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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A thorough review of the literature regarding the correlation between
students' academic performance and deficient time management unveiled
several significant findings.

FOREIGN STUDIES
In high school, there existed a type of education that comprised an
explanation of everything. However, upon enrolling in college, students
discovered that their education consisted solely of lectures, containing only the
most basic details; it was their responsibility to learn more and conduct
additional research (Britton & Tesser, 2001).

Time management was a skill that every student should not only have
known but also applied. Many students used to complain about running out of
time when asked to do a certain task, and they would get frustrated because
they were not able to meet the deadline. Time management was extremely
important, especially when it came to Grade 10 students because it would
boost their grades and enhance their productivity (Laurie & Hellsten, 2002).
However, most of the time, students faced problems like task aversion and
uncertainty, so they started to procrastinate because they lacked organizational
skills. As a result, students were not able to organize duties according to their
priorities, so they got distracted easily, ending up procrastinating. As we could
see, time management was quite essential to any student, and it was one of the
keys to higher academic achievements (Kelly, 2004).

In the relevant literature, there was a great number of academic studies

focusing on the relation between time management and academic
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achievements. The related literature showed that the time management attitude
and skill levels of students and the effects of these skills on their academic
achievement were extensively examined. The research revealed that a majority
of students possessed moderate-level time management skills, and only a
significantly small portion had high-level time management skills (Yilmaz,
Yoncalik & Bektaş, 2006). The literature revealed that the students' time
management skills affected their academic achievement at a significant level
and that these skills were one of the predictors of academic performance. The
relevant literature suggested that students should have started to acquire time
management skills on their own in their primary school years by reading
materials on the issue or via the framework of psychological counseling and
guidance studies applied in schools. They should adopt effective time
management attitudes and techniques to determine how and where they spent
their time (Lisa & Robert, 2008).

The various groups of students who exploited time-saving proficiencies

notably had rich academic achievement. They accomplished what those
students who did not use time-saving techniques in their educational
surroundings achieved, having significantly lower academic results compared
to students who employed time-management tactics and achieved considerably
higher results (Mercanlioglu, 2010). To calculate the cumulative time spent
working during a week, these aspects were also taken into account. Time
management practices have been proven to be some of the top indicators
toward achieving a high level of academic success and performance. They not
only influence achievement, but using time management techniques also serves
more than one purpose, meaning that there are multiple fulfillments achieved
by time management (Fazal, 2012). Taking part in proceedings and being
engaged in other outside class activities, not necessarily a job, but being active
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in the institution, also had a strong correlation with reaching high academic
achievements. Various studies showed that time management practices served
for many purposes beyond just enhancing the academic performance of
students. Time management practices led not only to a high level of academic
performance but also to good physical condition and lower levels of stress. The
primary purpose of the present study was educational competency, utilizing
time management techniques, managing test pressure, and improving test
proficiency (Faisal, Miqdadi, Abdulla & Mohammad, 2014).

Academic competence scores were established to have improved to

some extent in the current sample, indicating that students found the course
material/content encouraging and enjoyed their classes.

In their study titled "High School Students' Time Management:

Correlations with Academic Performance and Stress," Therese H. Macan,
Comila Shahani, Robert L. Dipboye, and Amanda P. Phillips explored the
relationship between time management, academic performance, and stress
among college students. They noted that many college students experience
significant stress during their academic journey, as highlighted by KJ Swick in
1987. To address this, university counseling services often suggest time
management as a coping strategy.

The researchers collected data from 165 students who completed a

questionnaire assessing their time management behaviors and attitudes, stress
levels, and self-perceptions of performance and grade point average (GPA).
The study revealed two major findings. First, the Time Management Behavior
Scale comprised four relatively independent factors, with Perceived Control of
Time being the most predictive. Second, students who perceived control of
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their time reported significantly greater evaluations of their performance, along

with greater work and life satisfaction. They also experienced less role
ambiguity, role overload, and fewer job-induced and somatic tensions.

These findings aligned with existing theories and advice on time

management, such as those proposed by RS Schuler in 1979. However, they
also indicated that the dynamics of time management are more complex than
previously believed, suggesting a need for further research in this area.

The study, "The Efficacy of Time Management Training on Increasing

Academic Time Management of Students" by Karim Babayi Nadinloyi,
Nader Hajloo, Nasser Sobhi Garamaleki, and Hasan Sadeghi, published in
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences in 2013, emphasizes the crucial role
of proper time management in college success. The researchers aimed to
evaluate the effectiveness of time management training on improving the
academic time management of students.

Conducting experimental research, the study involved 70 students

randomly selected from the University of Mohaghegh Ardabili in Iran, who
were then assigned to experimental and control groups. Both groups completed
an academic time management scale during the pre-test phase. Subsequently,
the experimental group underwent time management training comprising 10
sessions, each lasting 90 minutes, while the control group did not receive any
training. In the post-test phase, both groups completed the academic time
management scale again.

Data analysis using SPSS (version 17) and UNCOVA

analysis revealed significant differences between the
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two groups, indicating that time management increased

in the experimental group (p≤0.05). The results
demonstrated that the time management skills of the
experimental group surpassed those of the control
group, highlighting the effectiveness of time
management training in enhancing academic time
management among students.

The impact of time management behaviors on undergraduate

engineering students' performance is explored in the article "Impact of Time
Management Behaviors on Undergraduate Engineering Students' Performance"
by Richelle V. Adams and Erik Blair, published in Sage Open. Effective
time management is linked to greater academic performance and lower levels
of anxiety among students; however, many struggle to strike a balance between
their studies and daily lives.

The study examines self-reported time management behaviors among

undergraduate engineering students using the Time Management Behavior
Scale. Correlation analysis, regression analysis, and model reduction
techniques are employed to identify which aspects of time management the
students practiced, which behaviors were more strongly associated with higher
grades, and whether students who identified with specific time management
behaviors achieved better grades.

The findings reveal that students' perceived control of time

significantly correlated with cumulative grade point average. On average, there
were no significant differences in time management behaviors across gender,
age, entry qualification, or time already spent in the program. This suggests
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that perceived control of time plays a crucial role in academic performance

among undergraduate engineering students, highlighting the importance of
effective time management strategies in achieving success in their studies.

In their study titled "Effects of Time-Management Practices on College

Grades," Bruce K. Britton and Abraham Tesser aimed to test the hypothesis
that college grade point average (GPA) could be predicted by time-
management practices. The study involved 90 college students who completed
a time-management questionnaire in 1983, and their high school Scholastic
Aptitude Test (SAT) scores were obtained from college records. Principal-
components analysis of the 35-item time-management instrument revealed
three components.

Four years later, in 1987, the cumulative GPA of each student was
obtained from college records. Regression analyses showed that two time-
management components were significant predictors of cumulative GPA,
explaining 21% of the variance (R–2=.21), which was more than the variance
explained by SAT scores (an increment in R–2=.05). The study concluded that
time-management practices may indeed influence college achievement.

Additionally, the study examined the effect of students' time

management skills in a financial accounting course on their course grades and
grade point averages.

Abdülkadir Pehlivan's study, published in the International Journal of

Business and Social Science in 2013, delves into the significance of time as a
universally available yet unequally utilized resource. The study emphasizes
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that while material and human resources possessed by organizations can be

enhanced over time, time itself cannot be changed, purchased, or stored.

Given the importance of effective time management for students,

particularly those majoring in financial accounting, the study conducts field
research to assess students' attitudes and behaviors related to time
management. The aim is to determine the impact of their time management
skills on their GPA and course achievement.

The research findings indicate that students from Karadeniz Technical

University generally possess moderate-level time management scores.
Additionally, when analyzing the results by gender, female students tend to
obtain higher average scores in all sub-dimensions of the questionnaire
compared to male students.

Furthermore, the study reveals a positive significant relationship

between students' grade point averages and their attitudes towards time, as well
as between financial accounting grades and their long-range planning abilities.
Regression analysis further demonstrates that students' time management skills
significantly affect their GPA and course achievement, serving as predictors of
their grade point averages and financial accounting grades.

LOCAL LITERATURE
Over the past two decades, there was a growing recognition of the
importance of time in the organizational literature. Orlikowsky and Yates
(2002) noted that the temporal dimension of work became more critical due to
expanding global competition and increased demands for immediate product
and service availability. Garhammer (2002) pointed out the escalating pace of
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life, evidenced by accelerating activities, reducing time spent (e.g., eating

quicker, sleeping less), and multitasking (e.g., making calls during lunch).
Other studies examined time perception in organizational contexts (e.g.,
Palmer and Schoorman, 1999) and employees' experiences of time pressure
(e.g., Jackson and Martin, 1996; Major et al., 2002; Teuchmann et al.,
1999).

The increasing salience of time was reflected in both theoretical and

practical publications. Several authors discussed the necessity of better
integrating time into theoretical models and research designs (e.g., Ancona et
al., 2001; George and Jones, 2000; Wright, 2002). Others focused on how
individuals in organizations manage their time and ways to enhance these
efforts (e.g., Macan, 1994). In this article, we addressed time from the latter
perspective, reviewing empirical studies on time management. Specifically, we
reviewed definitions of time management, discussed methods for studying it,
summarized empirical findings on time management and the efficacy of
methods used, identified gaps in the existing research literature, and suggested
avenues for future research.

Interest in time management is not new. The issue of managing time

was already under discussion in the 1950s and 1960s, with several authors
proposing methods to handle time-related challenges at work (e.g., Drucker,
1967; Lakein, 1973; Mackenzie, 1972; McCay, 1959). They suggested
simple remedies such as documenting work plans (i.e., "to-do lists") to
enhance job performance. Concurrently, some authors (e.g., Drucker, 1967)
acknowledged that planning tasks and activities did not always ensure
completion, especially under high time pressure.
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McCay (1959) developed a concept for a time-management training

program, still in use today. Critical elements include gaining insight into time-
consuming activities, altering time allocation, and enhancing workday
efficiency by teaching individuals how to plan daily, prioritize tasks, and
manage unexpected events. Many books and articles conveyed similar ideas to
managers, promising greater effectiveness with less time (e.g., Blanchard and
Johnson, 1982). Over time, the focus of time management publications and
training shifted from managers to a broader audience of workers.

Despite widespread attention to managing time, relatively little research

has explored the processes involved in using time effectively (e.g., utilizing
"prime time" for essential tasks) and meeting deadlines. In 1987, a review
addressed the growing popularity of time management (Richards, 1987),
discussing principles mentioned by authors like McCay (1959) and
emphasizing techniques such as setting life goals and maintaining time logs.
However, it wasn't an empirical review of time management studies. To our
knowledge, no reviews of empirical research on time management have been
published since Richards' article (1987). Thus, the first aim of our study was to
review past empirical studies on time management and determine the state-of-
the-art in this research area. We examined how researchers incorporated time
management concepts and methods into their studies and critically evaluated
their research designs. Key questions addressed were: What is time
management?

LOCAL STUDIES
A student's utilization of time and their motivation can greatly vary
from one individual to another. Successful students take ownership of their
learning, particularly in how they manage their time and attention to excel
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academically (Dembo, 2013). They should acquire efficient learning strategies,

maintain motivation to achieve their goals, and adapt behaviors to enhance
outcomes.

Time management, as outlined by Kaushar (2013), involves setting

goals and priorities, creating strategic timelines, maintaining to-do lists,
breaking down tasks, and organizing tasks and hours systematically.
Prioritization ensures that tasks are completed based on importance and
urgency. Establishing goals and prioritizing tasks ensures alignment towards
achievement. Task breakdown enhances organization and measurability, with
each task allotted specific timeframes. Task scheduling, using tools like
calendars and timetables, guides individuals through daily and weekly routines.

According to Lacorte et al. (2017), accurately prioritizing daily tasks

is a significant challenge for clinicians. Senior clinicians must systematically
manage their time to fulfill clinical requirements, participate in classes and
exams, and engage in research activities to complete their degree satisfactorily.

Apart from time management, motivation is crucial for learning success

(McCoach & Flake, 2018). Motivation varies among students and can stem
from the perceived value of the course, the expectancy of hard work, and
emotions such as test anxiety. Research suggests that positive emotions,
coupled with self-regulated learning and motivation, foster academic
achievement (Mega, Ronconi & De Beni, 2014). However, some studies
indicate that motivation may not always be a significant predictor of academic
success (Robbins et al., 2004; Basila, 2014).
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Given this variability, further exploration is necessary to determine the

role of motivation in the academic performance of dental students.
Additionally, as part of its institutional mission, Lyceum of the Philippines
University (LPU) - Batangas aims to provide quality education and develop
globally competitive professionals, making it crucial to investigate factors
affecting students' academic success.

Moreover, the researcher aimed to investigate the relationship between

time management, motivation levels, and academic performance among dental
students in the College of Dentistry. This study assessed the academic
performance of junior and senior dental clinicians, focusing on their General
Weighted Average (GWA) in professional subjects during a semester marked
by significant academic stress due to numerous clinical requirements and
dental subjects. The research aimed to identify how time management skills
and learning motivation impact academic performance and whether there are
significant differences in these factors between junior and senior clinicians.
Additionally, the study explored the relationship between time management,
learning motivation, and academic performance, proposing action plans based
on the findings.

The findings of this study can assist dentistry students in evaluating

their time management skills and learning motivation to enhance their
academic performance. Furthermore, the College of Dentistry can benefit by
addressing issues related to students' self-regulated learning and improving
teaching strategies to motivate students to become competent and self-directed
in their studies. Implementing proposed action plans aims to enhance students'
academic standing, fostering success in their college journey and future dental
careers. Lastly, future research endeavors could explore the impact of time
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management and motivation levels on academic performance across other

disciplines, investigate additional non-cognitive factors influencing learning,
and evaluate the effectiveness of proposed action plans in subsequent
implementations.

FOREIGN LITERATURE
In 1992, a study was conducted by Gerry Mullins, Neil Quintrell, and
Lisa Hancock to examine the experiences of international fee-paying and local
students across three tertiary institutions in South Australia. The study
involved surveying students using a common questionnaire, which gathered
information on their study-related and personal experiences, as well as factors
influencing their choice and evaluation of their institution. The broad scope of
the student sample and the comparative data collected provided a
comprehensive overview of the experiences and evaluations of a diverse range
of university students.

The survey results revealed that while international students

encountered more problems compared to their Australian counterparts, the
nature of the issues causing concern was generally shared between the two
groups. Common concerns included financial issues such as access to Austudy
for local students, high fees for international students, and the difficulty in
finding part-time work for both groups. Study-related issues such as workload,
fear of failure, loss of motivation, doubts about academic ability, nervousness,
and tension were also prevalent among both groups. Interestingly, despite
differences between the three institutions—the University of Adelaide
representing a ‘traditional’ university, Flinders University of South Australia, a
‘1960s’ university, and the University of South Australia, a ‘post-1987’
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university—the student responses across the three institutions were remarkably

similar.

In terms of student evaluations of the quality of education and services

provided, Australian students consistently rated aspects of teaching more
positively than their international counterparts. However, both groups
expressed concerns about various teaching-related factors, such as the quality
of lectures, staff accessibility, availability of resources, and staff-to-student
ratios.

Based on these findings, recommendations were made to improve the

student experience for both local and international students. These
recommendations included providing clear information about courses and
course expectations, offering effective feedback on assignments, integrating
the teaching of academic skills within courses, increasing course flexibility to
accommodate study and work demands, and ensuring that student support
services are adequately resourced.

“Did time management work?” We conducted a meta-analysis to assess

the impact of time management on performance and well-being. Results
showed that time management was moderately related to job performance,
academic achievement, and well-being. Time management also showed a
moderate, negative relationship with distress. Interestingly, individual
differences and contextual factors had a much weaker association with time
management, with the notable exception of conscientiousness. The extremely
weak correlation with gender was unexpected: women seemed to manage time
better than men, but the difference was very slight. Furthermore, we found that
the link between time management and job performance seemed to increase
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over the years: time management was more likely to get people a positive
performance review at work than in the early 1990s. The link between time
management and gender, too, seemed to intensify: women’s time management
scores had been on the rise for the past few decades. We also noted that time
management seemed to enhance wellbeing—in particular, life satisfaction—to
a greater extent than it did performance. This challenged the common
perception that time management first and foremost enhanced work
performance, and that wellbeing was simply a byproduct.

Stand-up comedian George Carlin once quipped that in the future a

“time machine would be built, but no one would have time to use it.”
Portentously, booksellers then carried one-minute bedtime stories for time-
starved parents, and people increasingly speed-watched videos and speed-
listened to audio books. These behaviors were symptomatic of an increasingly
harried society suffering from chronic time poverty. Work had intensified—in
1965 about 50% of workers took breaks; in 2003, less than 2%. Leisure, too,
had intensified: people strove to consume music, social media, vacations, and
other leisure activities ever more efficiently. In this frantic context, time
management was often touted as a panacea for time pressure. Media outlets
routinely extolled the virtues of time management. Employers, educators,
parents, and politicians exhorted employees, students, children, and citizens to
embrace more efficient ways to use time. In light of this, it was not surprising
that from 1960 to 2008 the frequency of books mentioning time management
shot up by more than 2,700%. Time management was defined as “a form of
decision making used by individuals to structure, protect, and adapt their time
to changing conditions.” This meant time management, as it was generally
portrayed in the literature, comprised three components: structuring,
protecting, and adapting time. Well-established time management measures
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reflected these concepts. Structuring time, for instance, was captured in such
items as “Did you have a daily routine which you followed?” and “Did your
main activities during the day fit together in a structured way?” Protecting time
was reflected in items such as “Did you often find yourself doing things which
interfered with your schoolwork simply because you hated to say ‘No’ to
people?” And adapting time to changing conditions was seen in such items as
“Used waiting time” and “Evaluated daily schedule.”

Research had, furthermore, addressed several important aspects of time

management, such as its relationship with work-life balance, whether gender
differences in time management ability developed in early childhood, and
whether organizations that encouraged employees to manage their time
experienced less stress and turnover. Despite the phenomenal popularity of this
topic, however, academic research had yet to address some fundamental
questions.

A critical gap in time management research was the question of

whether time management worked. For instance, studies on the relationship
between time management and job performance revealed mixed findings.
Furthermore, scholars’ attempts to synthesize the literature had so far been
qualitative, precluding a quantitative overall assessment. To tackle this gap in
our understanding of time management, we conducted a meta-analysis. In
addressing the question of whether time management worked, we first clarified
the criteria for effectiveness. In line with previous reviews, we found that
virtually all studies focused on two broad outcomes: performance and
wellbeing.
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Overall, results suggested that time management enhanced job

performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Interestingly, individual
differences (e.g., gender, age) and contextual factors (e.g., job autonomy,
workload) were much less related to time management ability, with the notable
exception of personality and, in particular, conscientiousness. Furthermore, the
link between time management and job performance seemed to grow stronger
over the years, perhaps reflecting the growing need to manage time in
increasingly autonomous and flexible jobs.

Overall, our findings provided academics, policymakers, and the

general audience with better information to assess the value of time
management. This information was all the more useful amid the growing
doubts about the effectiveness of time management. We elaborated on the
contributions and implications of our findings in the discussion section. In the
din of current debates over productivity, reduced workweeks, and flexible
hours, time management came to the fore as a major talking point. Given its
popularity, it would seem rather pointless to question its effectiveness. Indeed,
time management’s effectiveness was often taken for granted, presumably
because time management offered a seemingly logical solution to a lifestyle
that increasingly required coordination and prioritization skills.

Yet, popular media outlets increasingly voiced concern and frustration

over time management, reflecting at least part of the population’s growing
disenchantment. This questioning of time management practices became more
common among academics as well. As some had noted, the issue was not just
whether time management worked. Rather, the question was whether the
techniques championed by time management gurus could be actually
counterproductive or even harmful. Other scholars had raised concerns that
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time management might foster an individualistic, quantitative, profit-oriented

view of time that perpetuated social inequalities. For instance, time
management manuals beguiled readers with promises of boundless
productivity that might not be accessible to women, whose disproportionate
share in care work, such as tending to young children, might not fit with
typically male-oriented time management advice. Similarly, bestselling time
management books at times offered advice that reinforced global inequities.
Some manuals, for instance, recommended delegating trivial tasks to private
virtual assistants, who often worked out of developing countries for measly
wages. Furthermore, time management manuals often ascribed a financial
value to time—the most famous time management adage was that time was
money. But recent studies showed that thinking of time as money led to a slew
of negative outcomes, including time pressure, stress, impatience, inability to
enjoy the moment, unwillingness to help others, and less concern with the
environment. What’s more, the pressure induced by thinking of time as money
might ultimately undermine psychological and physical health.

Concerns over ethics and safety notwithstanding, a more prosaic

question researchers had grappled with was whether time management worked.
Countless general-audience books and training programs had claimed that time
management improved people’s lives in many ways, such as boosting
performance at work. Initial academic forays into addressing this question
challenged those claims: time management didn’t seem to improve job
performance. Studies used a variety of research approaches, running the gamut
from lab experiments, field experiments, longitudinal studies, and cross-
sectional surveys to experience sampling. Such studies occasionally did find an
association between time management and performance, but only in highly
motivated workers; instances establishing a more straightforward link with
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performance were comparatively rare. Summarizing these insights, reviews of

the literature concluded that the link between time management and job
performance was unclear; the link with wellbeing, however, seemed more
compelling although not conclusive.

It was interesting to note that scholars often assessed the effectiveness

time management by its ability to influence some aspect of performance,
wellbeing, or both. In other words, the question of whether time management
worked came down to asking whether time management influenced
performance and wellbeing. The link between time management and
performance at work could be traced historically to scientific management.
Nevertheless, even though modern time management could be traced to
scientific management in male-dominated work settings, a feminist reading of
time management history revealed that our modern idea of time management
also descended from female time management thinkers of the same era, such as
Lillian Gilbreth, who wrote treatises on efficient household management. As
the link between work output and time efficiency became clearer, industrialists
went to great lengths to encourage workers to use their time more rationally.
Over time, people had internalized a duty to be productive and now saw time
management as a personal responsibility at work. The link between time
management and academic performance could be traced to schools’ historical
emphasis on punctuality and timeliness. In more recent decades, however,
homework expectations had soared and parents, especially well-educated ones,
had been spending more time preparing children for increasingly competitive
college admissions. In this context, time management was seen as a necessary
skill for students to thrive in an increasingly cut-throat academic world.
Finally, the link between time management and wellbeing harked back to
ancient scholars, who emphasized that organizing one’s time was necessary to
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a life well-lived. More recently, empirical studies in the 1980s examined the
effect of time management on depressive symptoms that often plagued
unemployed people. Subsequent studies surmised that the effective use of time
might prevent a host of ills, such as work-life conflict and job stress.

LOCAL LITERATURE
Time is a limited period during which an action, process, or condition
existed or took place. It was a period that one needed for a particular activity to
be accomplished. Initially, time in this context was referred to just business or
work activities, but eventually, the term broadened to include personal
activities as well. In this view, "Time", according to Igbokwe-Ibeto and
Egbon (2012), was seen as all aspects of time which had relevance to
appropriate management. They, however, argued that treating time at work or
business time in isolation of other time, e.g., leisure time, break time, social
time, holiday time among others, was unrealistic because of the reciprocal
influence of one over the other. This was in view of the fact that
mismanagement of any of the above time would definitely affect the time at
work.

Pleasure time, break time, holidays, etc., were periods created by an

organization for its employees to have rest, replenish their lost energy –
mentally and physically - in preparation for the next line of job towards
improving employees' performance. These times had to be observed, in line
with the saying that "all work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy". Ojo and
Olaniyan (2008) argued that time was a scarce resource and universal, which
could not be replaced by man. According to them, time could not be
accumulated like money, be stocked like raw materials, nor be turned on and
off like a machine. Time passed at a pre-determined rate irrespective of
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whatever happened. Everybody was equally endowed with the same amount of
time irrespective of his position. Time was an essential resource; it was
irrecoverable, limited, and dynamic. Irrecoverable, because every minute spent
was gone forever; limited, because only 24 hours existed in a day; and
dynamic, because it was never static. In the same vein, Hisrich and Peters
(2002) argued that "time was a unique quantity an entrepreneur
(manager/supervisor) could not store, rent it, and buy it. Everything in life
required it and it passed at the same rate for everyone.

Time management was the process of organizing and planning how

much time one spent on specific activities. "Time management" referred to the
way that one organized and planned how long they spent on specific activities.
According to Lucchetti (2010), time management was the act or process of
exercising conscious control over the amount of time spent on specific
activities, especially to increase efficiency or productivity. Time management
might be aided by a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time
when accomplishing specific tasks, projects, and goals. This set of activities,
according to Allen (2001), encompassed a wide scope which included
planning, allocating, setting goals, delegation, analysis of time spent,
monitoring, organizing, scheduling, and prioritizing. According to North, cited
in Adeojo (2012), time management was the organization of tasks or events by
first estimating how much time a task would take to be completed, when it
must be completed, and then adjusting events that would interfere with its
completion to ensure it was reached in the appropriate amount of time.
According to Allen (2001), time management was defined as the practice
which individuals followed to make better use of their time. It also referred to
principles and systems that individuals used to make conscious decisions about
the activities that occupied their time. Time management was the management
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of our own activities to make sure that they were accomplished within the
available or allocated time, which was an unmanageable continuous resource.
In Ojo and Olaniyan (2008), time management was not about getting more
things done in a day. It was about getting the things that mattered most done.
Time management was the ability to decide what was important in one's life
both at work, at home, and even in our personal life. Time was that quality of
nature which kept all events from happening at once. To manage one's time,
one needed to go through a personal time survey and estimate the way their
time was being spent. In line with the above, every time at work had to be
managed effectively for improved service delivery.