EDD401

Unit 4
GENDER AND POWER
Gender and Power
“The gendered practices of everyday life
reproduce a society s view of how women and
• Gender is linked to power relations and
men should act. Gendered social arrangements
more invisible forms of oppression
are justified by religion and cultural productions
and backed by law, but the most powerful means • It is therefore imperative for teachers to
of sustaining the moral hegemony of the work towards social justice and actively
dominant gender ideology is that the process is teach against forms of oppression
made invisible; any possible alternatives are
virtually unthinkable (Lorber 2000:323).
Activity 3: What are some common gender stereotypes?
WOMEN ARE MEN ARE • Think about ideas of what is deemed
'natural' behaviour for men, and what is
Submissive Aggressive perceived to be 'natural' for women
Emotional Emotionless • Is this a fair representation of all women
Quiet Loud and all men?
Neat Messy
• Often what it means to be a woman is
Clean Unclean/rugged constructed in direct opposition to what it
Clumsy Athletic is to be a man
Artsy Scientific/logical
• These are gender stereotypes, but it is
Mothers Fathers
these stereotypes that govern how
Nurturers/caregivers Breadwinner
gender is perceived, received and
Emotional Rational
socially transmitted
Lorber sees gender as:
What is patriarchy?
• We call the system of oppression of women “patriarchy
• The system of male domination over women in society (e.g.
man as head of family, woman as dependant, men as decision
makers, women as in the home)
• Patriarchy positions women as powerless/weak and fulfil
gender roles
• Patriarchy is a social and cultural system used to structure and
police gender identity - sustained/strengthened by value
systems and cultural practices i.e. culture, tradition and religion
• Patriarchy is part of most traditional cultures, although
modernisation is changing the role and place of women in
society
Masculinity
• Hegemonic masculinity: cultural normative ideal of masculine behaviour
• Boys, from a young age, are aware of what this means:
1. Boys must maintain their difference from girls and therefore avoid activities and
behaviour seen as belonging to girls.
2. Hardness , sporting prowess, coolness , casual treatment of schoolwork, swearing,
dominance and control were all features associated with popular masculinity
• It is useful to distinguish between dominant and subordinated masculinities as “in any
social grouping there are a number of masculinities, with intersecting power relations
(Paechter 2006:254).
• We will examine this issue through looking at Bowley s (2013) article in the course reader
 S f b , gh b
• Bowley (2013) examines how hegemonic masculinity is constructed in boys only
private schools through sport (see course reader)
“While sport can be a place for bringing people together and making them feel part of a team, it is
also a place where many are excluded due to lack of competence or skill. Sport thus becomes a
place for reinforcing a gender hierarchy. Because many boys in South African schools… take sport
so seriously, there is a notable link between dominant masculinity, heterosexuality and sport in
South African boys in school. In the context of South Africa, which is condemned as the rape capital
of the world, gender and gender inequalities need widespread exposure (Bowley 2013:88).
• Sport is an important site for the construction and maintenance of masculine identity
• Hegemonic masculinity: what it means to be a “real man - other masculinities are seen in
relation to this dominant norm – often classified as inferior
 f b , gh b a d
• “Since hegemonic masculinity is recognised as the
dominant masculinity (Connell 1995), the performances
of gender are inextricably tied to dominant notions of
heterosexuality (Bowley 2013:88)
• To conform to heterosexual norms boys try to distance
themselves from any form of femininity (“girl or “gay ) –
“Lack of sporting prowess, strength or skill in sport tends
to be equated to subordinate forms of masculinity and to
be linked derogatorily to femininities (Bowley 2013:90)
• Masculinity involves the establishment of a hierarchy
Doing Masculinity
“There is a definite rite of passage in the attempt to
prove their identity with dominant masculinity in
sport, and boys experience immense pressure in
negotiating this path. In this process they engage
with the dominant gender order where hegemonic
masculinity is privileged over femininities and
subordinate masculinities. Doing sport is doing
masculinity (Bowley 2013:92).
The F-Word
• Feminism has been misinterpreted as man hating and a
movement that seeks to 'put women in charge
• Criticized for being 'boring', in favour of censorship, and
against having fun
• Not so: feminism is a social movement and an ideology
that fights for the political, economic and social rights of
women (and other gender nonconforming identities)
• It is a movement towards gender equality for all citizens
regardless of their (gender) identity
So, What is Feminism?
• Feminism is a social movement that fights for political, economic and social rights of
women (and other gender nonconforming identities)
• Some argue that women already have gained equality, and gained independence and
power, so “is there still a need for feminism?"
• Great strides have been made regarding gender equality (work / politics / educational) and
for this, there is much resistance and disdain
The Fa e Re e e a i f Gi P e
• Whelehan (2000 cited in Haralambos and Holborn 2013: 142) argues
that this negativity towards feminism is based on notions:
1. that through girl power , women have already gained equality
2. that this discourse of 'girl power' is one of independence and
finding empowerment through individual choices
• Whelehan (2000) argues that this form of 'girl power' offers a false
representation of equity and feminism
• Gender-based violence statistics are at an all-time high globally and
indicates that the work of the feminist movement in fighting for equality is
far from complete (see WHO website:
(https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/adressing-
vaw-achievements-priorities/en/)
Some contemporary feminist issues
1. The liberation of women s bodies: poorer countries - 500 000 women still die annually
from pregnancy and childbirth; access to abortions; conform to certain ideals of beauty
promoted in the media
2. Sexual freedom and choice: cultural practices and inequalities in power limit women s
sexual freedom. Sexual double standards and discrimination are still very prevalent
towards lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people
3. Violence against women: rape and violence against women; freedom of movement
restricted; victim-blaming
4. The world of work: many top positions in business are still predominantly occupied by
men; housework and childcare still falls under women s responsibilities and may hamper
ability to work/careers
5. Sexism in popular culture: music videos, song lyrics and movies where violence or
abuse is idealised, or where women are simply presented as sex objects
(Redfern and Aune 2010 in Haralambos and Holborn 2013: 146-147)
Activity 1: Gendered Double Standards at Work
• Have you heard any of these
kinds of statements before?
• Do you think this is an
accurate reflection of the
gendered double standards
that operate in work
environments?
Gender-Based Violence
• All genders experience GBV however victims are disproportionately
(poor) women (of colour) and genderqueer individuals (with more
feminine traits)
• All GBV is rooted in gender inequality
• GBV is about power: perpetrators always hold more power
(socially, structurally, physically, economically, etc.) than their
victims
• Statistically, interpersonal GBV is mostly committed by men (known
to the victim) against women
• It can be perpetrated by institutions and individuals
• Most common in societies where there is a culture of violence,
where male superiority is the norm, and cultural and religious norms
support male violence against women
Common Forms of Gender-Based Violence
• Direct Violence: perpetrator can be clearly identified; often interpersonal
• Indirect or Structural Violence: no direct perpetrator exists; rather violence is built into the
structures (social, political and economic systems), appearing as unequal power relations (i.e.
the system of patriarchy), and consequently as unequal opportunities (i.e. certain groups
[genders, classes, races, nationalities etc] have privileged access to resources and opportunities
over others)
• Intimate Partner Violence: most common form; includes physical, sexual and emotional abuse;
often is supported by broader social structures like culture, tradition and religion
• Domestic Violence: carried out by partners, spouses or family members; also broadly
encompasses violence against children or other family members
• Sexual Violence: any sexual act, attempted sexual act, unwanted sexual advances or
commentary, intention to traffic, coercion into sexual acts, or the threat thereof; include rape
(including gang rape and corrective rape), sexual harassment and human trafficking,
perpetrated by persons known, or unknown to the victim; and are always non-consensual
Explaining consent to young learners
Writing Activity
• Read Andrea Dworkin s (1983) speech: “I Want a 24hour Truce During Which There Is No
Rape - you can find her speech here:
https://www.rapereliefshelter.bc.ca/learn/resources/i-want-24hour-truce-during-which-there-no-
rape-andrea-dworkin-1983
• Do you agree with Dworkin, that a 24-hour truce during which there is no rape, will culminate in
“the real practice of equality ?
• Do you think that it is only up to men (as Dworkin implies) to begin “the real practice of
equality ?
• Think about when this speech was written/spoken – in 1983 – are the issues raised still relevant
in 2019? Why? What has/hasn t changed?
• Provide reasons for your response(s) – use reading materials from this lesson to support your
response(s).
• If there is not enough space provided for your response, use an extra page from a book or
exam pad to write your response.
Prescribed and recommended readings
• Bowley, B. 2013. Soft boys, tough boys and the making of young
sporty masculinities at a private boys' school . AGENDA 97/27 (3):87-93.
• Frosh, S., Phoenix, A. & Pattman, R. (eds). 2002. Young Masculinities:
Understanding Boys in Contemporary Society. London: Palgrave
• Haralambos, M., Holborn, M., Chapman, S. and Moore, S. 2013. Sociology: Themes and
Perspectives. 8th edn. pp. 95-99, pp. 101-102, pp. 150-153. London: HarperCollins.
• Lorber, J. 2000. "Night to His Day": The Social Construction of Gender. In: Adams, M.,
Blumenfeld, W., Castaneda, C., Hackman, H.W., Peters, M.L. and Zúniga, X. (eds.)
Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. 2nd edn. pp. 321 - 326. New York: Routledge.
• Paechter, C. 2006 Masculine femininities/feminine masculinities: power, identities and
gender . Gender and Education, 18(3): 253-263. [online]. Available at:
http://research.gold.ac.uk/1551/1/EDU_Paechter_2006a.pdf. [Accessed 10 July 2019].