UNIT III.

Matter: Its Structure, Composition and Changes it Undergoes

Chapter 13: Chemical Equations
Lesson 13.1. Balancing Chemical Equations

Chemical equation - Describes a chemical change.

Parts of an equation:

• Reactant - The chemical(s) you start with before the reaction.

• Written on left side of equation.
• Product - The new chemical(s) formed by the reaction.
• Right side of equation.
• Subscript - shows how many atoms of an element are in a molecule.
• EX: H2O
• 2 atoms of hydrogen (H)
• 1 atom of oxygen (O)
• Coefficient - shows how many molecules there are of a particular
chemical.
• EX: 3 H2O
• Means there are 3 water molecules.
Law of Conservation of Mass
• In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed.
• In other words, the number and type of atoms going INTO a reaction must be
the same as the number and type of atoms coming OUT.
• If an equation obeys the Law of Conservation, it is balanced.

Rules of the Game

1. Matter cannot be created or destroyed.
2. Subscripts cannot be added, removed, or changed.
3. You can only change coefficients.
4. Coefficients can only go in front of chem. formulas...NEVER in the middle of a
formula.
 A few extra tips:
 Try balancing big formulas first; save free elements for last.
 If the same polyatomic ion appears on both sides of the equation, it’s
usually okay to treat it as one unit.
 There is no one particular way to balance equations. Some equations
are harder to balance than others and might require some creativity to
solve.
Balancing Chemical Equations

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Lesson 13.2. Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Synthesis/ the get together

- Two or more chemical bond together forming one new substance.

For example:
 2. Decomposition/ The break-up
- One substance breaks down into two or more separate substances.

For example:

3. Single Replacement/ The cheater

- One element knocks another element out of a compound.

For example:

4. Double Replacement/ The swap

- Two compounds switch ions with each other.

5. Combustion/ Everyone loves O2

- A compound burns in oxygen gas.
- All combustion must have a hydrocarbon and O2 as reactants

Practice Exercises
A. Study the following chemical equations. Then, identify the missing coefficient to make the
chemical equation balanced.

1.
2.

3.

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10.
B. Balancing Chemical Equations
C. Identify the types of chemical reaction of the following chemical equations.

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D. Chemical Reaction
E. Writing Word Equation
Analyze the following equations and write their corresponding word equation.

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F. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equation

Chapter 13. Gaseous State of Matter

Lesson 13.1. Properties of Gases

Gases
By the end of the 1700s, the study of gases
was of great interest, especially in France, where
high altitude ballooning was popular.

PROPERTIES OF GASES
a) Gases can be compressed
o Gases are compressed which causes
to shrink due to increase in pressure
o Gases expand when pressure is
decreased
PRESSURE
 Refers to force applied on a
unit of area
COMPRESSIBILITY
 Ability of gases to be compact or more
tightly packed

b) Gases expand
o Gases expand when heated and
compress when placed at a
colder temperature
TEMPERATURE
 Measure of hotness or
coldness of a substance; measure of the average
kinetic energy of a substance
EXPANSIBILITY
 Ability of gases to move as far as possible producing
greater spaces between particles

c) Gases diffuse
o Gases can travel from one area to another
DIFFUSION
 Spread of a substance to an area; movement
of particles from one place to another
 The diffusion is a net movement of atoms or
molecules from highly concentrated region to
low concentration region
d) Gases have low densities
o Gases have low densities than liquids because they
are not compressed as tightly as liquids.
 DENSITY
 Mass of a substance per given volume of the substance

e) Gases easily form a solution in any proportion

o Gases diffuse into one another.
o Different gases in a mixture do not separate on standing

Practice Exercises
A. Choose True if the statement is correct and False if not.
_________1. Mixture of gases, such as air, have common characteristics or properties.
_________2. As the pressure increases, the gases expand.
_________3. Temperature is the measure of the average mechanical energy of a substance.
_________4. The more compact an object is, the higher its density.
_________5. Gases can travel from one area to another.
_________6. The higher the temperature is, the more the gases expand.
_________7. All gases have common properties.
_________8. Gases are compressed due to the decrease in pressure.
_________9. Gases can spread from low-concentrated area to high-concentrated area.
_________10. The higher the temperature is, the faster the gas molecules move.
B. In 2-3 sentences, answer the following questions.
1. What happens to the temperature and volume of a balloon if it is taken outside on a cold
winter day?
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2. When scientists record a gas' volume, they also record its temperature and pressure. Why?
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3. What are the factors that affects the behavior of a gas?
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Lesson 13.2. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

The Kinetic Molecular Theory describing and

explaining the motion, collision, and volume of gas
particles

IDEAL GAS
 Gas that follows the assumptions of the kinetic
molecular theory

Characteristics of Gases according to the Kinetic Molecular

Theory
A. Gases are made up very tiny molecules.
o The distance between molecules is very large.
o Gases are mostly “empty space”.
o Ideal gases = empty volume
B. Gas molecules are in random motion.
o The molecules of gas demonstrate rapid
random motion, move in straight lines, and
travel in random directions.
C. Gas molecules show no attraction to one another
o After colliding with each other, molecules
simply bounce off in different directions.
D. Gas molecules have elastic collision
o After colliding, gas molecules do not lose their kinetic energy.
o Collision=transfer of energy
ELASTIC COLLISION
 Collision in which no energy is lost during energy transfer from one
particle to another

E. The average K.E. of the gas molecules is proportional to the Kelvin temp. of the
gas.
o Same temperature = all gases have same ave. molecular K.E.
o Higher temperature = molecules move faster and collide frequently
o Lower temperature = molecules move slower and collide less frequently

3 Postulates that Explain Gas Particles

 A. Particle VOLUME
 A gas consists of a large collection of individual particles with empty space
between them.
 The volume of each particle is so small compared with the volume of the whole
sample that the volume of each particle is assumed to be zero; each particle is
essentially a point of mass.

B. Particle MOTION
 The particles are in constant, random, straight-line motion,
except when they collide with the container walls or with
each other.

C. Particle COLLISIONS
 The collisions are elastic, the colliding molecules
exchange energy but do not lose any energy
through the friction.
 Thus, their total kinetic energy is constant.
 Between collisions, the molecules do not
influence each other by attractive or repulsive
forces

Practice Exercises
A. Choose True if the statement is correct and False if not.
_________1. Gasses are always in random motion.
_________2. After collision, gasses tend to lose their kinetic energy.
_________3. The molecules of gasses are tightly packed together.
_________4. Ideal gasses are theoretical gasses that behave in a predictable manner.
_________5. A real gas can attain the ideal gas if subjected to high pressure and temperature,
_________6. After colliding with each other, gas molecules simply bounce off in different
directions.
_________7. If the gas molecules are subjected to a higher temperature, they tend to move
faster and collide frequently.
_________8. The particles of gases are in constant, random, curved motion.
_________9. The kinetic energy of gases is always constant.
_________10. In an elastic collision, high-energized gas molecules transfer their energy to a
low-energized gas molecule.
Chapter 14. Gas Laws

A. Boyle’s Law
- Relationship between pressure and volume of gas.
“At constant temperature, a fixed weight of gas will occupy a volume which is
inversely proportional to the pressure exerted on it.”

Sample Problems

1)

2)

Practice Exercises
A. Choose True if the statement is correct and False if not.
________1. Inside a balloon, pressure becomes less when the volume is reduced.
________2. Boyle's law relates the volume of gas and pressure of gases.
________3. If the volume of a container is doubled, the pressure of the gas will also be
doubled.
________4. The pressure of a gas increases when the volume of gas increases.
________5. Boyle's law states that the volume of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure
at constant temperature.
________6. If a container with a fixed number of molecules inside is reduced in volume, less
molecules will hit the sides of the container per unit time, which results to decrease in
pressure.
________7. Boyle's law applies to liquid as well as to gases.
________8. The air pressure increases, when a balloon is squeezed.
________9. Boyle's law relates the volume and temperature at constant pressure.
________10. Temperature is the constant variable in the Boyle's law.
B. In 2-3 sentences answer the given question below.
1. Explain, in your own words, the relationship between the pressure (P) and the volume (V)
of a gas at a constant temperature (T).
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________________________

C. Read and solve the following problems. Show your solution.

1. 6.0 L of gas in a piston at a pressure of 1.6 atm are compressed until the volume is 4.0 L.
What is the new pressure inside the piston?

2. The initial volume of gas at a pressure of 1240 torr is 6.9 L. What will the volume be if the
pressure is increased to 3.2 atm?

3. If 34,5 L of nitrogen at 568 mm Hg are compressed to 428 mm Hg at constant temperature.

What is the new volume?
4. What pressure is required to compress 2300 mL of air at 2 atmospheres into a cylinder
whose value is 12 mL?

5. A 35.0 L tank of ammonia has a pressure of 303 mm Hg. Calculate the volume of the
ammonia if its pressure is changed to 190 mm Hg while its temperature remains constant.

B. Charles’ Law
- Relationship of volume of gas with temperature
“It states that the volume of gas at constant temperature is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.”

Sample Problems

1)
 2)

Practice Exercises
Choose True if the statement is correct and False if not.
________1. For a gas under constant pressure, volume and temperature increases at a
constant rate.
________2. If you heat gas in a closed container that cannot expand, the gas will increase in
volume.
________3. The temperature and volume of a gas has an inverse relationship.
________4. When the pressure of a gas is held constant, increasing its temperature decreases
its volume.
________5. Heating a gas gives its particles more energy.
________6. Charles' law states that the volume of a gas varies directly with the absolute
temperature of a gas if the pressure is constant.
________7. Charles' law can be used to compare changing conditions in a gas.
________8. Jacques Charles discovered the relationship between volume of gas and
temperature.
________9. Atmosphere is the standard unit of pressure.
________10. High altitude ballooning is one of the famous activities in France.
B. Read and solve the following problems. Show your solution.
1) A 50.0 ml soap bubble is blown in a 27.0°C room. It drifts out an open window and lands
in a snow bank at -3.0°C. What is its new volume?

2) A balloon was inflated to a volume of 5.0 liters at a temperature of 7.0°C. It landed in an

oven and was heated to 147°C. What is its new volume?

3) During the day at 27°C a cylinder with a sliding top contains 20.0 liters of air. At night it
only holds 19 liters. What is the temperature at night? Give the answer in Kelvin and °C?
4) On all aerosol cans you see a warning that tells you to keep the can away from heat
because of the danger of explosion. What is the potential volume of the gas contained in a
500.0 mL can at 25°C if it were heated to 54°C.? In other words, if the can could expand to
allow the gas to take up a greater volume, what would be the new volume of the gas when
heated as previously described?

5) At one point in history people could measure temperature by looking at the volume of a
sample of gas. Suppose a sample in a gas thermometer has a volume of 135mL at 11.0°C.
Indicate what temperature would correspond to each of the following volumes: 113 mL, 142,
mL, 155 mL, 127mL.

C. Gay-Lussac’s Law
- Relationship between temperature and pressure
“A constant volume, the pressure exerted by the given sample of gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature.”
 Sample Problem

1)

Practice Exercises
Read and solve the following problems. Show your solution.
1. A sample of gas has a pressure of 200.0 torr and 37.0°C. Calculate the pressure if the
temperature is changed to 137°C while the volume remains constant.

2. A gas initially at STP is changed to 248 K. Calculate the final pressure of the gas. (STP
means P = 1 atm and T = 273 K)

3. A gas occupies a volume of 46.0 mL at 25°C and 630 mmHg. At what temperature, in K,
would the pressure be 101.3 torr if the volume remains constant?
4. A sample of gas has a pressure of 890. mmHg and 40.0°C. At what temperature would the
pressure be 700. mmHg if the volume remains constant?

5. A sample of gas is initially at STP. What would the pressure be if the temperature were
increased to 550°C?

D. Combined Gas Law

- Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationship

Sample Problems

1) -
 2)

3)

Practice Exercises
E. Ideal Gas Law
Ideal gas – a hypothetical gas whose pressure-volume-temperature behavior
can be completely accounted for by the ideal gas equations.

Sample Problems

1)
 2)

3)

Practice Exercises
Chapter 15. Stoichiometry
Lesson 1. Mole Method & Stoichiometric Calculations
STOICHIOMETRY
- is a branch of chemistry that deals with the relative quantities of reactants and
products in chemical reaction.
o Converting between different units
o Forming ratios between products and reactants
o Describing ratios between compounds in a reaction
o Calculating quantities of products or reactants (in mass, moles, volume,
etc.)
The Mole
The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of entities
as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
The term “entities” refers to atoms, ions, molecules, formula units, or electrons – in
fact, any type of particle.
One mole (1 mol) contains 6.022 ×1023 entities (to four significant figures). This
number is called Avogadro’s number and is abbreviated as NA .

Ratios of substances in chemical reactions can be used as conversion factors

o Stoichiometry problems can be approached by looking at what information is given
and what is unknown.
o There are four basic types of problems. Each type of problem requires taking the
amount or mass of one substance and converting it to the amount or mass of another
substance.
o These conversions are done using two quantities: the mole ratio and the molar mass
Mole Ratio
A mole ratio is a conversion factor that compares the amounts of any two substances
involved in a chemical reaction. The mole ratio of the substances is determined by the
coefficients in the balanced chemical equation.
Examples:

1.
 2.

Molar Mass, M
 The molar mass of a substance is the mass, in grams, of one mole of that substance.
 The molar mass can be determined using the periodic table.
 It is the same value as the atomic mass of the substance, but given in grams.

Example:

STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
Problem Type 1.
Both the given and unknown quantities are amounts in moles.
 In this type of problem, you are given the amount of a substance in moles and
asked to calculate the amount in moles of another substance in a reaction. The general
plan to solve this type of problem is shown below. Only one conversion is necessary to
solve this type of problem.

Problem Type 2.
The given quantity is an amount in moles and the unknown quantity is a mass in
grams.

In this type of problem, you are given the amount in moles of one substance and
asked to calculate the mass of another substance in the chemical reaction. The general
plan to solve this type of problem is shown below. Two conversions are necessary to
solve this type of problem.
Problem Type 3.
The given quantity is a mass in grams and the unknown quantity is an amount in
moles

In this type of problem, you are given the mass of one substance and asked to
calculate the amount in moles of another substance in the chemical reaction. The
general plan to solve this type of problem is shown below. Two conversions are also
necessary to solve this type of problem

Problem Type 4.
Both the given and unknown quantities are masses in grams.

In this type of problem, you are given the mass of one substance and asked to calculate
the mass of another substance in the chemical reaction. The general plan to solve this
type of problem is shown below. Three conversions are necessary to solve this type of
problem. If you are asked to find a mass, look at the units. Most of the time the masses
will be in grams, but sometimes they will be in larger units, such as kilograms
Practice Exercises
A. Determine the molar mass of the following. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. CO2 6. PO4

2. Br2 7. CaO

3. C2H6 8. Potassium oxide

4. Nitrogen gas 9. Pentaphosphorus tetroxide

5. Copper (II) oxide 10. Carbon monoxide

C. Stoichiometric Calculations
Lesson 15. 2. Percent Yield
Percent yield is the percent ratio of actual yield to the theoretical yield. It is
calculated to be the experimental yield divided by theoretical yield multiplied by 100%. If the
actual and theoretical yield are the same, the percent yield is 100%. Usually, percent yield is
lower than 100% because the actual yield is often less than the theoretical value.
Theoretical yield: the maximum amount of product, which is calculated using the
balanced equation
Actual yield: the amount of product obtained when the reaction takes place
Reasons for Percent Yield
 There are many reasons you might not get the expected amount of product from a
reaction
 Sources of error, nature of rection
 Percent Yield measures how much of the expected product you actually get

Sample Problems:
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Practice Exercises