EXTRUSION

Extrusion
Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is
forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-
sectional shape.
Extrusion process is identical to the squeezing of tooth paste out
of the tooth paste tube
Typical products made by extrusion are railings for sliding doors,
window frames, tubing having various cross sections, aluminum
ladder frames, and numerous structural and architectural shapes
Commonly extruded materials are aluminum, copper, steel,
magnesium, and lead; other metals and alloys also can be
extruded, with various levels of difficulty.
Depending on the ductility of the material, extrusion is carried
out at room or elevated temperatures
Extrusion Principle
Extrusion Principle
The equipment consists of a cylinder or container into which the
heated metal billet is loaded.
On one end of the container, the die plate with the necessary
opening is fixed.
From the other end, a plunger or ram compresses the metal billet
against the container walls and the die plate, thus forcing it to
flow through the die opening, acquiring the shape of the opening.
The extruded metal is then carried by the metal handling system
as it comes out of the die.
A dummy block (steel disc) is kept between the hot billet and the
ram to protect it from the heat and pressure
Typical extrusion shapes
Extrusion Principle
By the extrusion process, it is possible to make components
which have a constant cross-section over any length as can be had
by the rolling process.
The complexity of parts that can be obtained by extrusion is more
than that of rolling, because the die required being very simple
and easier to make.
Also extrusion is a single-pass process unlike rolling.
The amount of reduction that is possible in extrusion is large.
Generally, brittle materials can also be very easily extruded.
Large diameter, thin walled tubular products with excellent
concentricity and tolerance characteristics can be produced.
Classification of Extrusion
Hot Extrusion
Hot extrusion involves prior heating of the billet to a temperature
above its recrystallization temperature.
This reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal
Die wear can be excessive, and cooling of the surfaces of the hot
billet and the die can result in highly non uniform deformation.
To reduce cooling of the billet and to prolong die life, extrusion
dies may be preheated
Lubrication is critical in hot extrusion for certain metals (e.g.,
steels), and special lubricants have been developed
Glass is sometimes used as a lubricant in hot extrusion; in
addition to reducing friction, it also provides effective thermal
insulation between the billet and the extrusion container.
Hot Extrusion
Because the billet is hot, it develops an oxide film
Oxide films can be abrasive and can affect the flow pattern of the
material
Their presence also results in an extruded product that may be
unacceptable when good surface finish is important.
In order to avoid the formation of oxide films on the hot extruded
product, the dummy block placed ahead of the ram is made a
little smaller in diameter than the container.
As a result, a thin shell consisting mainly of the outer oxidized
layer of the billet is left in the container. The skull is removed
later from the chamber.
Direct or Forward Extrusion
Direct or Forward Extrusion
A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram compresses
the material, forcing it to flow through one or more openings in a
die at the opposite end of the container.
As the ram approaches the die, a small portion of the billet
remains that cannot be forced through the die opening.
This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from the product
by cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.
One of the problems in direct extrusion is the significant friction
that exists between the work surface and the walls of the
container as the billet is forced to slide toward the die opening.
This friction causes a substantial increase in the ram force
required in direct extrusion.
In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the
presence of an oxide layer on the surface of the billet
Direct Extrusion for hollow sections
Direct Extrusion for hollow sections

The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis.

This allows passage of a mandrel that is attached to the dummy
block.
As the billet is compressed, the material is forced to flow through
the clearance between the mandrel and the die opening.
The resulting cross section is tubular.
Semi-hollow cross-sectional shapes are usually extruded in the
same way
The starting billet in direct extrusion is usually round in cross
section, but the final shape is determined by the shape of the die
opening
Indirect or backward extrusion or
reverse extrusion
Indirect or backward extrusion or
reverse extrusion
The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of
the container
Ram is kept stationary and the container with the billet is caused
to move
As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow
through the clearance in a opposite direction
Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the container,
there is no friction at the container walls, and the ram force is
therefore lower than in direct extrusion.
Limitations of indirect extrusion are the lower rigidity of the
hollow ram and the difficulty in supporting the extruded product
as it exits the die.
Indirect Extrusion for hollow sections
Indirect extrusion can produce
hollow (tubular) cross sections.
In this method, the ram is
pressed into the billet, forcing
the material to flow around the
ram and take a cup shape.
There are practical limitations
on the length of the extruded
part
Support of the ram becomes a
problem as work length
increases
Extrusion Ratio, R

where Ao is the cross-sectional area of the billet and Af is the area

of the extruded product.
A geometric feature that describes the shape of the extruded
product is the circumscribing-circle diameter (CCD)
It is the diameter of the smallest circle into which the extruded
cross section will fit.
The CCD for a square extruded cross section, for example, is the
diagonal dimension of the cross section,
Extrusion Ratio, R

The complexity of an extrusion is described by the term shape

factor, which is the ratio of the perimeter of the part to its cross
sectional area.
Thus, for example, a solid, round extrusion is the simplest shape,
having the lowest shape factor.
Metal flow in extrusion

The metal flow pattern in extrusion is an important factor in the

overall process because it influence the quality and the
mechanical properties of the extruded product
A common technique for investigating the flow pattern is to cut a
round billet lengthwise and mark one face with a square grid
pattern.
The two halves are then placed together in the container and are
extruded as one piece.
They are then taken apart and observations are made regarding
the distortion of the grid lines.
Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies

a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction or in indirect extrusion.

b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-chamber
interfaces.
c) Pattern obtained at high friction or with cooling of the outer
regions of the billet in the chamber.
Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies
1. The most homogeneous (uniform) flow pattern (Fig. a) is
obtained when there is no friction at the interfaces.
This type of flow occurs when the lubricant is very effective
or in or in indirect extrusion, where there is no friction at the
billet container interfaces.
2. When friction along all interfaces is high, a dead-metal zone
develops (Fig. b).
Note the high-shear area as the material flows into the die exit
This configuration may indicate that the billet surfaces (with
their oxide layer and lubricant present) could enter this high-
shear zone and be extruded, causing defects in the extruded
product
Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies
3. In the third configuration, the high-shear zone extends farther
back into the billet (Fig. c)
This situation can be due to high container-wall friction
(which retards the flow of the billet) or from materials in
which the flow stress drops rapidly with increasing
temperature
In hot extrusion, the material near the container walls cools
rapidly, whereby the material becomes stronger; as a result,
the material in the central regions of the billet flows toward
the die more easily than that at the outer regions.
A large dead-metal zone then forms, and the flow is
inhomogeneous.
This flow pattern leads to a defect known as a pipe or
extrusion defect
Mechanics of extrusion
1. Ideal force, no friction.
Based on the extrusion ratio, the absolute value of the true
strain that the material undergoes is

where Ao and Af and Lo and Lf are the areas and the lengths of
the billet and the extruded product, respectively.
The energy dissipated in plastic deformation per unit volume, u,
is

Where is the average flow stress,

Mechanics of extrusion
Hence, the work done on the billet is

The work is supplied by the ram force, F, which travels a

distance Lo. Therefore,

where p is the extrusion pressure.

Equating the work of plastic deformation to the external work
done, we have

The ideal force is F= pAo

Mechanics of extrusion
2. Ideal force, with friction.
Based on the slab method of analysis and for small die angles,
the extrusion pressure, p, is given by the expression

If it is assumed that the frictional stress is equal to the shear

yield stress k, and the material flows along a 45° “die angle,”
pressure can be estimated as
Mechanics of extrusion
2. Ideal force, with friction.
As the ram travels further toward the die, L decreases, and thus
the pressure, hence the force, decreases.
The pressure in direct extrusion is higher because of frictional
resistance at the container–billet interfaces, which decreases as
the billet length decreases in the container.
However, in indirect extrusion, the ram force is not a function
of billet length
Typical plots of
ram pressure versus ram stroke
The rapid rise in
pressure during the
initial ram travel is due
to the initial
compression of the
billet to fill the
extrusion container
For direct extrusion
the metal begins to
flow through the die at
the maximum value of
pressure, the
breakthrough pressure
Typical plots of
ram pressure versus ram stroke
As the billet extrudes through
the die the pressure decreases
with decreasing the length of
billet
For indirect extrusion there is
no relative motion between the
billet and the container wall
Therefore, the extrusion
pressure is approximately
constant with increasing ram
travel and represents the stress
required to deform the metal
through the die
Typical plots of
ram pressure versus ram stroke
Indirect extrusion is limited due to the
requirement of a hollow ram which
creates limitation on the size of the
extrusion and the extrusion pressure
Therefore, most hot extrusion is done
by the direct extrusion
At the end of the stroke the pressure
builds up rapidly
It is usual to stop the ram travel so as to
leave a small discard in the container
This discard often contains defects
Mechanics of extrusion
3. Actual forces.
In actual extrusion practice, as well as in all other metalworking
processes, there are difficulties in estimating
1. the coefficient of friction and its variation throughout all
workpiece–die contacting surfaces,
2. the flow stress of the material under the actual conditions of
temperature and strain rate, and
3. the work involved in inhomogeneous deformation.
A simple empirical formula has been developed in the form of

where a and b are experimentally determined constants a is

approximately 0.8, and b ranges from 1.2 to 1.5. .
Schematic illustration of extrusion force as a
function of die angle:

a) total force,
b) ideal force,
c) force required for
redundant deformation,
and
d) force required to
overcome friction.
Schematic illustration of extrusion force as a
function of die angle:
The die angle has an
important effect on
forces in extrusion
The ideal force (curve b)
is a function of the strain
that the material
undergoes, thus a
function of the extrusion
ratio R.
Consequently, it is
independent of the die
angle
Schematic illustration of extrusion force as a
function of die angle:
The force due to friction
(curve d) increases with
decreasing die angle.
This is because, the length
of contact along the billet–
die interface increases as
the die angle decreases;
thus the work required
increases
Schematic illustration of extrusion force as a
function of die angle:
An additional force is
required for redundant
work due to the
inhomogeneous
deformation of the
material during extrusion
(curve c).
This work is assumed to
increase with the die angle,
because the higher the
angle, the more
nonuniform the
deformation becomes.
Optimum die angle
The total extrusion force
is the sum of
a) ideal force,
b) force required for
redundant
deformation, and
c) force required to
overcome friction.
There is an angle at which
this force is a minimum.
Because the force is
minimized at this angle, it
is called the optimum
angle.
Force in hot extrusion
Because of the strain-rate sensitivity of metals at elevated
temperatures, the force in hot extrusion is difficult to calculate
accurately.
It can be shown that the average true-strain rate, that the material
undergoes is given by the expression

where Vo is the ram speed.

For high extrusion ratios, that is, Do >> Df, and a die angle of
α=45° with poor lubrication , the true strain rate reduces to
Force in hot extrusion
A parameter that is used to estimate the force in hot extrusion is
an experimentally determined extrusion constant, Ke, which
includes various factors involved in the process.

Thus, p = Ke ln R.

The Ke value is a measure of the strength of the material being

extruded and the frictional conditions.
The effect of temperature and ram speed on
extrusion pressure

The pressure increases rapidly

with ram speed, especially at
elevated temperatures due to
increased strain-rate sensitivity
As speed increases, the rate of
work done per unit time
(hence temperature) also
increases.
However, the heat generated at
higher speeds will not be
dissipated fast enough.
The effect of temperature and ram speed on
extrusion pressure
The rise in temperature can
lead to incipient melting of the
workpiece material and
possibly cause defects.
Circumferential surface cracks
caused by hot shortness may
also develop, a phenomenon
known as speed cracking
(because of the high ram
speed).
Obviously, these problems can
be reduced or eliminated by
lowering the extrusion speed.
Cold Extrusion
Cold extrusion is generally used to produce small and thin walled
parts, often in finished (or near finished) form.
Some important advantages of cold extrusion include increased
strength due to strain hardening, close tolerances, improved
surface finish, absence of oxide layers, and high production rates.
Cold extrusion at room temperature also eliminates the need for
heating the starting billet.
The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high-speed cold
extrusion
Cold extrusion is a general term that often is used to describe a
combination of processes, particularly extrusion combined with
forging
Cold Extrusion
Many ductile metals can be cold extruded into various
configurations, with the billet mostly at room temperature or at a
temperature of a few hundred degrees
Typical parts made are automotive components and gear blanks.
Cold Extrusion

Two examples of cold extrusion.

Arrows indicate the direction of material flow.
These parts may also be considered as forgings.
Advantages of Cold Extrusion
Improved mechanical properties resulting from strain hardening,
provided that the heat generated by plastic deformation and
friction does not recrystallize the extruded metal.
Good control of dimensional tolerances, thus requiring a
minimum of machining and finishing operations
Improved surface finish, partly due to the absence of oxide films,
provided that lubrication is effective.
High production rates and relatively low cost.
Limitations of Cold Extrusion
On the other hand, the stresses on tooling and dies in cold
extrusion are very high
The design of tooling and selection of appropriate tool materials
are therefore crucial to success in cold extrusion.
Punches are a critical component; they must have sufficient
strength, toughness, and resistance to wear and fatigue.
Temperature rise in cold extrusion is an important factor,
especially at high extrusion ratios.
Lubrication also is critical because new surfaces are generated
during deformation, which may cause seizure between the
workpiece and the tooling.
Impact Extrusion
Impact Extrusion
Impact extrusion is similar to indirect extrusion, and the process
often is included in the cold-extrusion category.
The punch descends rapidly on the blank (slug), which is
extruded backwards
The thickness of the tubular extruded section is a function of the
clearance between the punch and the die cavity
Most nonferrous metals can be impact extruded in vertical
presses and at production rates as high as two parts per second
The maximum diameter of the parts made is about 150 mm
The impact extrusion process can produce thin-walled tubular
sections having thickness-to-diameter ratios as small as 0.005.
Impact Extrusion

Impact extrusion of a collapsible tube

Hydrostatic Extrusion
Hydrostatic Extrusion
The pressure required for extrusion is supplied through a fluid
medium that surrounds the billet
Thus, there is no container-wall contact and hence no friction.
The high pressure in the chamber transmits some of the fluid to
the die surfaces, where it significantly reduces friction and forces.
Pressures are typically on the order of 1400 MPa.
Hydrostatic extrusion usually is carried out at room temperature,
typically using vegetable oils as the fluid, particularly castor oil
because it is a good lubricant and its viscosity is not influenced
significantly by pressure.
For elevated-temperature hydrostatic extrusion, waxes,
polymers, and glass are used as the fluid;
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Hydrostatic extrusion can also be carried out by extruding the
part into a second pressurized chamber, which is under lower
pressure (fluid-to-fluid extrusion).
Because of the highly pressurized environment, this operation
reduces the defects that may otherwise develop in the extruded
product.
A variety of metals and polymers, solid shapes, tubes and other
hollow shapes, and honeycomb and clad profiles have been
extruded successfully.
Hydrostatic extrusion has had limited industrial applications,
largely because of the complex nature of tooling, the experience
required in working with high pressures and design of
specialized equipment, and the long cycle times required.
Extrusion Defects
Depending on workpiece material condition and process
variables, extruded products can develop several types of defects
that can affect significantly their strength and product quality.
There are three principal extrusion defects:
Surface cracking
Pipe
Internal cracking.
Surface Cracking
If extrusion temperature, friction, or speed are too high, surface
temperatures can rise significantly, which may cause surface
cracking and tearing
These cracks are intergranular and usually are caused by hot
shortness
These defects occur especially in aluminum, magnesium, and zinc
alloys, although they may also occur in high-temperature alloys.
This situation can be avoided by lowering the billet temperature
and the extrusion speed
Surface Cracking
Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures, due to
periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die land.
Because of the similarity in appearance to the surface of a bamboo
stem, it is known as a bamboo defect.
When the product being extruded temporarily sticks to the die land,
the extrusion pressure increases rapidly.
Shortly thereafter, the product moves forward again, and the
pressure is released.
The cycle is repeated continually, producing periodic
circumferential cracks on the surface.
Pipe
The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion tends to draw surface
oxides and impurities toward the center of the billet
This defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or fishtailing
As much as one-third of the length of the extruded product may
contain this type of defect and thus has to be cut off as scrap.
Piping can be minimized by modifying the flow pattern to be more
uniform, such as by controlling friction and minimizing
temperature gradients.
Another method is to machine the billet’s surface prior to extrusion,
so that scale and surface impurities are removed.
Internal Cracking
The center of the extruded product can develop cracks, called
center cracking, center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or chevron
cracking
These cracks occurs due to tensile stresses in the center of the
deformation zone in the die
The tendency for center cracking (a) increases with increasing die
angle, (b) increases with increasing amount of impurities, and (c)
decreases with increasing extrusion ratio and friction.
The tendency toward chevron cracking increases if the two
plastic zones do not meet.
Internal Cracking

Schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion