1

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HO CHI MINH CITY

INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Lecture 6
GAS, SOLUTION AND THEIR
PROPERTIES
Semester: 3_2023-2024
Adapted from “Chemistry” by John E. Mc Murry, Robert C. Fay, Jill K. Robinson.
Chapter 10, 7th Eds., published by Pearson Education, (2015)

Instructor: Dr. Ngo Thi Thuan

 2
Learning outcomes
STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE
TO…
G1 Define gas and its properties
G2 Calculate pressure, temperature, moles and volume of
gases in ideal condition
G3 Describe behavior of a mixture of gases by Dalton’s law of
partial pressures
G4 Review basic concepts of solution
G5 Explain factors of solubility in liquid solution
G6 Calculate solution concentrations and convert its units
 3
1. Gases characterization Review from the previous lecture
• Molecules that make up a gas flying in all directions at great
speeds → due to weak intermolecular force.
• The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is much
larger than the average energy of the attractions between
molecules.
 5
Characteristics of Gases
● Unlike liquids and solids, gases
– expand to fill their containers.
 6
Characteristics of Gases
● Unlike liquids and solids, gases
– are highly compressible.
less dense than other states of matter.
 7

Characteristics of Gases
● Unlike liquids and solids, gases
– have extremely low densities.

Density of air is 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level and 15 oC.

And that of water ~ 1,000 kg/m3
 8
Some Common Gases
Table 1. Some Common Compounds That Are Gases at Room Temperature
Formula Name Characteristics
HCN Hydrogen cyanide Very toxic, slight odor of bitter almonds
H2S Hydrogen sulfide Very toxic, odor of rotten eggs
CO Carbon monoxide Toxic, colorless, odorless
CO2 Carbon dioxide Colorless, odorless
CH4 Methane Colorless, odorless, flammable
C2H4 Ethene (Ethylene) Colorless, ripens fruit
C3H8 Propane Colorless, odorless, bottled gas
N2O Nitrous oxide Colorless, sweet odor, laughing gas
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide Toxic, red-brown, irritating odor
NH3 Ammonia Colorless, pungent odor
SO2 Sulfur dioxide Colorless, irritating odor
Gases properties 9

1) Temperature
2) Gas pressure
3) Volume
4) Amount of gas, usually expressed as number
of moles
 10

Pressure

(A) (B)

Q&A2: Which type of footwear would be better for standing on a

muddy field?
 Example
❖ What is force of a gas at a pressure of 10.0 Pa exerting
on an area of 5.5 m2 .
Force
Solution: Pressure = → Force = Pressure x Area
area
(SI unit of pressure)

Force = 10.0 (N/m2) x (5.5 m2) = 55 N

 12
Gas Pressure
❖ The force that gas particles exert in
the container they are in.
❖ Forces exerted by collisions with gas
particles in the container’s wall.
- Collision cause a change in direction –
acceleration!!!
F= ma
m: mass of gas particles in the container
a: acceleration
 13
Gas Pressure depends on
❖ Mass or amount of gas molecules
Increase number of gas particles → increase
density →increase collisions against
container wall → increase gas pressure.
❖ Volume of container
Increase volume (with a fixed amount of gas)
→ decrease gas density → decrease
pressure.
❖ Temperature
Increase temperature → increase kinetic
energy → increase collisions → increase
pressure
 14

Units of Gas Pressure

● Pascals: (SI unit of pressure)

● Bar: Pa = 100 kPa

● Torr 1 atm = 760. torr

Q&A: What is the average atmospheric pressure (atm) at

the surface of the Earth?
Atmospheric Pressure • Forces exerted by a column of air
from the top of the atmosphere to
the surface of the Earth.
• Assume we could extend a 1 m²
column of air 50 km into the
atmosphere.
• The air in this column has a weight
of about 10,000 kg.

F = ma = 10 000 kg x 9.8 m/s2 = 100 000 kg.m/s2 = 100 000 N

P = F/A = 100 000 N/1 m2 = 100 000 N.m-2 =100 000 Pa = 100
kPa
(~ 1 atm)
 16

Standard Pressure

●Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is referred

to as standard atmospheric pressure.
●It is equal to
– 1 atm
– 760 torr (760 mmHg)
– 101.325 kPa
 17
3. Relationship of these properties of gas
3.1. Boyle’s experiment Table 1: Actual Data from Boyle’s
experiment
The J-tube Volume Pressure Pressure x Volume
Added mercury compresses (in3) (in Hg) (in Hg x in3)
gas and increases pressure.
117.5 12.0 14.1 × 102
87.2 16.0 14.0 × 102
70.7 20.0 14.1 × 102
58.8 24.0 14.1 × 102
44.2 32.0 14.1 × 102
35.3 40.0 14.1 × 102
29.1 48.0 14.0 × 102
At constant temperature:
Mathematical Relationships of Boyle’s experiment
18

● Also, if we make a graph of V vs. P, it will not be linear.

However, a graph of V vs. 1/P → will result in a linear
relationship

1
Boyle’s Law 𝑉=𝑘×
𝑃
Boyle’s Law
19

The temperature and the amount of gas remain constant

1 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘
𝑉=𝑘 × or
𝑃
𝑉1 𝑃1 = 𝑉2 𝑃2

To predict the new volume of a gas when the pressure

is changed (at constant temperature)
Example_Boyle’s Law 20

Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a gas that plays a central role in the formation of
acid rain, is found in the exhaust of automobiles and power plants.
Consider a 1.53 L sample of gaseous SO2 at a pressure of 5.6 x103 Pa.
If the pressure is changed to 1.5×104 Pa at a constant temperature, what
will be the new volume of the gas?
Solution
V1P1 = V2P2
V2 = V1 P1/P2
= 5.6103 Pa x1.53L/1.5104 Pa
= 0.57 L
 21

IE1_Boyle’s Law
A sample of helium gas in a balloon has a volume of 10. L at a
pressure of 0.90 atm. At 1.40 atm (T constant), is the new
volume represented by A, B, or C?

Answer: A
3.2. Charles’s Law (Temperature ~ volume)
22

● The volume of a fixed amount of gas at constant

pressure is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
 23

Mathematical Relationships of Charles’s Law

● This means, if we compare

two conditions:

● Also, if we make a graph of V

vs. T, it will be linear.
 24

Charles’s Law: example

 25
IE3_Charles’s Law
A balloon is filled with 20 liters helium at 25°C
What is the same balloon volume outside at -10°C?

Answer: V2 = 17.65 L
 26

3.3. Gay-Lussac’s Law (Pressure ~ temperature)

“The pressure caused by any sample of gas at a constant
volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature”

PT

Or P/T = constant
(for a given amount of gas at a fixed volume)
 27

Gay-Lussac’s Law (Pressure ~ temperature)

▪ The pressure exerted by a gas is directly

related to the Kelvin temperature.
▪ V and n are constant.
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 28

IE4_ Gay-Lussac’s Law

A bicycle tire is filled to 103 kPa in the morning at
17oC. What is the tire pressure when it is 35oC
outside?

Answer: 109 kPa

 29

3.4. Avogadro’s Law

● The volume of a gas at constant
temperature and pressure is
directly proportional to the
number of moles of the gas.
● @STP, one mole of ANY gas
occupies 22.4 L.
● Mathematically:
 30

3.5. Ideal-Gas Equation

● So far we’ve seen that

𝑇 𝑛
● Combining these, we get 𝑉∝
𝑃
● Finally, to make it an equality, we use a constant of
proportionality (R) and reorganize; this gives the ideal-gas
equation: PV = nRT.
 31
R
● The ideal gas constant makes the equation and equality, not only a
proportion.
STP: called standard temperature (273K) and pressure
PV = nRT (1 atm), 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.414 L

Table 10.2 Numerical Values of the Gas Constant R in Various Units

Unit Numerical Value
𝑃𝑉 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 (22.414𝐿)
L.atm/mol.K* 0.08206 𝑅= =
𝑛𝑇 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙  (273𝐾)
J/mol.K* 8.314 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚
cal/mol.K* 1.987 = 0.08206
𝐾. 𝑚𝑜𝑙
m3.Pa/mol.K* 8.314

*SI unit
 32
Example 2_ Ideal gas
A sample of hydrogen gas (H2) has a volume of 8.56 L at a
temperature of 0oC and a pressure of 1.5 atm. Calculate
the moles of H2 molecules present in this gas sample?
Solution V = 8.56 L
P = 1.5 atm
T = 0o C + 273 = 273K
Ideal gas: PV = nRT
(R = 0.08206 L.atm/K.mol)
Moles of H2 are present in the sample:
(1.5 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(8.56 𝐿)
𝑛= 𝐿 𝑥 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0.57 mol
(0.08206 𝐾 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(273 𝐾)
 33

IE5_ Ideal-Gas Equation

A weather balloon’s volume is 2.44 x103 L at 1 km high, outside temperature and pressure of
290K and 760 mm Hg, respectively.
What is balloon’s volume if it rises to 50 km where outside temperature of 260K, 1.0 mm Hg?

Answer: 1.5106 L
 34
Example 3_ Ideal gas
Suppose we have a sample of ammonia gas with a volume of
7.0 mL at a pressure of 1.68 atm. The gas is compressed to a
volume of 2.7 mL at a constant temperature. Use the ideal gas
law to calculate the final pressure.
Solution P1 = 1.68 atm P2 = ?
V1 = 7.0 mL V2 = 2.7 mL
Variables change: P, V
Variables keep constant: n, R, T
Ideal gas: PV = nRT (R = 0.08206 L.atm/K.mol)
→ P1V1 = nRT = P2V2 →P2=(V1/V2)P1=(7.0
mL/2.7 mL)1.68 atm= 4.4 atm
 35
Example 4_ Ideal gas
A small bubble rises from the bottom of a lake, where the temperature and
pressure are 8oC and 6.4 atm, to the water’s surface, where the temperature
is 25oC and the pressure is 1.0 atm. Calculate the final volume (in mL) of the
bubble if its initial volume was 2.1 mL.

Solution Ideal gas: PV = nRT

(R = 0.08206 L.atm/K.mol)

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑇2
= 𝑉2 = 𝑉1   = 14 mL
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑇1

𝑇 𝑛
𝑉∝
𝑃
 36

4. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

● If two gases that don’t react are combined in a container, they act as if
they are alone in the container.

● The total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures
that each would exert if it were present alone.

● In other words: Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
 37

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

❖ The pressure exerted by gas 1,
according to the ideal gas equation, is
𝑛1 𝑅𝑇
𝑃1 =
𝑉
❖ The pressure exerted by gas 2,
according to the ideal gas equation, is
𝑛2 𝑅𝑇
𝑃2 =
𝑉
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
Pt = P1 + P2 = (n1 + n2) = n
𝑉 𝑉 t
 38

Mole Fraction
● Because each gas in a mixture acts as if it is alone, we
can relate amount in a mixture to partial pressures:
𝑛1 𝑅𝑇
𝑃1 𝑉 𝑛1
= 𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑇 =
𝑃𝑡 𝑛𝑡
𝑉

● That ratio of moles of a substance to total moles is called

the mole fraction,
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖 𝑛𝑖
𝑖 = = /kai/ or /ki/
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑡
 39

Partial Pressure and Mole Fraction

● The end result is 𝑛𝑖
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑃𝑡
𝑛𝑡

Q&A: How are partial pressures determined?

Need to find
Measured by manometer
𝑛𝑖
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑃𝑡
𝑛𝑡
 40
Example_ Partial pressure
A mixture of gases contains 4.46 moles of neon (Ne), 0.74 mole of argon (Ar), and 2.15
moles of xenon (Xe). Calculate the partial pressures of the gases if the total
pressure is 2.00 atm at a certain temperature?
Solution:
Hint: Ne Ar Xe Total
𝑛𝑖
𝑖 = n 4.46 moles 0.74 moles 2.15 moles 7.35 moles
𝑛𝑡 i 0.607 0.10 0.293 1
Pi (atm) 1.21 0.20 0.586 2.00

Hint:

𝑛𝑖
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑃𝑡
𝑛𝑡
 41

Pressure and Mole Fraction Hint: 𝑛𝑖

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑃𝑡
𝑛𝑡

Gas Partial pressure (mm Percentage

Hg) (%)
Nitrogen, N2 594.0 78
Oxygen, O2 160.0 21
Carbon dioxide, CO2 0.3 1
Water vapor, H2O 5.7
Total air 760.0 100
 42
Example_ Partial pressure
Mixtures of helium and oxygen can be used in scuba diving tanks to help
prevent “the bends.” For a particular dive, 46 L He at 25oC and 1.0 atm and 12
L O2 at 25oC and 1.0 atm were pumped into a tank with a volume of 5.0 L.
Calculate the partial pressure of each gas and the total pressure in the tank at
25oC. Where are we going?
• To determine the partial pressure of each gas
• To determine the total pressure in the tank at 25oC
What do we know?
He O2 Tank
P 1.00 atm 1.00 atm ? Atm
V 46 L 12 L 5.0 L
T 250C + 273 = 298K 25oC + 273 = 298K 25oC + 273 = 298K

Ideal gas: PV = nRT

(R = 0.08206 L.atm/K.mol)
 How many moles are present for each gas?
(1.0 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(46 𝐿)
𝑛𝐻𝑒 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.9 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑃𝑉 (0.08206 𝐿. 𝐿 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(298 𝐾)
𝑛= (1.0 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(12 𝐿)
𝑅𝑇 𝑛𝑂2 = = 0.49 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑎𝑡𝑚
(0.08206 𝐿. . 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(298 𝐾)
𝐿
What is the partial pressure for each gas in the tank?
The tank containing the mixture has a volume of 5.0 L, and the temperature is 25oC.
We can use these data and the ideal gas law to calculate the partial pressure of each gas
𝑎𝑡𝑚
(1.9 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(0.008206 𝐿. 𝐾 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(298 𝐾)
𝑃𝐻𝑒 = = 9.3 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑛𝑅𝑇 5.0 𝐿
𝑃= 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑉 (0.49 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(0.008206 𝐿. 𝐾 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(298 𝐾)
𝑃𝑂2 = = 2.4 𝑎𝑡𝑚
5.0 𝐿
What is total pressure of the mixture gases in the tank?
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐻𝑒 + 𝑃𝑂2 = 9.3 𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 2.4 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 11.7 atm
SUMMARY
Units of gas

How to measure pressure of gas?

GASES AND
THEIR Relationship between pressure, volume,
temperature and moles → ideal gas law
PROPERTIES

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures in a

mixture of gas
4. Definitions of solution and solubility
● A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances or
components
● Usually, the major component in solution is called solvent while solute is
the minor component
Solvent: H2O
Na+ and Cl- : solute
Types of solution
….can occur in all phases
 Solubility
● Solubility (S) is the maximum amount of solute that can
dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature.
● How much solute will dissolve in a solvent at a specific
temperature.
Supersaturated Solutions

● In supersaturated solutions, the solvent holds more solute than is normally

possible at that temperature.
● These solutions are unstable; crystallization can usually be stimulated by adding a
“seed crystal” or scratching the side of the flask.
25/07/2024
IE6: S (NaCl) at 25oC: 36.5 g/100 g water. What does it mean?

Awns: Assuming that density (H2O at 25oC): ~1 g/cm3 → 100 g water = 100
cm3 water = 100 mL water.

- Maximum amount of NaCl (solute) dissolving in 100 mL of H2O (solvent)

is 36.5 g.
- Amount of NaCl = 36.5 → saturation solution (no more NaCl can dissolve
in water)
- Amount of NaCl < 36.5 → unsaturation solution (more NaCl can dissolve
in water)

49
5. Factors affecting on Solubility

● Solute–solvent interactions
● Pressure (for gaseous solutes)
● Temperature
 5.1. Solute–Solvent Interactions 1

● Organic molecules in water: “Like dissolves like”, polar organic

molecules dissolve in water better than nonpolar organic molecules,
hydrogen bonding increases solubility.

● Ionic compounds in water: The stronger the solute–solvent interaction,

the greater the solubility of a solute in that solvent

● Gases in water: The gases exhibit only dispersion force; the larger the
gas, the more soluble it will be in water
 Solute–Solvent Interactions 2

● Organic molecules in water: “Like dissolves like”, polar

organic molecules dissolve in water better than
nonpolar organic molecules, hydrogen bonding
increases solubility.
IE 7: Explain why Cyclohexane (C6H12) can not dissolve in water while
Glucose dissolves completely in water. “Like dissolves like”

Cyclohexane which has no polar OH

groups, is essentially insoluble in water
Glucose which has polar OH groups, is essentially soluble in
water due to their ability to form H-bond with H2O
IE 8: Explain Ethanol can dissolve in water
IE 9: Explain why we need to be included Vitamin C in our daily diet?

● Fat-soluble vitamins (like vitamin A) are nonpolar; they are readily

stored in fatty tissue in the body.
● Water-soluble vitamins (like vitamin C) need to be included in the daily
 Liquid/Liquid Solubility

● Liquids that mix in all proportions are miscible.

● Liquids that do not mix in one another are immiscible.

IE 10: Is a mixture of Hexane and Water miscible or immiscible?

Awns: Immiscible mixture

57
 Solute–Solvent Interactions 3

● Ionic compounds in water: The stronger the solute–

solvent interaction, the greater the solubility of a solute
in that solvent
25/07/2024

IE11: Compare solubility of NaCl and NaOH in water

Anws: Solubility of NaCl in water < Solubility of NaOH in water

due to stronger NaOH and H2O interactions or higher hydration’s
energy (smaller radius of OH-+) +
Na OH Na
Cl- -

Check: S (NaCl) at 25oC: 36.5 g/100 g water.

S (NaOH) → ∞ 59
 Solute–Solvent Interactions 4

● Gases in water: The gases exhibit only dispersion

force; the larger the gas, the more soluble it will be in
water
25/07/2024
IE 12: Order solubilities of these gases in water at 20°C, at 1 atm.
N2 (MW: 28 g/mol); O2 (MW: 32 g/mol); Ar (MW: 39.9 g/mol); Kr
(MW: 83.8 g/mol).

Anws: N2 (MW: 28 g/mol)< O2 (MW: 32 g/mol) < Ar (MW: 39.9

g/mol)< Kr (MW: 83.8 g/mol).
Check:
Gas Molar Mass (g/mol) Solubility (M)
N2 28.0 0.69 * 10-3
O2 32.0 1.38*10-3
Ar 39.9 1.50*10-3
Kr 83.8 2.79*10-3
61
5.2. Temperature effects on dissolution of solid in water

Solubility (g solute/100 g H2O)

Temperature (o C )
Effect of temperature on solubility
Exothermic dissolution:
Solubility (g solute/100 g H2O)

Temperature ￪ ↓solubility
Solute + Solvent ⇌
Solution + Heat

Endothermic dissolution:
Temperature ￪ ↑ solubility

Solute + Solvent + Heat ⇌ Solution

Temperature (o C )
Solubility of Gases in Solvents: temperature

Dissolution of most gases is

exothermic

Gas + Water ⇌
Solution + Heat

Temperature ↑→  solubility
5.3. Pressure effect
The Effect of Temperature
The solubility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature.
● The solubility of solids and liquids are not appreciably
The Effect of Pressure
affected byThepressure.
higher the pressure of a gas above a liquid, the more soluble the gas is in the
liquid.
● Gas solubility is affected by pressure.
Henry’s Law
● The solubility of a gas is proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas above the
solution. S = KP
g g

• Where:
- Sg is the solubility of the gas (M)
- K: Henry law’s constant, depends on characteristics of solute
and solvent, temperature.
- Pg : the partial pressure of the gas
 25/07/2024
Example 11: A certain soft drink is bottled so that a bottle at 25oC contains
rsCOAffecting the Solubility
2 gas at a pressure of 5.0 atm overof Gases
the liquid.inAssuming
Water that the partial
pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere is 4.0x10-4 atm, calculate the equilibrium
t concentrations
of Temperature of CO2 in the soda both before and after the bottle is
bility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature.
opened. The Henry’s law constant for CO2 in aqueous solution is
t 3.110 -2mol/L.atm at 25oC.
of Pressure
er the pressure of a gas above a liquid, the more soluble the gas is in the

67
25/07/2024
Given data:
▪ Unopened bottle: PCO2 = 5.0 atm
▪ Opened bottle: PCO2 = 4.0x10-4 atm
▪ kH = 3.1x10-2 mol/L.atm
▪ Henry law: CCO2 = kH x PCO2
What is CCO2 (mol/L) in soda before and after the bottle is opened?
Solution:
• In the unopened bottle, PCO2 = 5.0 atm
𝐶𝐶𝑂2 = 𝑘𝐶𝑂2 𝑃𝐶𝑂2 =(3.1  10-2 mol/L.atm)(5.0 atm) = 0.16 mol/L

• In the opened bottle, PCO2 = 4.0  10-4 atm

𝐶𝐶𝑂2 = 𝑘𝐶𝑂2 𝑃𝐶𝑂2 =(3.110-2mol/L.atm)(4.010-4 atm)

= 0.1210-5 mol/L
68
Henry’s constant and intermolecular forces

The stronger intermolecular forces between gas and solvent molecules, the higher
solubility of gas in that solvent
70
25/07/2024
6. Solution Concentration

● We have discussed solubility and solutions

qualitatively: saturated (which is quantitative),
unsaturated, and supersaturated.
● Now we will give specific amounts to solutions.
Units of Concentration
1) Mass percentage
2) Parts per million (ppm) A part by
3) Parts per billion (ppb) mass/volume
4) Mole fraction
5) Molarity
6) Molality
25/07/2024
A part by mass

• Ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution, all
multiplied by a multiplication factor.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

73
 1) Mass Percentage
● Percent means “out of 100.”
● Take the ratio of the mass of the solute to
the total solution mass.
● Multiply by 100 to make it a percent.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

• Example: 20 g of salt in 60 g of water. What is concentration in

percentage?
20100/80 = 25%
 2) Parts per Million (ppm)
● ppm is per million, so we multiply by 106
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 106
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

• Example: 15 g of salt in 1000 g of water? What is concentration

in ppm?

15106/1000 = 15,000 ppm

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3) Parts per Billion (ppb)
● ppb is per billion, so we multiply by 109
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑝𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 109
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

• Example: 15 g of salt in 1000 g of water? What is

concentration in ppb?
15109/1000 = 15,000,000 ppb

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• Example: 15 g of salt in 1L of water and in 1L of Ethanol. What
is concentration in ppm?
Solution In water
Density (H2O at 25oC): ~1 g/cm3
→ (1000 mL water)(1 g/mL) = 1000 g water.

15106/1000 = 15,000 ppm

In ethanol
Density (Ethanol at 25oC): ~0.789 g/cm3
→ (1000 mL Ethanol)(0.789 g/mL) = 789 g Ethanol
15106/789 = 19,011 ppm
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 (4) Mole Fraction (χ)

● Mole fraction is the ratio of moles of a substance (solute or

solvent) to the total number of moles in a solution.

moles of component
Mole fraction of component =
total moles of all components

• Example: Calculate the mole fraction of a solution made by

37.5% HCl and 62.5% water
• Example: Calculate the mole fraction of a solution made by 37.5% HCl
and 62.5% water
Solution
37.5% HCl = 37.5 g /36.46 g/mol = 1.03 mol
62.5% water = 62.5 g/18.02 g/mol = 3.47 mol
Mole fraction of HCl on solution
𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 1.03 𝑚𝑜𝑙
XHCl= = = 0.229
𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 +𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1.03+3.47 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Mole fraction of Water on solution

𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 3.47 𝑚𝑜𝑙
XH2O= = = 0.771
𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 +𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1.03+3.47 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 (5) Molarity (M)

● Moles of solute per liter of solution.

moles of solute
Molarity =
liters of soln
• Example: What is the molarity of a 6.56% by mass glucose
(C6H12O6) solution? (density of solution = 1.03 g/mL)
Solution
6.56 𝑔 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒
Percent by mass: 6.56 % =
100 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
Mol glucose from mass:
(6.56 g)/(180.16 g/mol) = 0.036412 mol glucose

Volume (L) of soln from mass:

((100 g)/(1.03 g/mL))(10-3 L/mL) = 0.097087 L soln
moles of 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒
Molarity = =0.375 M
liters of soln
(6) Molality (m)

● Moles of solute per liter of solution.

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 of solute (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒)

Mola𝑙ity =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 of sol𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)
• Example: What is the molality of a 6.56% by mass glucose
(C6H12O6) solution? (density of solution = 1.03 g/mL)

Solution
6.56 𝑔 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒
Percent by mass: 6.56 % =
100 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
Mol glucose from mass:
(6.56 g)/(180.16 g/mol) = 0.036412 mol glucose

Mass (kg) of solv:

(100-6.56) g  10-3 kg/g = 0.09344 kg solv
moles of 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒
Mola𝑙ity = =0.3897 m
𝑘𝑔 of sol𝑣
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