Chapter 2

Streamflow Estimation
 What is stream flow?

 Stream flow is one of the most

important topics in engineering
hydrology
y gy because it directlyy
relates to water supply, flood
control, reservoir design,
navigation irrigation,
navigation, irrigation drainage,
drainage
water quality, and others.
 Stream flow,
flow or discharge,
discharge is
the volume of water that
moves over a designated
g point
p
over a fixed period of time. It is
often expressed as cubic feet
per second d (ft3/sec).
/ )
Why stream flow is important?

 The flow of a stream is directly related to the amount

of water moving off the watershed into the stream
channel It is affected by weather
channel. weather, increasing during
rainstorms and decreasing during dry periods. It also
changes during different seasons of the year,
decreasing during the summer months when
evaporation rates are high and shoreline vegetation is
actively growing and removing water from the ground.

 Water withdrawals for irrigation purposes can

seriously deplete the water flow, as can industrial
water withdrawals. Dams used for electric power
generation, particularly facilities designed to produce
power during periods of peak need, often block the
flow of a stream and later release it in a surge.
g
Why stream flow is important?

 Flow is a function of water volume and velocity. It is

important because of its impact on water quality and
g organisms
on the living g and habitats in the stream.

 Stream velocity, which increases as the volume of the

water in the stream increases, determines the kinds of
organisms that can live in the stream (some need fast-
flowing areas; others need quiet pools).

 It also affects the amount of silt and sediment carried

by the stream. Sediment introduced into quiet, slow-
flowingg streams will settle q
quickly
y to the stream bottom.
Fast moving streams will keep sediment suspended
longer in the water column. Lastly, fast-moving streams
generally have higher levels of dissolved oxygen than
slow streams because they are better aerated.
aerated
 Estimation of Streamflow
A hydrograph is a plot of river discharge versus time.

A stage hydrograph of a stream can be transformed into a discharge hydrograph

using a rating curve.
A streamflow
t fl h d
hydrograph h comprises
i an overland
l d flflow, interflow
i t fl and
d baseflow
b fl
generated by precipitation flows.

A hydrograph resulting from a single precipitation storm is known as a storm hydrograph.

Rising
limb Crest Recession
limb
Disccharge

Qt  Q0K t
Qt = discharge t time units after Q0
Q0 = initial discharge at t = 0
K = recession constant

5 Time
Streamflow measurements

 Serves as the
S th bbasis
i ffor many water
t resources
engineering designs
 Two approaches
pp
 Measurement of water stage;
 Measurement of flow velocity
 Measurement of Water Stage
 Water stage: the elevation above some arbitrary
datum of water surface at a station
 Types
T off Gages
G Measuring
M i River
Ri St
Stage:
 Staff gage – vertical or inclined
 Suspended – weight gage
 R
Recording
di gage
 Crest – stage gage ( used to indicate high water mark)
 Measurement of stage

What is stage/water level?

Water surface elevation measured above a datum (MSL)

How to measured a stage?

i. Staff gauge
ii. Wire gauge
iii. Automatic stage recorders
i. Float gauge recorder
ii. Bubble gauge recorder
 Measurement of stage

(i) Staff gauge

• The simplest stage measurement

the instrument/staff was fixed at rigid structure

• Characteristics of staff
• Durable
D t i l  Low
bl material L coefficient
ffi i t off expansion
i dued to
t
(temperature and moisture).
• Fixed rigidly to structure (e.g. bridge, pier, wall, etc
• Vertical or inclined  clear and permanent markings
(temperature and moisture).

• Two types of staffs

• Vertical staff gauge
• Sectional staff gauge
Measurement of Stage

(i) Types of staff gauge

a) Vertical Staff Gauge

b) Sectional Staff Gauge

 Measurement of stage

Stage data

What can we do with stage data?

Fl d warning
Flood i and
d flood
fl d protection
i works
k

Uses of stage data:-

 Reliable long term data use in designing of hydraulic
structure (e.g.
(e g bridges,
bridges weir,
weir etc)
 Historic data estimation of flood discharge

Normally, stage data were presented in the form of

hydrograph
Measurement of stage
Example of Hydrograph
 Measurement of Velocity

 How tto measure??

H
Current meter
 Vertical axis meter

 Horizontal axis meter

Floats
 Measurement of Velocity

(i) Current meter

 Most commonly used  measure the velocity at a
point
point.
 Consists of rotating element  rotates due stream
current.
 A typical relationship
v  aN s  b ……. 5.1

Where ;
v = Stream velocity (m/s)
Ns = Revolutions per second
a, b = Constants

Note : T
N Typical
i l values
l off a andd b :-
For size 12.5 cm diameter  a = 0.65 and b = 0.03
For size 5 cm diameter  a = 0.30 and b = 0.003
Measurement of Velocity

(i) Current meter

Figure 5.8 : Vertical – axis current meter

Measurement of Velocity

(i) Current meter

Figure 5.9 : Horizontal – axis current meter

Measurement of Velocity

(i) Current meter

 Stream flow measurement

Definition

What is stream flow?

Channel runoff is the flow of water in streams, rivers, and other

channels and is a major element of the water cycle.
-measured in (m3/s)

How to measure a stream flow?

ii. Directt ddetermination/stream

Di t i ti / t gauging
i
ii. Indirect determination
Stream flow measurement

Methods of streamflow measurement

(i) Direct determination methods

Area-velocity
Area velocity methods
Velocity measurement by floats
Rational method
Modified
M difi d rational
ti l method
th d
Time area method

(ii) Indirect determination methods

Hydraulic structures
Slope-area
Slope area method
Determination of stream flow
Indirect method (Slope-area
(Slope area method)

 Used when facing difficulties in velocity

measurement (e.g
(e g : large flood).
flood)

 What we do?
measure high water level, cross section, channel
slope and do calculation :-
1
Q  AR 2 3So1 2 ... 5.14
n
Where ; n = Manning’s coefficient
A=W Wetted
tt d area
R = Hydraulic radius
So = Channel slope
Rational Method

 The rational
Th ti l method
th d iis generally
ll considered
id d tto b be an approximate
i t
model for computing the flood peak resulting from a given rainfall,
with the runoff coefficient accounting for all differences between the
rainfall intensity and the flood peak
peak. Such differences result of
infiltration, temporary storage, and other losses.

 Rational
R ti l method
th d iis wellll kknown as one off th
the b
basic
i approaches
h tot
compute stormwater flows from rainfall by relating peak runoff to
rainfall intensity through a proportional factor.

 The first application of the rational method in urban drainage design

was introduced by Kuichling (1889) in the U.S. and Lloyd Davies
(1906) iin the
th UU.K.
K Since
Si then,
th the
th method
th d was gradually
d ll recognized
i d
and by 1940s, it became the standard method for street drainage
system designs (O’Loughlin et. al., 1996).
 Rational Method

The formula to calculate the peak discharge using the

Rational Method is as follows:
……………… eq. q 2.1
Where: QCiA
Q = Peak rate of runoff in cubic feet per second
C = Runoff coefficient, an empirical coefficient representing
a relationship between rainfall and runoff
i = Average intensity of rainfall for the time of
concentration (Tc) for a selected design storm
A = Drainageg area in acres
Rational Method
A limitation that affects the accuracy of the Rational Method

 The Rational Method assumes that the drainage basin

characteristics are fairly homogeneous. If the watershed being
considered includes a variety of surfaces
surfaces, such as paved areas
areas,
wooded areas, and agricultural fields, then another method should
be selected.

 The type
Th t off surface
f in
i the
th drainage
d i b
basin
i iis also
l iimportant.
t t The
Th
Rational Method becomes more accurate as the amount of
impervious surface, such as pavement and rooftops,
increases. As a result, the Rational Method is most often used in
urban
b and d suburban
b b areas.

 The Rational Method is less accurate for larger areas and is not
recommended for drainage areas larger than 200 acres
acres.

 The time of concentration is the time required for runoff to travel

from the most distant point of the watershed to the outlet. If this
assumption
ti iis nott valid
lid for
f a watershed,
t h d then
th the
th RRational
ti lM
Method's
th d'
estimate of peak runoff will not be accurate.
 Rational Method
Although the method can be considered as the most reliable approach in
estimating the design storm peak runoff, experience has shown that it only provides
satisfactory results on small catchments of up to 80 hectares only (DID, 2000).

Some
Some precautions should also be considered such as obtaining a good
topographic map and defining the boundaries of the drainage area. A field
inspection of the area should be carried out to examine the natural drainage divides.

For
F larger
l catchments,
t h t storage
t andd timing
ti i effects
ff t become
b significant
i ifi t and
d the
th
hydrograph method is needed (DID, 2000).

The Urban Stormwater Managementg Manual for Malaysia

y ((MSMA)) has outlined the
assumptions used in the rational method. The assumptions are as follows:
1. The peak flow occurs when the entire catchment is contributing to the flow.
2. The rainfall intensity is uniform over time duration equal to the time of
concentration tc.
concentration, tc
3. The rainfall intensity is the same over the entire catchment area.
4. The Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) of the computed peak flow is the
same as that of the rainfall intensity, ie; a 5 year ARI rainfall intensity will
produce a 5 year ARI peak flow.
 Rational Method
The g
general procedure
p for determining g peak
p discharge
g
using the Rational Method is as follows.

Step 1: Determine the drainage area (in acres.)

Step 2: Determine the runoff coefficient (C).
Step 3: Determine the hydraulic length or flow path that
will be used to determine the time of concentration
concentration.
Step 4: Determine the types of flow (or flow regimes)
that occur along the flow path.
Step 5: Determine the time of concentration (Tc) for the
drainage area.
Step 6: Use the time of concentration to determine the
intensity.
Step 7: Input the drainage area, C value, and intensity
into the formula to determine the peak rate of runoff.
 Rational Method

Important for Rational Method:

 Equation 2.1 is also consistent with metric unit,
 The rain at a constant intensity i for a duration equal to
tc,
 Assumed no rainfalls before or after the downpour of i
and tc,
 When a time equal to tc has elapsed, the remotes
raindrop arrives at the point of analysis and at this
moment the rainfall stops.p This then marks the
maximum run-off rate and the rate begins declining
immediately, tc = t1 + t2 + t3
 The fact that rain is falling
g on the catchments area
before and after the duration tc does not change the
derived value of Qp. The only effect is to change the
shape of the graph of run-off versus time.
 Rational Method – Example 1

Compute
C t the
th peakk run-off,
ff Qp, for
f a 25-year
25 storm
t using
i R Rational
ti lMMethod
th d ffor a
drainage basin of 24 acres and having the following parameters:
Time of concentration:
 Overland: average grass surface, length 300ft and slope 2%,
 Sh ll
Shallow concentrated
t t d flflow: llength
th 550ft and
d slope
l 4%,
4%
 Stream: length 1000ft, slope 0.4% and average cross section of:

Run-off coefficient:
Impervious, 0.5 acre @ c = 0.90,
G
Grass, 11.5
11 5 acres @ c = 0
0.35,
35
Wooded, 12 acres @ c = 0.25.

so g
Also given
e P = 1.2 inches
c es
 Rational Method – Example 1

To compute Qp, the value of A, i and c must be determined.

In this case, A is known to be 24 acres. To find rainfall
intensity we first find time of concentration tc.

Time of concentration tc : tc = t1 + t2 + t3
t1 = time for overland flow is found from the Monograph in
Figure C-2.
t1 = 19.5 min.
Rational Method – Example 1

t2 = time for shallow concentrated flow

flow, it is found from
Figure 4-10 using the line marked “Unpaved”.
v = 3.2 ft/s
t2 = d/v = 550/3
550/3.2
2
= 2.9 min.

t3 = time for stream flow, it is found using Manning’s

equation. Assume that the stream is flowing bank full.
a = 27 ft2
p = 14.5 ft
R = a/p = 27/14.5 = 1.86 ft
Manning’ss equation: v = (1.49/n) (R2/3) (s1/2)
Manning
v = (1.49/0.032) (1.86)2/3 (0.004)1/2 = 4.45 ft/s.
t3 = d/v = 1000/4.45
= 3.7
3 7 min
min.
 Rational Method – Example 1

Therefore tc = 19
Therefore, 19.5
5 + 2.9
2 9 + 3.7
3 7 = 26
26.1
1 min
min.

Rainfall intensity
y is found using
g the IDF curve;; it is
shown in Figure C-3. Use the 25-year curve, i = 2.2
in/hr.

Now, find the composite run-off coefficient using the c-

values given:
c
0.5  0.9  11.5  0.35  12  0.25  0.31
24
Finally,
y, compute
p peak
p runoff,, Qp:
Qp = A c i
Qp = (24) (0.31) (2.2)
Qp = 16.368
16 368 cfs.
cfs
 Rational Method – Example 2

Compute
C t the
th peakk run-off,
ff Qp, for
f a 10-year
10 storm
t using
i RRational
ti l
Method for a drainage basin of 19 acres and having the following
parameters:
Time of concentration:
 Overland: average grass surface, length 250ft and slope 2.5%,
 Shallow concentrated flow: length 550ft and slope 4%,
 Stream: length 1000ft, slope 0.39% and average cross section of:

10’

n=0.035
2.5’

5.5’

Run-off coefficient:
Asphalt and concrete = 1.1 acres, c= 0.95
Residential suburban, 7.5 acres @ c = 0.35,
Parks, 10.4 acres @ c = 0.25.

Also given P = 1.8 inches

Modified Rational Method

 As we
we’ve
ve discussed before
before, Rational Method is Q =
CIA, and is great and simple estimation of the peak
runoff. Built into the Rational method is the simply
conclusion that the peak flow reaches the outlet at the
time equal to the time of concentration.

 The Modified Rational Method simply provides a way

to extend a uniform rainfall over a longer duration as a
way to estimate storm water storage. The method is
an attempt to reach a simple hydrograph
hydrograph. The area
under this hydrograph is the volume of runoff.

 The underlying
Th d l i assumption ti iis th
thatt th
the peak
k iintensity
t it iis
maintained for a long enough duration to reach peak
flow at the outlet of the catchment. This results in a
trapezoidal hydrograph as shown below.below
 Culvert Analysis and Design

Culvert as Flow Measuring Device

 A convenient way of deriving such data is to measure

high water marks at culverts after major floods and then
to estimate the actual flood flows, which pass through
the culvert

 The calculated discharge can then be related to the

catchment characteristic and used to verify or improve
existing runoff estimation methods.

 Careful identification and measurement of high water

marks is essential and should be carried out as soon as
possible after the flood, before the evidence disappears.
 Culvert Analysis and Design

Figure 2
2.1:Outlet
1:Outlet Control Flow Types (Normann
(Normann, et al.,
al 2001)

Culverts A and B have unsubmerged inlets. Culverts C and D have submerged

inlets.

Culverts A, B and C have unsubmerged outlets.

g
The higher of critical depth
p or tailwater depth
p at the outlet is used for calculating g
outlet velocity. Since the barrel for Culvert D flows full to the exit, the full barrel
area is used for calculating outlet velocity.
 Culvert Analysis and Design
Submerged
g outlets.

In Figure 2.1D, the tailwater controls the culvert outlet velocity. Outlet velocity is
determined using the full barrel area. As long as the tailwater is above the
culvert the outlet velocity can be reduced by increasing the culvert size.
culvert, size The
degree of reduction is proportional to the reciprocal of the culvert area. Table
2.1 illustrates the amount of reduction that can be achieved.

Table 2.1:Velocity Reductions by Increasing Culvert Diameter (Normann, et al., 2001)

Culvert Diameter Change (SI) mm 914 to 1219 1219 to 1524 1524 to 1829

Culvert Diameter Change (CU) ft 3 to 4 4 to 5 5 to 6

Percent Reductin in Outlet Velocity (V=Q/A) 44% 35% 31%

For high tailwater conditions, erosion may not be a serious problem. The
designer should determine if the tailwater will always control or if the outlet will
be unsubmerged under some circumstances. Full flow can also exist when the
discharge is high enough to produce critical depth equal to or higher than the
crown of the culvert barrel.
Culvert Analysis and Design
Unsubmerged Outlets (Brink Depth)

Brink depth, yo, which is shown in Figure 2.2, is the depth that occurs at the exit
of the culvert. The flow goes through critical depth upstream of the outlet when
the tailwater elevation is below the critical depth elevation in the culvert.

Figure 2.2:Definition
2 2:Definition Sketch for Brink Depth

Figures 2.3 and 2.4 may be used to determine outlet brink depths for
rectangular and circular sections. These figures are dimensionless rating
curves that indicate the effect on brink depth of tailwater for culverts on mild or
horizontal slopes. In order to use these curves, the designer must determine
normal depth or tailwater (TW) in the outlet channel and Q/(BD3/2) or Q/D5/2 for
th culvert.
the l t
Culvert Analysis and Design

Figure 2.2:
Fi 2 2 Dimensionless
Di i l R ti
Rating
Curves for the Outlets of
Rectangular Culverts on Horizontal
and Mild Slopes (Simons, 1970)
Culvert Analysis and Design

Figure 2.3:
Fi 2 3 Dimensionless
Di i l R ti
Rating
Curves for the Outlets of Circular
Culverts on Horizontal and Mild
Slopes (Simons, 1970)
 Culvert Analysis and Design- Example 1

Design Example: Velocity Reduction by Increasing Culvert Size for Brink

Depth Conditions (SI)
Evaluate the reduction in velocity by replacing a 1.050 m pipe culvert with a larger
pipe culvert. Given:
Q = 1.7 m3/s
TW = 0.610 m, constant

Solution
Step 1. Calculate the quantity KuQ/D5/2 and TW/D. From Figure 2.3 determine
yo/D. (See following table for calculations.)

Step 2. Calculate yc from Figure B.2 or other appropriate method. Note that critical
depth is greater than brink depth.

Step 3. Determine flow area based on yo/D using Table B.2 and outlet velocity.
 Culvert Analysis and Design- Example 1
From Table B2
F
From figure
fi 2.3
23
From figure B2

1.811Q/D5 V=Q/A
D (m) /2 TW/D yo/D yo (m) yc (m) A/D2 A (m2) (m/s)
1.05 2.73 0.58 0.64 0.67 0.73 0.5308 0.5852 2.905
12
1.2 1 95
1.95 0 51
0.51 0 55
0.55 0 66
0.66 0 70
0.70 0 4426
0.4426 0 6373
0.6373 2 667
2.667
1.35 1.45 0.45 0.47 0.63 0.70 0.3627 0.6610 2.572
1.5 1.12 0.41 0.42 0.63 0.67 0.313 0.7043 2.414

Changing culvert diameter from 1.050 to 1.500 m, a 43 percent increase,

results in a decrease of 17 percent in the outlet velocity.
Figure B.2
Fi B 2 (SI)
(SI). C
Critical
iti l
Depth of Circular Pipe
Figure B.2
B 2 (CU).
(CU)
Critical Depth of
Circular Pipe
 Culvert Analysis and Design- Example 2
Design
g Example:p Velocity y Reduction by y Increasingg Culvert Size for Brink
Depth Conditions CU)
Evaluate the reduction in velocity by replacing a 3.5 ft pipe culvert with a larger
pipe culvert. Given:
Q = 60 ft3/s
TW = 2 ft, constant

Solution
Step 1. Calculate the quantity KuQ/D5/2 and TW/D. From Figure 3.4 determine
yo/D. (See following table for calculations.)

Step 2. Calculate yc from Figure B.2 or other appropriate method. Note that
critical depth is greater than brink depth.

Step 3. Determine flow area based on yo/D using Table B.2 and outlet velocity.
 Culvert Analysis and Design- Example 2

V=Q/A
D (ft) 1.0Q/D5/2 TW/D yo/D yo (ft) yc (ft) A/D2 A (ft2) (ft/s)
3.5 2.62 0.57 0.63 2.21 2.4 0.5212 6.3847 9.397
4 1.88 0.50 0.54 2.16 2.3 0.4327 6.9232 8.667
45
4.5 1 40
1.40 0 44
0.44 0 46
0.46 2 07
2.07 23
2.3 0 3527 7.1422
0.3527 7 1422 8 401
8.401
5 1.07 0.40 0.41 2.05 2.2 0.3032 7.5800 7.916

Changing culvert diameter from 3.5 to 5 ft, a 43 percent increase, results in a

decrease of only 15 percent in the outlet velocity.
 Assignment 1

1 Di
1. Discuss about
b t any 3 challenges
h ll ffaced
dbby th
the water
t resources sector
t
in Malaysia.

2 List out four population forecasting technique

2.

3. The present population of Batu Pahat city is about 200,000, which is

estimated to increase to be 232,000 in the next 15 years. The
existing treatment plant capacity is 45 mgd. The rate of input to the
treatment plants is 123 gallons per person per day. By using
geometric g
g growth method, calculate how long g this treatment pplant is
adequate to support the demand for this city
 Assignment 2

1
1. Discuss the importance of stream flow?

2. Determine the time of concentration for the drainage area having the following
conditions;
a. Overland: poor grass surface, length 200ft and slope 2.5%
b. Shallow concentrated flow: length 450ft, slope 4%
c. Stream flow: length 900ft, slope 0.3% and average cross section as below;

12’

n=0.035
3.5’

7’
 Assignment 2

3
3. Calculate the peak run
run-off,
off Qp for a 10 year storm using Rational Method for a
drainage basin of 23 acres, rainfall depth of 1.6 inches and having the following
parameters;
Time of concentration
a
a. Overland: poor grass surface
surface, length 200ft and slope 2
2.5%
5%
b. Shallow concentrated flow: length 450ft, slope 4%
c. Stream flow: length 900ft, slope 0.3% and average cross section as below;
Runoff coefficient
a
a. Brick= 44.5
5 acres
acres, c= 0
0.85
85
b. Residential suburban = 7.5 acres , c= 0.36
c. Playground= 11 acres , c= 0.23
12’

n=0.035
3.5’

7’
Dateline for these two assignments
g is on 24
October 2012. Please submit it before the
dateline.
My room : South tower, level 5 room PM2.