procedures
 Pregnancy and child safety. Take extra precautions for pregnant
patients and children, as they are more sensitive to radiation
 Beam collimation. Use collimators to narrow the x-ray beam and
reduce scatter.
ITEM 8
Heat and mechanics
ITEM 9
(a) Boy of mass = 50𝑘𝑔

9
 At equilibrium;
Sum of anti-clockwise moments = sum of clockwise
Clockwise moments = (40×10×3)
= 1200𝑁𝑚
Anti-clockwise moment= (2.4×50×10)
= 1200𝑁𝑚
Since the clockwise moments are equal to the anti-clockwise, then
equilibrium will be restored.
(b) The heavy black shorts absorb heat from the sun and surrounding more
efficiently than white vest. This increased heat absorption helps
evaporate moisture faster.
The thatched roofs have trapped air within it which acts as an insulator.
Hus keeping the house cool.
(c) Initial temperature,𝛳1 = 420 𝐶
Final temperature,𝛳2 = 220 𝐶
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝛳
𝑄 = 50 × 3500 × (420 𝐶-220 𝐶)
𝑄 = 50 × 3500 × (20)
𝑄 = 3,500,00 𝐽

ITEM 10
a) Rate at which the pump works = work output per unit time
mass x acceratiom due to gravity x height
power out put =
time
= volume per second x densityx acceleration due to gravity x height
0.188
= x1000x10x6
60
power out put = 188 W

10
 power out put 188
= 240 = 0.78 >0.75
power input

power out put

The efficiency of the pump = x100%
power input

= 0.78x100%
= 78 % hence the pump is efficient.
b) During the day when the sun heats the ground and the ground
temperature is warmer than water, it can warm the water as it sits in the
well overnight.
The water in the well is insulated by the ground around it (poor
conductor of heat), this insulation helps water to retain heat especially
during the night when the air temperature is cooler
As a result the water can absorb heat from the ground and due to its
high specific heat capacity of 4200𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1. It loses heat slowly and thus
feels warm in the morning.

c) Heat required to turn water into vapor is latent heat of vaporization.

heat = mass x specific latent heat of vaporisation
500
heat = x 2.56x106
1000
heat required = 0.5 x 2.56x106
heat required = 1.28x106 J

ITEM 11

Expected responses

a) Design: A pulley is a wheel with a grooved rim on which a rope passes.

11
How it works.

This type of pulley system is a single fixed pulley; the pulley is fixed on
the rigid support the load is tied to one end of the rope and the effort
applied to another end of the rope. As the rope is pulled downwards, the
load is raised upwards. Therefore, a single fixed pulley eases work
because it changes the direction of the application of the effort.

b) Heat generated in the rope = potential energy gained

heat = mgh
heat = 20x10x17
heat = 3400J
Since the heat generated in the rope is less than the thermal strength of
the rope of 38000𝐽therefore the rope will not break.
The rise in temperature of the rope
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
3400𝐽 = (𝑚𝑐)∆𝜃
3400
∆𝜃 =
1870
∆𝜃 = 1.82℃

12
 c) High tensile strength. High tensile strength enables a rope to withstand a
load when in tension.
ITEM 12

a) Cooking equipment like saucepans are normally made out of aluminum,

copper and steel due to their low specific heat capacity.

Therefore, steel and aluminum can be used to make saucepan and their
covers (lids). Steel and aluminum are both ductile materials with the
ability to be hammered, bent, rolled, molded and stretched into different
shapes without breaking.
They also have a high tensile, compressional and thermal strength.

To guarantee safety, handles of equipment especially those dealing with

heat are normally made with, materials of a high specific heat capacity
such as rubber and wood to resist heat increase. Therefore, the handles
of ladles can be made out of wood.

The cups and plates can be made from melamine material or clay. This is
because both are poor conductors of heat however, clay is very brittle
and may not be suitable for school children. Melamine has a very high
thermal strength, it is light and it does not break easily. This makes it
more suitable.

b) Aluminum and steel are good conductors (metals) of heat.

Good conductor of heat conduct heat easily because they are made up of
atoms with freely electrons which are loosely bound. When heat is
supplied to a solid conductor the particles of the metal acquire kinetic
energy and vibrate more violently and this weakens the intermolecular
forces.
Bad conductors of heat like wood, glass and melamine do not conduct
heat easily because they are not made up of free electrons.
Conduction is faster in good conductors than in bad conductors and
different conductors have different rates of conductivity

Electricity and magnetism

Item 13
From 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
75
𝐼1 = ( )
120
13
= 0.625𝐴 and
600
𝐼2 = ( )
120
= 5𝐴
Total current = 5+0.625
=5.625A
Hence the extension will not support the two appliances since 5𝐴 ≤ 5.625A
(a) Bulbs in his house should be connected in parallel since parallel
connections have the following advantages.
 Bulbs operate at the same voltage.
 If one bulb gets faulty, others continue operating
 Bulbs can easily be operated independently.
(b) Illustration of an electric bell

How it works

 When the switch is closed, current flows through the circuit, and the soft
iron core is magnetized
 It then attracts the soft iron armature which then makes the gong to be
hit by the hammer there by producing a loud sound.
 As the armature is attracted, the contact between the spring and the
contact screw is broken thus the current is cut off and the electromagnet
is demagnetized
 The spring then returns to the original position and makes the hammer
hit the contact again
 The process is repeated and the hammer hits the gong repeatedly making
continuous ringing sound as long as the switch is pressed.
(c)

14
Item 14
(a) By means of a device called a step up transformer that increases voltage
from 12Kv to 400kv. This can be achieved by having many turns in
secondary coil than in primary coil.
(b) A.C from the dam is converted to D.C by using rectifiers(diodes) and then
D.C is used to charge mobile phones effectively.
(c) From
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 100% − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 100% − 10%
= 90%
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ( ) × 100
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ( ) × 100
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
90 𝐼𝑆 𝑉𝑆
=
100 𝐼𝑃 𝑉𝑃
90 × 20 × 12 × 103
𝐼𝑆 =
400 × 103 × 100
𝐼𝑆 = 0.54𝐴 hence the current in transmission cable is 0.54𝐴
(d) The brightness of the bulb faded due to defects such as polarization and
local action
Due to formation of hydrogen gas at the copper rod and the gradual
wearing of the zinc rod respectively.
The brightness can be restored by minimizing;
 Polarization by use of depolarizers such as potassium per magnate
or manganese dioxide which oxidizes hydrogen to form water. It
can also be minimized by occasionally brushing the anode.
 Local action can be minimized by using pure zinc or rubbing the
zinc rod clean using mercury (amalgating zinc) or by cleaning the
zinc rod using concentrated sulphuric acid.
item 15
(a) The attendant should increase the strength of magnetic field so that it
corresponds to increased weight of tanks by,
Increasing the current

15
 Increasing the number of turns
Alternatively
Set up the u shaped bar to a dry cell as shown below

 A u-shaped steel bar is connected to a strong current source as

shown above
 The current is switched on for a few minutes and then off
 The current flowing in the same direction makes the atomic
magnetism the domain to point in the same direction
 The iron rod in presence of a strong current source, a strong magnetic
field will be produced necessary to lift the heavy metals
(b) Tanks were found attracted to each other because they got magnetized
by,
 Induction
 Contact or touch as they get closer
(c) Tanks can be separated by
 Heating until it turns red hot and cooled in the East west direction
 Dropping
 Hammering
 Using alternating current
Item 16
(a) The above design is a simple transformer that will step down 240v to
120v
 240v from the generator is applied on the receiving part (primary coil)
of the coil and the alternating current flows
 This current sets up a changing magnetic field in the soft iron core
which links up in the secondary coil (output part)
 An Emf induced in this coil that corresponds to 120v and is
proportional to the number of turns

16
 (b) From
𝑉𝑠 𝑁
= 𝑁𝑠
𝑉𝑝 𝑝
120 𝑁𝑠
=
240 300
= 150 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
(c) 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ( ) × 100
𝑝𝑜𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑆 𝑉𝑆
= × 100
𝐼𝑃 𝑉𝑃
120 × 1.5
= × 100
240
= 75%
Practical expected items
Item 1 (Mechanics)
Aim of the experiment: To determine spring constant.
Hypothesis: The spring constant is 25 Nm-1
Variables:
- Independent variable: mass hanging at the lower end of the spring
- Dependent variable: extension produced by the mass.
- Controlled variable: wind.
List of apparatus:
- 1 retort stand with a clamp. - 1 pointer.
- 2 pieces of wood each about - 6, 100 g slotted masses.
4.0 cm long, 4.0 cm wide and - 1 metre rule.
1.0 cm thick. - 1 helical sprin

Procedure
(a) The experiment is set up as shown in Figure 1.0

17
 Spring

Retort stand M Pointer

Metre rule Figure 1.0

(b) The initial position 𝑥0 of the pointer on the metre rule is read and
recorded.
(c) A mass M = 0.100 kg is suspended from the spring.
(d) The new position 𝑥 of the pointer on the metre rule is read and recorded.
(e) Procedures (c) and (d) are repeated for values of M = 0.200, 0.300, 0.400,
0.500 and 0.600 kg.
(f) The results are recorded in a suitable table including values of extension
𝑒 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) in metres and force F = Mg in Newton.
(g) A graph of F against 𝑒 is plotted.
(h) The slope k of the graph is determined.

Theory of the experiment

From Hooke’s law,
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒 ….. (i)
Equation (i) is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, the equation of a straight line with gradient
(or slope) m = 𝑠 = 𝑘. The term 𝐹 in equation (i) corresponds to 𝑦 in the equation
of a straight line and therefore, this should be written along the vertical axis.
Corresponding to 𝑥 in the equation of the straight line is the term 𝑒 and this is
what should be indicated on the horizontal axis as shown below

𝐹(𝑁)

𝑒(𝑚)

Hence, the spring constant k is the gradient or slope of the graph.

Sources of errors

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 - Non uniform calibration of the scale of the metre rule used to measure
values of the initial and new positions of the pointer.
- Leaving the masses hanging on the spring long after reading the new
position of the pointer.
- Parallax error. This results when the eye of the experimenter is not
directed normal to the scale on the metre rule. The small gap between
the pointer and the metre rule also results in a parallax error.
Precautions
- Direct the eye perpendicular to the scale of the metre rule when taking
readings from it in order to reduce the size of the parallax error. Also
make sure that the gap between the pointer and the metre rule is very
small.
- Remove the load from the spring every after taking the new position of
the pointer on the scale of the metre rule. This ensures that the spring
does not undergo plastic deformation.
Item 2 (Light)
Aim of the experiment: To determine focal length f of a concave mirror.
Hypothesis: The focal lengths of the concave mirrors are in the range 15.0 cm
to 20.0 cm
Variables:
- Independent variable: distance 𝑢, of object from the lens.
- Dependent variable: distance 𝑣, of image from the lens.
- Controlled variable: intensity of light
List of apparatus:
- Convex mirrors - 2 dry cells
- 1 mirror holder - 1 double cell holder
- 1 screen with wire gauze - 1 switch
- 1 white screen - 3 connecting wires
- 1 torch bulb
Procedure.

(a) The experiment is set up as shown in figure 2.0

Wire gauze (object) Screen with wire gauze Concave
mirror
Bulb
K

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 White screen
𝑣
𝑢

Figure 2.0
(b) Distance 𝑢 between the wire gauze (object) and the mirror is adjusted to
15.0 cm
(c) The switch is closed.
(d) The white screen is moved until a sharp image of the object is formed on
it.
(e) The image distance 𝑣 is measured and recorded.
(f) The switch is opened.
(g) Procedures (b) to (e) are repeated for values of 𝑢 = 20.0, 25.0, 30.0, 35.0
and
40.0 cm
(h) The results are tabulated including values of (𝑢 + 𝑣) and 𝑢𝑣.
(i) A graph of 𝑢𝑣 against (𝑢 + 𝑣) is plotted.
(j) The slope f of the graph is determined.

Theory of the experiment

1 1 1
Using the mirror formula =𝑢+𝑣
𝑓

1 𝑢+𝑣
= or
𝑓 𝑢𝑣

1
(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑓 (𝑢𝑣) …….. (i)

Equation (i) is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, the equation of a straight line with gradient
1
(slope) m = 𝑠 = 𝑓. The term (𝑢 + 𝑣) in equation (i) corresponds to 𝑦 in the
equation of a straight line and therefore, this should appear along the vertical
axis. Corresponding to 𝑥 in the equation of the straight line is the term 𝑢𝑣 and
this is what should be indicated on the horizontal axis as shown below

(𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑐𝑚)

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 𝑢𝑣(𝑐𝑚2 )
1
Hence, the focal length f is calculated using the equation f = 𝑠 .

Sources of errors
- Non uniform calibration of the scale of the metre rule used to measure
distances 𝑢 and 𝑣.
- Failure to get equally sharp images of the wire gauze for the different
values of 𝑢
- The cells (source of light), cannot give equally bright light from the
beginning to the end of the experiment, therefore affecting the clarity of
the image on the screen.
- Parallax error. This results when the eye of the experimenter is not
directed normal to the scale on the metre rule.

Risks
The concave mirror used is fragile and can cause injuries if broken.

Precautions (mitigations)
- A bright source of light should be placed a short distance away from the
wire gauze (the object) so as to obtain a sharp image of it on the screen.
- The mirror should be placed in front of the illuminated wire gauze and
the screen in front of the mirror so that all the three are in a straight
line.
- To avoid parallax errors, measurement of the object and image distances
is done in such a way that the experimenter’s eye in directed normal to
the scale of the metre rule.
- The metre rule used to measure the object and image distances has two
scales. Only one of the scales (which is not upside down) should be used.

Item 3 (Electricity)
Aim of the experiment: To determine resistance of a filament bulb
Hypothesis: Resistance of the bulb’s filament is not greater than 1.0 Ω

Variables:
- Independent variable: length 𝑙 of wire

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 - Dependent variables: current 𝐼 flowing through the bulb, potential
difference 𝑉, across the bulb.
- Controlled variable: temperature of the bulb’s filament.
List of apparatus:
- 1 new dry cell (of 1.5 V)
- 1 single cell holder.
- 1 switch labelled K - 2 pieces of cello tape
- 1 ammeter (0 – 1 A) - 2 crocodile clips
- 1 voltmeter (0 – 3 V) - 1 piece of bare wire
- 8 connecting wires (constantan SWG 28) of length
- 1 metre rule 110.0 cm

Procedure
(a) A circuit is set up as shown in Fig 3.0

Crocodile clip 𝑙 Crocodile clip

Torch bulb
A
V

Figure 3.0
(b) Starting with 𝑙 = 0.200 m, switch K is closed.
(c) Readings 𝑉 and 𝐼 of the voltmeter and ammeter respectively are recorded.
(d) Switch K is opened.
(e) Procedures (b) to (d) are repeated for values of 𝑙 = 0.300, 0.400, 0.500,
0.600 and
0.700 m
(f) The results are tabulated.
(g) A graph of 𝑉 against 𝐼 is plotted.
(h) The slope r of the graph is determined and is the resistance of the bulb’s
filament.
Theory of the experiment
From Ohm’s law,
𝑉 = 𝑟𝐼 ….. (i)

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Where r is the resistance of the bulb’s filament
Equation (i) is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, the equation of a straight line with gradient
(or slope) m = 𝑟. The term 𝑉 in equation (i) corresponds to 𝑦 in the equation of a
straight line and therefore, this should be written along the vertical axis.
Corresponding to 𝑥 in the equation of the straight line is the term 𝐼 and this is
what should be indicated on the horizontal axis as shown below

𝑉(𝑉)

𝐼(𝐴)
Hence, the resistance r of the bulb’s filament is the gradient or slope of the
graph.
Sources of errors
- Non uniform calibration of scales of the metre rule, ammeter and
voltmeter used to measure length 𝑙, current 𝐼 and potential difference 𝑉.
- Parallax errors in measuring length 𝑙, current 𝐼 and potential difference
𝑉.
- Ammeter and voltmeter readings drift over time.
- Gradual running down of the dry cell used
- Twisting connecting wires increases resistance in the circuit
- The ammeter and voltmeter may warm up, making them to give varying
reading.
- Loose contacts at the terminals of instruments (e.g. ammeter and
voltmeter) and at junctions.
Risks
- The connecting wires used in the circuit have live wires covered by an
insulation. The tiny live wires can cause injury by pricking if they are not
twisted with care when setting up the circuit.

Precautions (mitigations)
- To avoid parallax errors, measurement of current and potential difference
should be done in such a way that the experimenter’s eye in directed
normal to the scales of the instruments.
- Since the dry cell gradually runs down, switch the current off before
changing to the next value of 𝑙.

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Conclusion
The resistance of the torch bulb filament is either equal to or greater or less
than 1.0 Ω
Advice: If the resistance of the torch bulb filament is greater than 1.0 Ω, then
they are not as good as those supplied the previous term and should have been
rejected by the school.

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