Assignment 1

Section 1:
Cell: Basic unit of life:
Living organisms comprise complex systems and organs, these systems and organs
are made up of minute structures named cells. The cell is defined as the smallest operational
and efficient unit of the living body, which can exist independently. Some organisms are
multicellular such as bacteria and yeast and some organisms are multi-cellular such as
mammals, birds, and amphibians.

The word ‘cell’ is derived from the Latin language ‘cellula’ which means a small, tiny
room. The name cell was given to the tiny structure present in a living body by Robert Hooke
in 1665, while he was investigating the cork cells through his simple microscope. It was the
initiation of the development of cell theory, which was later developed in the middle of the
nineteenth century by German physician Theodor Schwann, German botanist Matthias Jakob
Schleiden and German physician Rudolf Virchow.

Schwann, Schleiden and Virchow proposed cell theory and characteristics of the cell,
declaring that new cell originates from the pre-existing cells ‘Omnis cellula e cellula.’ The
cell performs all the vital functions within the cell and outside the cell. The cell contains
heredity material which is essential for cell functioning, metabolic activity and transfer of
heredity material from one generation to another through the process of cell division.

The three postulates of cell theory are listed below.

1. All living organisms are comprised of one or more cells.

2. A cell is the basic unit of life.
3. All new cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A cell of the living body possesses various characteristic features which assist the
human body to work in an effective means. A cell is evaluated as a foundation structure in
making up living bodies either plants or animals. A cell is generally classified into two types;
prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell. Each cell of the living body is a highly complex and
organized structure which performs the individual process as well as works with other cells in
the form of groups. They perform mechanisms like the regulation of chemicals, hormones,
metabolic reactions, energy production and consumption. A cell is seen to utilize energy
while performing work and energy comes from the cell organelles working within the cell. A
cell stores heredity information and helps in the transfer of genetic material from one
generation to other. The cell also assists in the transport of chemicals across the cell and
within the cell and possesses the capability of self-regulation.

Comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:

There are two types of cells; prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, classified based on
differences between them. Mostly prokaryotic cells are unicellular organisms i.e. they
comprise one cell which performs all the essential activities of life such as Bacteria and
Archaea. Eukaryotic organisms on the contrary may be unicellular or multi-cellular.
Eukaryotic organisms comprised four further groups including Fungi, Plantae, Protista, and
Animalia. Fig 1 below shows the classification of living organisms into five groups
depending upon their cellular structure.

Fig 1: Classification of Living organisms.

Source: Ellinger and Ellinger (2014)

The principle difference that is present between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cell
includes the presence of genetic material inside the nucleus. In a prokaryotic cell, genetic
material is suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell. In a prokaryotic cell, genetic material is
less structured and organized whereas, in a eukaryotic cell, genetic material is organized in a
fine structural form named chromosomes. The prokaryotic cell size is much smaller than the
eukaryotic cell. Eukaryotic cells contain various membrane-bounded organelles which are
missing in the prokaryotic cells. The size of the ribosome in a prokaryotic cell is 70s and in a
eukaryotic cell is 80S. Cell organelles perform the diverse function which co-occurs in a
eukaryotic cell, which aids in increasing the efficiency of the eukaryotic cell as compared to
the prokaryotic cell. In plant cells additionally, organelles are found which are responsible for
the food formation and transportation of food such as chloroplast and food vacuoles.

Viruses are infectious organisms which cause diseases and infections in host cells.
Viruses use both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells as their host and for their reproduction and
living in an active state. The virus reproduces in the living organism by injecting its genetic
material into the host cell and body, which alters the genetic activity of the host cell and is
triggered to produce the virus’s genetic material. A virus may or may not cause the disease
and infection, it can stay dormant in the host cell body and will continue to reproduce but will
not create problems.

Eukaryotic sub-cellular structure and organelles:

Eukaryotic Cells are comprised of several double and single membrane-bound
organelles which are present in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell. The eukaryotic cell
contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic
reticulum, endosomes, ribosomes, peroxisome, lysosome and cytoskeleton, additionally other
small structures such as flagella, cilia, proteins, vacuoles and chloroplasts in the plant.

Fig 2: Eukaryotic Animal cell structure

Source: Bhagavan and Ha (2011)

 Eukaryotic cells contain several membrane-bounded organelles which perform
specific functions and which simultaneously support cellular activity. The nucleus which
occupies the central position in animal cells and is pushed to the side in a plant cell is the
most important organelle in a eukaryotic cell. It is covered by a nuclear membrane, also
called a nuclear envelope which stores all the genetic information and material. The nuclear
membrane surrounding the nucleus has some special pores called nuclear pores which allow
the movement of molecules inside and outside the nucleus.

The endoplasmic reticulum is another important cell organelle, which is of further two types
smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum possesses a
smooth structure and appearance and is the main site for lipid and fat synthesis. The rough
endoplasmic reticulum possesses a rough appearance due to the attached ribosomes, which
are another important cell organelle and is the site for protein synthesis. The Golgi apparatus
extends from the rough ER and is assisting the cell in modifying and packaging proteins into
their final form and transporting them to their final destination within the cell. Another
important organelle name mitochondria are present in the cytoplasm of the cell and are called
the powerhouse of the cell. Its main function is to produce energy for cellular activity and
metabolism. The cytoskeleton is another prominent organelle present in the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells and is responsible for cell shape, stability, and the capacity for intracellular
transport and cell movement. Additionally, cells contain other organelles like lysosomes and
peroxisome and other structure which perform a specific function to enhance cellular
metabolism.

Section 2:
Cellular metabolism and role of cell membranes:
Membranes of cells organize and protect cells. All cells have an external plasma film
that directs what enters the cell, yet additionally, the amount of some random substance
comes in. Eukaryotic cells, in contrast to prokaryotes, also have internal membranes that
control the exchange of vital cell components and encase their organelles. The specialized
structure of both kinds of membranes makes it easier for them to perform their gatekeeping
function.

Cell membranes function as both barriers and gatekeepers. They are partly permeable,
which infers that specific molecules may pass through but others cannot. Small molecules
with hydrophobic properties and gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, freely penetrate
membranes. Small polar molecules like water and ethanol can also move through membranes,
although at a slower rate. The diffusion of highly charged molecules and ions such as
carbohydrates, and amino acids are limited by the cell membrane. The charged ions and
molecules are carried across the member via the assistance of carrier protein or transport
protein channels.

Figure 3: Structure of Cell Membrance

Source: Antonny, (2016)

The molecules that membrane transport proteins move are specific and selective, and
they frequently use energy to catalyze their passage. Additionally, membrane proteins require
additional energy to transport some nutrients against the concentration gradient. The capacity
to keep up with concentration inclinations and in some cases, movement of materials across
concentration gradient is fundamental to cell wellbeing and support. The cell can, on the
other hand, get rid of waste products and accumulate nutrients in higher concentrations than
the environment. it is all possible due to the membrane barriers and transport proteins.

Use of nutrients for obtaining energy:

The animal needs food and nutrient in order to obtain energy and ensure the process
of homeostasis, cell growth, movement, cell division and reproduction. Homeostasis is
defined as the metabolic activity of maintaining a static internal body temperature concerning
external environmental fluctuation and ensuring effective metabolic activity, cell growth, and
movement of materials and energy substances during the process of cell division. For
instance, the typical internal heat level of a human is 37°C (98.6°F). Humans keep up with
this temperature in any event when the outside temperature is hot or cold. The energy it takes
to keep up with this internal heat level is gotten from food.
 Carbohydrate is the primary source of energy for living organisms, specifically
animal, glucose act as a primary body fuel and supplies energy to cell for life activities and
metabolism. Carbohydrates are broken down into digestible small pieces which later are
broken down by cellular activity and energy is released during the catabolic chemical
reactions. In the cells of the living body through the cellular respiration process energy is
released in the form of ATP molecules. The energy released during this process is utilized by
the cell to govern the growth of the cell, and movement across the cell and facilitate the cell
during the process of cell division.

Adenosine triphosphate or ATP is the energy currency of the cell. A high proportion
of energy is stored in phosphodiester bonds of ATP molecules, when the ATP molecule is
broken down and converted to ADP and a phosphate group, a large amount of energy is
released which

Figure 4: ATP production pathway

Source: Libretexts (2022)

drives the metabolic process of living cells. ATP is formed as a result of an oxidative
chemical reaction taking place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of the cell, where
biomolecules are broken down and energy is stored in form of ATP molecules, which are
later broken down to release energy and drive the cell activities.

Synthesis of Protein:
Very few protein molecules are synthesized in the mitochondria of a cell. It is viewed
that most of the membrane proteins are manufactured by the ribosomal machinery present in
the cytoplasm of the cell using mRNA, which originates from the centre of the cell i.e. the
Nucleus. Concisely, the synthesis of protein in the ribosome follows from N- to the C-
terminus on the ribosome which traffic along the messenger RNA following the 5’- to the 3’-
end pattern. In the eukaryotic cells, synthesis of membrane protein is initiated due to the
presence of the start codon AUG sequence at 5’- end which reads the codon sequence and
terminates the process of protein formation due to the presence of stop codon such UAA at
3’-end. The process of protein synthesis is initiated when Met-tRNA binds with the smaller
subunit of the ribosome along with the initiation factor and GTP. The initiation complex
formed in the first step attaches itself to the mRNA and searches for the start codon AUG.
Later, the larger subunit of the ribosome attaches itself with the strand and elongation of the
polypeptide chain occurs, thus protein is synthesized in an ordered manner according to the
opposite triplet codon sequence on the mRNA strand which dictates the anticodon attachment
i.e. the attachment of amino acyl-tRNA will bind in subsequent position.

Figure 5: Protein Synthesis

Source: Knapp, (2020)

Section 3:
Cell Division:
Generation of specialized tissue from embryonic stem cells:
A group of unspecialized cells is called a stem cell, which later develops into various
cells. Stem cells are found in the embryo, which later divide by the process of mitosis and
meiosis to develop into specialized cells through the expression of the diverse genome. the
complete set of DNA with the inclusion of all genes marks up the genome, however, it is
observed that all genes do not express themselves, and few of them are not expressed. The
phenomenon of specialization of stem cells occurs when certain genes are active and cells
find a purpose. The gene expresses itself in the right condition and thus an embryonic stem
cell becomes a specialized cell. The process of transcription of mRNA is only due to the
active gene and is translated into protein. The protein takes further control and marks the
production of other protein molecules and expression of the gene, thus aiding the cell
structure and cell processes to develop in a particular way and make them specialised cells.
When these specialized cells collectively work together they form specialized tissue, which
later forms an organ, organ system and individual on a broader level. In this way, embryonic
stem cells are transformed into specialized tissues and organs.

Importance of Interphase and initiation of cell division:

The cell cycle consists of various phases, interphase is the longest stage of the cell
cycle. It is the longest phase of a cell cycle, here the cell prepares itself for the process of cell
division, it grows in size, repairs the damaged part, and stores the essential protein which is
required in the next phases of the cell cycle. During interphase, the cell eliminates toxic waste
products and involves itself in the transfer of nutrients and minerals along with protein which
is essential for cell division. It further comprises G0; the resting phase, G1; the growth phase,
S phase; the synthesis phase and G2; the second growth phase. In the G1 phase mitotic
activity of cells occurs, and afterwards cells enter the resting phase. The S phase involves the
synthesis of protein duplication of chromosomes and other important structural changes
occur. In the last G2 phase, duplicated structures are patterned for mitotic activity, and
protein and RNA synthesis continue to occur till the first phase of mitosis. Mitogens—
extracellular chemical signals—are required for the cell to initiate cell division from the
resting phase. A signal initiated by growth factors initiates the process of cell division and
activates proteins within the cell. Cytokines, which can be produced by the nervous and
immune systems, are another chemical compound that has the potential to initiate cell
division and interphase.

Same genetic information received by daughter cell:

Through the process of mitosis in cell division, the same genetic information may be
passed from a parent cell onto the daughter cell. During the process of mitosis, genetically
alike descendent cells are produced from a parent cell and thus same information is passed
onto both cells. During the S-phase of the cell cycle before the mitotic activity heredity
material DNA is condensed into fine thread-like structures called chromosomes which are
copied and coiled up to form an X-shaped structure in the cell. The chromosomes are
arranged at the centre and possess 2 sister chromatids. During the anaphase of mitosis, the
sister chromatids are separated and each new cell has an identical copy of chromosomes.
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis are the phases of mitosis. Spindle
fibres appear during prophase and bind to chromosomes as chromosomes condense. During
metaphase, the chromosomes align along the spindle fibres at the centre of a cell. The
centromeres split and sister chromatids move towards opposite poles due to the attractive pull
during anaphase. At last, in telophase, the layer of the nucleus then changes and
chromosomes decondensed and the shaft strands vanish. The cytoplasm divides during
cytokinesis, transforming the parent cell into two daughter cells with identical genetic
information.

Figure 6: Mitosis activity in the cell cycle

Source: Overview of cell biology/mitosis, (2022)

Difference between a normal cell and a cancer cell:

Normal Cell Cancer Cell

1. It does not spread cancer. 1. It spread cancer.
2. Glycolysis is the main energy 2. The Kreb cycle is the main energy
source. source and a small proportion of
energy is obtained from the process
of glycolysis.
3. It undergoes apoptotic activity when 3. It does not undergo apoptotic
the cell gets damaged. activity.
4. It contains a set number of arranged 4. It possesses an abnormal and uneven
chromosomes. set of chromosomes.
5. The normal cell undergoes a 5. Cancer cells have unusual growth
controlled growth and follows by and are the reason for uncontrolled
controlled cell division. cell division.
6. Normal cells have definite shapes 6. The size of cancer cells observes
and fixed sizes. unusual changes and their shape is
altered due to uncontrolled cellular
activity.
7. Normal Cells possess small and 7. Cancerous cells possess larger and
lighter nuclei at the centre of animal darker nuclei at the centre of animal
cells as compared to cancerous cells. cells.
8. The damaged cell can be identified 8. The damaged cell is not able to
by the immune system and can be detect and thus infect other cells.
removed.
9. Cell division undergoes through 9. Cell division is uncontrolled and
control process and stops when undergoes quick cell division before
adequate cells are produced. maturation.
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