EVOLUTION

Figure 6.5 Variety of beaks of finches that Darwin found in Galapagos Island

varieties of finches in the same island. All the varieties, he conjectured,

evolved on the island itself. From the original seed-eating features, many
other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to become insectivorous
and vegetarian finches (Figure 6.5). This process of evolution of different
species in a given geographical area starting from a point and literally
radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
Darwin’s finches represent one of the best examples of this phenomenon.
Another example is Australian marsupials. A number of marsupials, each
different from the other (Figure 6.6) evolved from an ancestral stock, but all
within the Australian island continent. When more than one adaptive radiation
appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area (representing

117

Figure 6.6 Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia

2024-25
 BIOLOGY

different habitats), one can call this convergent

evolution. Placental mammals in Australia also
exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into
varieties of such placental mammals each of
which appears to be ‘similar’ to a corresponding
marsupial (e.g., Placental wolf and Tasmanian
wolf-marsupial). (Figure 6.7).

6.5 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Evolution by natural selection, in a true sense
would have started when cellular forms of life
with differences in metabolic capability
originated on earth.
The essence of Darwinian theory about
evolution is natural selection. The rate of
appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle
or the life span. Microbes that divide fast have
the ability to multiply and become millions of
individuals within hours. A colony of bacteria
(say A) growing on a given medium has built-in
variation in terms of ability to utilise a feed
component. A change in the medium
composition would bring out only that part of
the population (say B) that can survive under
the new conditions. In due course of time this
variant population outgrows the others and
appears as new species. This would happen
within days. For the same thing to happen in a
fish or fowl would take million of years as life
spans of these animals are in years. Here we say
that fitness of B is better than that of A under
Figure 6.7 Picture showing convergent evolution
the new conditions. Nature selects for fitness.
of Australian Marsupials and
placental mammals One must remember that the so-called fitness is
based on characteristics which are inherited.
Hence, there must be a genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve.
Another way of saying the same thing is that some organisms are better
adapted to survive in an otherwise hostile environment. Adaptive ability is
118 inherited. It has a genetic basis. Fitness is the end result of the ability to
adapt and get selected by nature.
Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts
of Darwinian Theory of Evolution (Figures 6.7 and 6.8).
Even before Darwin, a French naturalist Lamarck had said that
evolution of life forms had occurred but driven by use and disuse of

2024-25
EVOLUTION

organs. He gave the examples of Giraffes who in an attempt to forage

leaves on tall trees had to adapt by elongation of their necks. As they
passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding
generations, Giraffes, slowly, over the years, came to acquire long necks.
Nobody believes this conjecture any more.
Is evolution a process or the result of a process? The world we see,
inanimate and animate, is only the success stories of evolution. When we
describe the story of this world we describe evolution as a process. On the
other hand when we describe the story of life on earth, we treat evolution
as a consequence of a process called natural selection. We are still not
very clear whether to regard evolution and natural selection as processes
or end result of unknown processes.
It is possible that the work of Thomas Malthus on populations
influenced Darwin. Natural selection is based on certain observations
which are factual. For example, natural resources are limited, populations
are stable in size except for seasonal fluctuation, members of a population
vary in characteristics (infact no two individuals are alike) even though
they look superficially similar, most of variations are inherited etc. The
fact that theoretically population size will grow exponentially if everybody
reproduced maximally (this fact can be seen in a growing bacterial
population) and the fact that population sizes in reality are limited, means
that there had been competition for resources. Only some survived and
grew at the cost of others that could not flourish. The novelty and brilliant
insight of Darwin was this: he asserted that variations, which are heritable
and which make resource utilisation better for few (adapted to habitat
better) will enable only those to reproduce and leave more progeny. Hence
for a period of time, over many generations, survivors will leave more
progeny and there would be a change in population characteristic and
hence new forms appear to arise.

6.6 MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION

What is the origin of this variation and how does speciation occur? Even
though Mendel had talked of inheritable 'factors' influencing phenotype,
Darwin either ignored these observations or kept silence. In the first decade
of twentieth century, Hugo deVries based on his work on evening primrose
brought forth the idea of mutations – large difference arising suddenly in
a population. He believed that it is mutation which causes evolution and
119
not the minor variations (heritable) that Darwin talked about. Mutations
are random and directionless while Darwinian variations are small and
directional. Evolution for Darwin was gradual while deVries believed
mutation caused speciation and hence called it saltation (single step
large mutation). Studies in population genetics, later, brought out
some clarity.

2024-25
 BIOLOGY

6.7 HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

In a given population one can find out the frequency of occurrence of
alleles of a gene or a locus. This frequency is supposed to remain fixed
and even remain the same through generations. Hardy-Weinberg principle
stated it using algebraic equations.
This principle says that allele frequencies in a population are stable
and is constant from generation to generation. The gene pool (total genes
and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called
genetic equilibrium. Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1. Individual

(a)

(b)

(c)
120

Figure 6.8 Diagrammatic representation of the operation of natural selection on different

traits : (a) Stabilising (b) Directional and (c) Disruptive

2024-25
 BIOLOGY

Figure 6.9 A sketch of the evolution of plant forms through geological periods

could have been similar to the light reaction in photosynthesis where water
is split with the help of solar energy captured and channelised by
appropriate light harvesting pigments. Slowly single-celled organisms
became multi-cellular life forms. By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates
were formed and active. Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya.
122 Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya. We are told
that the first organisms that invaded land were plants. They were
widespread on land when animals invaded land. Fish with stout and strong
fins could move on land and go back to water. This was about 350 mya. In
1938, a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which was
thought to be extinct. These animals called lobefins evolved into the

2024-25
EVOLUTION

Figure 6.10 Representative evolutionary history of vertebrates through geological periods

123
first amphibians that lived on both land and water. There are no specimens
of these left with us. However, these were ancestors of modern day frogs
and salamanders. The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick-
shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians.
Again we only see their modern day descendents, the turtles, tortoises
and crocodiles. In the next 200 millions years or so, reptiles of different

2024-25
 BIOLOGY

SUMMARY
The origin of life on earth can be understood only against the
background of origin of universe especially earth. Most scientists
believe chemical evolution, i.e., formation of biomolecules preceded
the appearance of the first cellular forms of life. The subsequent events
as to what happened to the first form of life is a conjectured story
based on Darwinian ideas of organic evolution by natural selection.
Diversity of life forms on earth has been changing over millions of
years. It is generally believed that variations in a population result in
variable fitness. Other phenomena like habitat fragmentation and
genetic drift may accentuate these variations leading to appearance
of new species and hence evolution. Homology is accounted for by the
idea of branching descent. Study of comparative anatomy, fossils and
comparative biochemistry provides evidence for evolution. Among the
stories of evolution of individual species, the story of evolution of
modern man is most interesting and appears to parallel evolution of
human brain and language.

EXERCISES
1. Explain antibiotic resistance observed in bacteria in light of Darwinian
selection theory.
2. Find out from newspapers and popular science articles any new fossil
discoveries or controversies about evolution.
3. Attempt giving a clear definition of the term species.
4. Try to trace the various components of human evolution (hint: brain
size and function, skeletal structure, dietary preference, etc.)
5. Find out through internet and popular science articles whether animals
other than man has self-consciousness.
6. List 10 modern-day animals and using the internet resources link it to
a corresponding ancient fossil. Name both.
7. Practise drawing various animals and plants.
8. Describe one example of adaptive radiation.
9. Can we call human evolution as adaptive radiation?
10. Using various resources such as your school Library or the internet
126 and discussions with your teacher, trace the evolutionary stages of
any one animal, say horse.

2024-25