IAES International Journal of Robotics and Automation (IJRA)

Vol. 13, No. 3, September 2024, pp. 338~350

ISSN: 2722-2586, DOI: 10.11591/ijra.v13i3.pp338-350  338

Wireless sensor networks protocols, applications, and network-

on-chip communications

Ompal1,2, Niraj Kumar2, Vishnu Mohan Mishra3, Adesh Kumar4

1
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Veer Madho Singh Bhandari, Uttarakhand Technical University,
Dehradun, India
2
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, India
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Engineering and Technology, Ghurdauri, Pauri Garhwal,
Uttarakhand, India
4
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a network consisting of self-governing
sensors that are deployed in space and communicate with each other using
Received Mar 6, 2024 wireless technology to monitor physical or environmental variables. These
Revised Jun 29, 2024 networks generally include compact, inexpensive sensor nodes equipped
Accepted Jul 7, 2024 with sensing, processing, and communication functionalities. WSNs are
specifically engineered to gather data from their immediate environment, do
local data processing, and subsequently communicate pertinent information
Keywords: either to a central hub or to other interconnected nodes within the network.
Continuous research in the domain of WSNs is devoted to advancing
Communication protocols security concerns, developing novel sensing technologies, and optimizing
Network-on-chip communication protocols. The advancements in these domains enhance the
Performance parameters ongoing development and efficiency of WSNs. The WSNs are very
Wireless communication important for getting information from the real world in many situations.
Wireless sensor network WSNs are flexible tools for keeping an eye on and controlling different
environments because they have sensor nodes, wireless communication, and
distributed processing. WSNs use network-on-chip (NoC) communication
architecture to connect sensor nodes. The article explains the introduction to
WSN, the background of wireless communication, motivation, ZigBee
protocol, and WSN applications.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Adesh Kumar
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, UPES
Dehradun, India
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
The latest developments in microelectromechanical systems, processor technologies, and low-power
radio communication technologies have produced low-power, low-cost, multi-functional small sensor devices
that can track alterations in the physical spectacles of their surroundings and respond accordingly [1]. These
sensing capabilities of such devices can be combined to produce an overall result when connected via
wireless media. An array of radio transceivers or transducers are features of wireless sensors that enable them
to gather data about their environment. These sensors can spontaneously establish themselves into an ad-hoc
multi-hop system to interact with one another and one or additional sink nodes when placed in a sensor field
in large numbers. With the help of the sink, a remote operator can send instructions to the sensor-based
communication network, giving the sensors the responsibility for data processing, collection, and
transmission [2]. The user can also subsequently utilize the sink to access the network-based sensed data.

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IAES Int J Rob & Autom ISSN: 2722-2586  339

The sensors connect the physical and digital worlds by catching and disclosing phenomena that
occur in the actual world and converting them into a format that can be managed, saved, and used for
information [3]. Sensors are widely used in machines, settings, and gadgets, and have a significant positive
social impact. They can reduce the likelihood of disastrous infrastructure failures, protect priceless natural
possessions, boost throughput, improve safety, and make possible innovative requests like context-responsive
systems and smart home automation technologies. The spectacular advancements in technologies like
wireless communications, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), and very large-scale integration (VLSI)
have all contributed to the extensive adoption of disseminated sensor communication environments. For
instance, the remarkable advancements in semiconductor technologies endure in producing microprocessors
with smaller forms and higher processing rates [4]. Small, low-cost, and low-power sensors, actuators, and
controllers may now be created because of the shrinking of computing and sensing technology. Additionally,
embedded computer systems are often interfaced directly with the real-time world and are created to only
accomplish a small set of specific operations that remain to find use in an expanding variety of fields. There
is a growing emphasis on systems to monitor and safeguard pipeline infrastructure, the national power grid,
and civil structures like tunnels, bridges roads even if defense and aerospace systems continue to dominate
the market [5]. Multiple sensor nodes are already governed in networks to monitor the larger geographic
location for exhibiting, forecasting, and modeling environment behavior and parameters in flooding, and
pollution, gathering operational health care data, monitoring the bridges using vibration sensors, and handling
pesticide, water, and fertilize amount to advance the crop quantity and health [6]. The growing number of
sensors transmit the acquired data wirelessly to a centralized dispensation station, even while many sensors
physically connect to controllers and other handling stations in the local area network (LAN). This is crucial
since many complicated requests require thousands and hundreds of sensor nodes, many of which are placed
in difficult-to-reach locations and remote locations. Consequently, a wireless sensor also includes a sensing
module, data processing, communication, and parameter storage capabilities. With these developments, a
sensor node is now frequently responsible for not just collecting data objectively but also for correlating,
analyzing networks, and fusing data from both its sensors and those of other sensor nodes. A WSN is
generated when several sensor nodes cooperate to cooperatively monitor a sizable physical environment [7].
The sensor nodes interact not only with one another but also with the base station (BS), enabling
with the help of their wireless communication radios to transmit their sensor data to distant handling,
analysis, visualization, and storage systems. Figure 1 depicts the data processing in WSN two sensor nodes
used to monitor two different geographical areas and use their BS to access the Internet. The abilities of the
sensor nodes in specific WSNs might vary greatly. For instance, simple sensor nodes might be used to track a
single bodily event, whereas more complex devices could incorporate a variety of sensing modalities such as
acoustic, optical, and magnetic. Additionally, they may have different ways of communicating, such as using
ultrasonic, infrared, or radio frequency technologies, all of which have different data rates and latencies.
Additional controlling devices, which are used with substantial data processing, storage capacity, and energy,
may be used to conduct complex handling and aggregation functions, whereas simple sensors may merely
gather and send statistics about their sensing environment. Such devices frequently take on extra roles in a
WSN, such as forming communication backbones that other sensor devices with limited resources can utilize
to connect to the base station. In addition, this is crucial, some devices may be connected to additional
supporting technologies, including global positioning system (GPS) receivers, allowing them to pinpoint their
location. Additionally, these systems usually consume too much energy to be useful for cheap, low-power
sensor nodes [8].

Process Sensing Conditioning ADC Signal processing

• Input • Sensors • Signal conditioner • Analog to digital • Processor
converter

Process Actuation Conditioning DAC

• Output • Actuator Signal Conditioner • Digital to Analog
Converter

Figure 1. Data processing in WSN [9]

Simple point elements or multipoint detection arrays can be used as sensors. For the abstraction and
preprocessing operation of physical surroundings data, nodes are often outfitted with one or additional
application-specific sensors and on-node signal communication competencies. Embedded network sensing
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refers to the cooperative integration of micro-sensors in surroundings or structures; embedded sensing

provides intensive monitoring of the system under study in both space and time (e.g., an environment, a
building, or a battlefield). It may be that many sensors involve only a small amount of energy from the
battery or line feed farther down the power consumption chain. Sensors can also be passive or self-powered.
Some sensors might require extremely high-power feeds at the top of the power-consumption chain (e.g., for
radars). Sensors make instrumenting and regulating buildings, cars, homes, offices, cities, and the
environment easier, particularly as commercial off-the-shelf machinery develops more readily accessible
[10]. Aircraft, ships, and buildings can self-detect physical defects utilizing particularly, embedded
networked sensing based on sensor communication technology such as fatigue-induced cracks. Detecting
airborne contaminants like poisons and tracking their source, if any, can be done in public gathering places.
This is also possible in ground and underground conditions. Building sensors that are designed for
earthquakes can help assess structural damage and locate potential survivors; tsunami-alerting sensors are
helpful for countries with long coasts. In-depth applications of sensors for reconnaissance and surveillance
are also found on the battlefield.
A sensor is a device that is used to capture data for the physical process and convert it into electrical
signals that can be used to measure, process, assess, and record. Any real-world data, including those related
to pressure, force, temperature, sound, light, motion, flow, position, radiation, and humidity could be a part of
a physical process. A sensor-based system is a network made up of computing equipment, sensors, and
communication apparatuses that can be used to monitor, record, and react to events and phenomena. Events
may resemble the real-time communication and physical world, manufacturing setting, or a genetic system,
while the body in charge of controlling or keeping watch may be a customer application, civil government
agency, military force, or an industrial organization. These sensor-based communication networks can be
applied for telemetry in medicine, remote sensing, data gathering, monitoring, and other purposes. Sensors, a
controller, and a communication system make up a typical sensor network. When a wireless protocol is used
to implement the communication system in a sensor network, the networks are referred to as WSNs [11].
The factors stated thus far can be considered when designing WSN nodes. Using a dynamic definition of the
most cost-effective operating circumstances, a dynamic power management (DPM) method tries to reduce
the system’s power consumption once the design time parameters have been fixed.

2. MOTIVATION
The motivation for the recent developments in the new domain relating to sensor design,
communication-based information technology (IT), and wireless methods inventions are the consequence of
current communication, engineering, and system-level networking developments. A bridge between the real
and digital worlds can be built using such sophisticated sensors. Sensors are active in an extensive diversity
of products, industries, and equipment to aid in avoiding setup failures, accidents, the conservation of
wildlife and expected resources, the augmentation of production and the provision of security. The
implementation of distributed sensor networks is a result of technological developments in VLSI, MEMS,
and wireless communication. Modern semiconductor technology has made it possible to create powerful
microprocessors that are more compact than those found in previous-generation goods. Due to the shrinking
of computing, processing, and sensing technologies, low-cost sensors, small controllers, and actuators are
now available. It is possible to separate a typical wireless sensor network into two components as follows: a
sensor node in WSN is made up of four fundamental parts: processing unit, sensor, power supply, and
communication system. An ADC converts the analog data that the sensor acquires from the outdoor
environment into digital data. A microprocessor or a microcontroller serves as the primary processing unit
that computes and processes data intelligently. All these components are based on low-power consumption
and electronics. For example, a small battery is applied to power the complete system. The electronic
transmission system comprises a radio receiver and a small-range radio communication system for data
communication and reception. In addition to the sensing element, a sensor node also includes processing,
communication, and storage components. A sensor node is in charge of gathering data from the physical
world, analyzing networks, correlating data, and fusing that data with data from other sensors to all these
characteristics, components, and improvements. Industrial automation and home automation have both made
extensive use of ZigBee [12]. Figure 2 shows the diagram of ZigBee for communication and industrial
automation-related applications. Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) and programmable logic controller
(PLC)-based feedback [13], feedforward, and cascade control mechanisms are the foundation of industrial
automation [14]. These controls are used to regulate various sensing devices, such as level sensors, pressure
sensors, and temperature sensors. Sensor devices can also control these parameters thanks to a variety of
actuators, servomotors, and valves. The full information is gathered for the supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) system deployment [15] during the monitoring at the human machine interface (HMI)

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IAES Int J Rob & Autom ISSN: 2722-2586  341

level in the central room. Such automation requires a more complicated wired communication system. One
wireless technology that can operate in such a setting is ZigBee. Two major factors that greatly impact the
functioning of a wireless sensor network are the minimization of energy consumption and the assurance of
safety. Additional security precautions are necessary for wireless sensor networks, such as encryption and
key management.

Figure 2. ZigBee for communication and industrial automation

3. METHOD
The wireless LAN connects multiple devices to utilize an access point to the larger internet and
wireless distribution technology like spread-spectrum radio or orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM). Users now have the freedom to move within a limited-service area while outstanding associated
with the communication network. Wi-Fi communication is used to identify most contemporary wireless
LANs, which follow the IEEE 802.11 standards. Wi-Fi LANs have grown in popularity in households and
commercial complexes that offer their clients wireless access often for free due to their ease of installation.
Extensive wireless network deployments are being developed in several of the most important cities. A
representation of successful Wi-Fi transmission with Ethernet, a Wi-Fi dish, a Wi-Fi router, and an internet
service provider. Commonly adopting various radio frequency (RF) methods, widely used wireless
communication devices typically operate in frequency ranges that are shared by numerous users. Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi, and newer ZigBee are specific technology examples used for communication. All three of them work
in the unrestricted working in 2.4 GHz band, also referred to as the ISM band, which has proved essential to
the growth of a vibrant and cutting-edge industry for embedded wireless communication devices. However,
the peaceful coexistence of various technologies is essential for each user of these bands to achieve its
communication goals, just as it is with any shared resource. Communication technologies that transmit, for
occurrence, at extremely different energy intensities may inhibit one another, despite efforts by standards
bodies to assure peaceful coexistence. It has been explicitly observed that Wi-Fi traffic may theoretically
interfere with ZigBee if both protocols interact on the matching channel, but Wi-Fi broadcasts frequently
ensue at significantly advanced energy levels.

3.1. Peer to peer

Ad-hoc networks, often known as Wi-Fi direct networks, are ones where stations only speak to one
another (P2P). No one grants permission to speak, and there is no basis. This works well when using the self-
governing simple provision set. All other devices in the P2P Wi-Fi group are clients, while the cluster
possessor [16] serves as the access point. The Wi-Fi direct group can have a group owner by using one of
two major procedures. One method involves manually setting up a P2P cluster possessor. The name of this
technique is independent cluster possessor. Two devices compete in the additional technique, also known as
negotiation-based cluster conception, according to the cluster owner concentrating assessment. The group
owner of the group is the device with the greater intent value, and the client is the second device. The
outstanding battery life, whether it was previously a cluster possessor in the alternative collection, and/or the
first wireless device’s anticipated signal strength can all affect the group owner intent value if the wireless
device establishes a cross-connection between a setup wireless LAN facility and a P2P cluster [17]. Wireless

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devices can communicate with one another directly through a peer-to-peer (P2P) network. Without using
central access points, wireless devices that are close to one another can find and speak with one another
directly. Usually, two computers will employ this technique to join forces to create a system. If the signal
power meter is applicable in this scenario, it may not reliably deliver the intensity and may even be deceptive
because it measures the intensity of the robust signal, which might be the definite signal from the nearest
computer. Carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the foundation upon which IEEE
802.11 outlines the physical (PHY) layer and medium access control (MAC) layers. The 802.11 protocol
incorporates measures intended to reduce collisions since two portable devices may be within range of the
same admission point but not within reach of one another. Ad-hoc mode and infrastructure mode are the two
fundamental modes of the 802.11 protocol. Mobile devices broadcast straight P2P when in an ad-hoc manner.
When operating in infrastructure mode, mobile devices connect to wire network infrastructure via a contact
point that acts as a channel for communication. The 802.11 communication researchers additionally added
encryption methods based on shared-key mechanisms: Wi-Fi protected access (WPA), and wired equivalent
privacy (WEP), to safeguard wireless processor systems because wireless communication uses a more open
standard for transmission than wired LANs. Figure 3 presents an example of peer-to-peer topology.

Figure 3. Peer-to-peer topology

3.2. Bridge
The bridge associates the different networks, usually of various sorts. The devices on a wired
Ethernet communication system can join a wireless setup using a wireless Ethernet embedded bridge. The
bridge assists as a wireless LAN accessing point. Figure 4 presents the bridge network used to communicate
between two hub networks. A bridge receives every frame or packet from LAN segments. To determine
which LAN or segment a packet is coming from and going to the bridge, create a table of addresses. All data
chunks and packets from LAN are directed to computers on LAN that are delivered by the bridge, which then
discards them all. Conversely, packets from one LAN are sent to a computer on another LAN that is read by
the bridge and then retransmitted to the LAN. Bridges are used to divide large, demanding networks into
several smaller, consistent networks to increase implementation. Bridges also allow the physical scope of a
system to expand. Additionally, bridges are used to establish a disconnected relationship between two LAN
segments using a synchronous modem component. WSN platforms have the feasibility that sensors are
positioned in a number of different locations throughout the bridge in a typical wireless sensor network
platform, which is used for the switching of bridges. In order to gather information about their surroundings,
the sensors that have been deployed and are dispersed throughout the structure conduct data collection.

3.3. Distribution
The wireless linking of contact sockets in an IEEE 802.11 system is made possible by a wireless
distribution system. Instead of a cable backbone connecting them, as is typically necessary, it enables a
wireless communication system to be extended by utilizing many contact points. The MAC addresses of
client packets are preserved by wireless distribution system (WDS) over other solutions across links between

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access points, which is a significant advantage. A contact point may be a foremost, relay, or distant base
location. If WPA and WEP keys are fully employed, all base places in the wireless dissemination network
should be aligned to use the identical radio channel or to be shared with them. The scheme could be set up
with various service set identifiers. The individual base station must be set up to advance to other stations in
the network for WDS to function. WDS is also frequently stated as a repeater approach since it performs
bridge and receives wireless consumers simultaneously unlike the customary association of nodes. Moreover,
the throughput in this technique is halved for all wirelessly associated users [18]. Figure 5 depicts the case of
distributed topology when connecting a network’s access points proving difficult repeaters can also be
installed as access points. The following are some features and considerations that are associated with the
implementation of a NoC for WSN.

Figure 4. Bridge network Figure 5. Example of distributed topology [19]

− Energy efficiency: Energy efficiency is important for WSN sensor nodes, which are generally battery
powered. Communication energy usage should be minimized via the NoC. The use of energy-efficient
routing algorithms and protocols is required to connect nodes without wasting energy.
− Topology: The configuration of NoC is of utmost importance. Various topologies, such as mesh, tree, or
cluster-based topologies, may be appropriate depending on the specific application and deployment
environment. The topology should be engineered to maximize communication efficiency [20] and
minimize total energy usage.
− Scalability: WSNs can exhibit significant variations in terms of their physical dimensions. The NoC
should possess the ability to scale and handle varying quantities of sensor nodes without experiencing
notable declines in performance. Scalability considerations encompass routing algorithms that can adjust
to variations in network size and effective techniques for addressing and managing nodes [21].
− Real-time communication: Certain applications of WSN necessitate instantaneous communication, as
seen in industrial automation or healthcare monitoring. The NoC should be capable of accommodating the
demands of real-time communication. It is required to create communication protocols that can ensure
predictable and consistent performance in terms of both speed and dependability for applications that
require precise timing [22].
− Reliability: Sensor nodes are susceptible to failures or may have limited capabilities. The NoC should be
engineered to effectively manage node failures and guarantee dependable connectivity. To improve the
reliability of the communication infrastructure, it is possible to include redundancy and fault-tolerant
technologies.
− Quality of service (QoS): Communication requirements for distinct sensor nodes may differ depending on
the application. The capability of the NoC to deliver varying levels of QoS should be contingent upon the
requirements of the nodes.
− Security: The deployment of WSNs in sensitive environments raises substantial security concerns
incorporating authentication and encryption mechanisms to safeguard communications. Additionally,
intrusion detection mechanisms and secure routing protocols may be incorporated into the design of the
NoC [23].
− Resource management: WSNs rely heavily on effective resource administration. To maximize the
utilization of resources, the NoC ought to contemplate mechanisms that govern power management, data
aggregation, and dynamic resource allocation.
− Cross-layer optimization: The design of communication protocols may be influenced by cross-layer
optimization strategies, which consider interactions across multiple protocol stack layers. As a result,
WSN solutions may become more streamlined and individualized.
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4. STANDARD ZIGBEE PROTOCOL

IEEE 802.15.4 standard includes the MAC and PHY layers and are the foundation for the ZigBee
network layer stack. The RF and communication components used for interfacing with other devices are
found in the MAC and PHY layers. An application support sub-layer, a networking layer, and a security
service provider (SSP) make up the ZigBee stack [24]. ZigBee and IEEE 802.15.4 each have their pros and
disadvantages. Low data rates or smaller bandwidths are both technologies’ principal drawbacks. Therefore,
only applications requiring modest data transmission rates can use these protocols. The system’s power use,
price, and complexity all rise when the data rate is increased. Power usage must be kept to a minimum
because sensor nodes are spread out in the field. The favored method is typically battery powered. In
addition, a large bandwidth is not necessary for sensor data. Figure 6 indicates that for a small sensor
network, ZigBee is the best protocol. The three primary network topologies utilized in ZigBee wireless
networking are the star, point-to-point, and mesh networks [25]. These topologies can be applied in various
contexts and settings. Most often, a single communication line is replaced by a point-to-point system. A
point-to-point network can work successfully when its two endpoints are close to one another. A wireless
point-to-multipoint system is another name for star topology. IEEE 802.11 or Bluetooth is the system’s
primary foundation. There is just one primary base station in the system, and it regulates connectivity with all
other end nodes. The caliber of the RF link between each end node and the base station determines how
reliable this network is. The main issue with this system is that it can be challenging to locate a base station
that is suited for industrial applications and can interact with each end node. Peer-to-peer networks are
another name for mesh topology.
An ad hoc multi-hop system is what this one is. Each node in a ZigBee-based mesh network can
send and receive data [26]. Data will thus safely get to its intended location via intermediate nodes, and
reliably reach its destination. The network has numerous redundant communication channels. The mesh
network has three crucial characteristics: self-configuration, self-healing, and scalability. ZigBee mesh
networks automatically form; there is no need for manual configuration. New nodes are recognized by the
network and are automatically added. Moreover, if a node stops working, the network reroutes
communications through different channels to avoid it. The ZigBee specification states that a mesh network
can have up to 65,536 network node clients.
An application could be made up of interconnected items that work together to do the required
activities. The primary goal of ZigBee is to spread work across numerous router components that are housed
and contained by distinct ZigBee nodes, which together form a network [27]. This work is often mostly
indigenous to each end device, such as the controlling of individually distinct home machines. The group of
items that make up the system interact via the APS conveniences, which are controlled through ZigBee
device object (ZDO) interfaces. The request-confirm/indication-response pattern is used by the application-
level data facility. A single device can support up to 240 application objects with numbers between 1 and
240. The range between 241 and 254 is not present in practice but maybe in the upcoming time, ‘0’ is set
aside for the ZDO interlink of data, and 255 is set aside for transmission. In ZigBee 1.0, application objects
can access two services. Key-value pair (KVP) or key-value enabled pair facility, which is used for this
arrangement. Through a straightforward interlink built on get/set and occurrence primitives, it allows for the
depiction, application, and alteration of object properties, with some permitting an application for the reply.
Compressed extensible markup language (XML) (the occupied XML may also be utilized) is used in
configuration to offer a flexible and elegant approach. By providing a universal approach to information
treatment, the message service is intended to obviate the need to modify application procedures and any
impending overhead caused by KVP. It permits the transmission of any payload over application support
sublayer (APS) frames. A component of the application layer is addressing. An 802.15.4-compliant radio
transceiver plus one or more components descriptions ultimately, assortments of features that may be
sampled, set, or watched through events that make up a network node [28]. The devices inside a node are
identified by endpoint identifiers that fall within the range of 1-240, with the transceiver serving as the base
for addressing.
WSNs employ diverse protocols to facilitate communication between the sensor nodes. These
protocols specifically target the distinct obstacles encountered in WSNs, including constrained energy
resources, fluctuating communication circumstances, and the requirement for optimal data transmission.
Figure 7 presents several frequently utilized protocols in WSNs. An automated home management system’s
light switch is one such example in which most typical ZigBee network topologies are configured for
effective communication in the nodes. In a star network, a single coordinator is responsible for starting up
and overseeing several nodes. Only the coordinator can receive communications from end devices. ZigBee
application layer architecture includes the application support layer, the ZigBee device object, and
application objects defined by the manufacturer. The application layer is responsible for several tasks,
including the maintenance of the binding database and the transmission of messages between bound devices.

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Figure. 6 Network topology associate for ZigBee [29]

IEEE 802.15.4
•This standard specifies the physical and MAC (Medium Access Control) layers for low-rate wireless personal
area networks (LR-WPANs). Its low power consumption and appropriateness for short-range communication
make it extensively utilized in WSNs.

(IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks)

•6LoWPAN allows IPv6 on low-power wireless networks. It helps integrate WSNs with existing network
infrastructure by connecting them to the internet.

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

•CoAP is a simple application-layer protocol made for networks and devices that do not have a lot of space. It is
often used in WSNs to let devices with limited resources talk to each other. CoAP and 6LoWPAN are often used
together.

Zigbee
•Based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, Zigbee is a group of high-level chat systems. Low-cost, low-power, and
low-data-rate apps are what it’s made for. Zigbee is often used for WSNs, home automation, and industrial
control.

Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT)

•A simple publish-subscribe messaging system called MQTT is often used for IoT applications, such as WSNs. It
makes contact between sensor nodes and a main server or gateway quick and easy.

Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL)

•For WSNs that use low-power, lossy links, there is a routing protocol called RPL.It determines efficient paths
between sensor nodes. Combining RPL with 6LoWPAN is a popular practice.

Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH)

•LEACH protocol is used in WSNs that utilizes clustering to reduce energy consumption using the nodes into
clusters led by a rotating cluster leader. This facilitates the distribution of energy demand and extends the
lifespan of the network.

Mobile and Ad-hoc Networks for Tiny embedded Systems (MANTIS)

• The MANTIS communication architecture framework offers communication, routing, and localization protocols
that effectively tackle the distinct obstacles presented by sensor nodes with limited resources.

Sensor Protocol for Information via Negotiation (SPIN)

• SPIN is a family of protocols utilized in WSNs to aggregate distributed data. By negotiating the transmission of
solely pertinent information between nodes, it minimizes redundancy and preserves energy, thereby optimizing
communication.

Transmission Energy Protocol (TEP)

•The TEP protocol considers the energy consumption of both communication and sensing activities in WSNs. It
dynamically modulates the transmission power of nodes according to the distance to the destination, with the
goal of conserving energy.

Figure 7. Major protocols of WSN

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5. DISCUSSION
Numerous applications of WSNs are either already in mature use or are still in the infancy phases of
research. Some of the major applications are highlighted here.
− Area monitoring: WSNs are frequently used for area monitoring. The nodes are deployed in WSN across
a region during area monitoring to keep an eye on a certain phenomenon [30]. Geo-fencing of oil
pipelines or gas is an example of a civilian application; using sensors to identify opponent entry is a
military example. One of the base stations receives a signal from the sensors indicating the monitored
event such as heat or pressure, which is then dealt with appropriately such as by directing a message to a
satellite or through the internet. In the same way, WSN may use a range of sensors, from motorcycles to
railway cars, to locate vehicles.
− Environmental/earth monitoring: WSNs have been widely used for environmental parameters such as
pressure, humidity temperature, and pressure. for real-time monitoring of earth data. The concept of
‘Environmental Sensor Networks’ has grown to encompass an extensive variety of WSN submissions in
earth science study and related research. This includes detecting glaciers, oceans, forests, and volcanoes.
These are a few of the key areas.
− Forest fire detection: To determine whether a forest fire has started, a collection of sensor network nodes
can be set up there. The nodes may have sensors that record temperature, humidity, and gases released by
burning wood or other vegetation. The fire contingent will be capable of recognizing when a fire is
happening and how it is increasing owing to WSN, which is essential for the firefighters’ ability to act
successfully.
− Air pollution monitoring: The concentration of dangerous substances is being monitored by WSN in
several major cities, including Stockholm, London, and Brisbane, for the benefit of the local population.
WSNs are used to monitor air pollution in India as well, in places like Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore,
Kolkata, and Mumbai. Instead of using wired installations, these can proceed with the benefits of ad-hoc
wireless communication networks, accessing them additionally transportable for challenging
interpretations in various locations [31]. Many topologies and different kinds of data exploration and
insertion can be employed for these applications.
− Landslide detection: The landslide exposure method makes use of WSN to detect minute soil activities
and changes in a variety of limitations that may occur before or during a landslide. Additionally, utilizing
the collected data, it may be possible to anticipate the likelihood of landslides far before they occur.
− Machine health monitoring: WSNs have been created for condition-based maintenance (CBM) of
machinery because they offer substantial budget reductions and open the door to new functions. Often,
installing enough sensors is impossible due to the value of wiring in wired systems. Wireless sensors can
now access previously inaccessible regions, dangerous or limited areas, whirling machinery, and mobile
resources.
− Data logging: WSNs are also used to collect data for the monitoring of environmental statistics. This might
be as simple as keeping track of a refrigerator’s temperature or a nuclear power plant’s overflow tank’s
water level. After that, the statistical data can be used to demonstrate how well the systems have performed.
The “live” data stream that is possible with WSNs gives them an edge over traditional loggers [32].
− Industrial sense and control applications: Numerous wireless sensor network communication protocols
have been created in recent years of research. While earlier studies mostly concentrated on power
cognizance, more research that is current has started to take an extensive range of factors into account,
such as the dependability of wireless links, real-time competencies, and QoS. These new attributes are
seen as key enablers for forthcoming wireless sense and controller applications in industrial settings as
well as those that are related, and they have the potential to supplement or completely replace traditional
wired networks.
− Water/wastewater monitoring: The water and wastewater sectors offer numerous prospects for the use of
wireless sensor networks. It is feasible to monitor facilities that are not wired for power or data
transmission using manufactured wireless I/O components and sensors powered by battery packs or solar
panels, as well as being used in pollution control boards.
− Agriculture: A growing trend in the agricultural sector is the use of wireless sensor networks, which
relieve farmers of the maintenance-intensive task of maintaining wiring in challenging conditions.
Wireless I/O components can operate pumps, and water applications can be detected and wirelessly
relayed back to the main controlling center for advertising. Pressure transmitters can be used to monitor
water tank levels in gravity-feed water systems. Automation in irrigation provides more effective water
usage and lowers waste.
− Greenhouse monitoring: WSNs also manage the humidity and temperature levels within viable
greenhouses. The greenhouse administrator gets information and related data via email or textual

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IAES Int J Rob & Autom ISSN: 2722-2586  347

communication when the temperature and humidity fall below predetermined thresholds for host systems
to avoid activating misting networks, opening vents, turning on fans, or controlling a range of other
system reactions.
− Structural monitoring: WSN can be used to monitor movement inside of buildings and infrastructure,
such as embankments, bridges, flyovers, and tunnels, sparing engineering practice from the expense of
site visits and allowing it to take advantage of daily data, as opposed to the traditional method of
collecting this data, which required physical site visits and, in some cases, required closing roads or rail
lines. It is also far more accurate than a visual inspection. Figure 8 presents the applications of WSN.
− Passive localization and tracking: Utilizing the ubiquitous and affordable behavior of such technology as
well as the characteristics of the wireless associations, which are recognized in mesh interconnected WSN
nodes in communication infrastructure, the submission of WSN to the inactive localization and following
of non-cooperative targets has been utilized in such applications as people who lack identification tags,
mask, or any other identity [33].
− Smart home monitoring: Using wireless sensors included in common objects to build a WSN, monitoring
actions carried out in a smart home is made possible. The wireless sensor network, which enables
activity-support services, records state deviations to objects based on human operation.

Area MonitoringEnvironmental/
Medical Care Earth
Monitoring
Smart Home Air Pollution
Monitoring Monitoring

Power Plant Forest Fire

Monitoring Detection

Structural Landslide
Monitoring Detection
WSN

Passive
Industrial
Localization and
Monitoring
Tracking

Greenhouse
Data Logging
Monitoring

Industrial Sense
Machine Health
and Control
Monitoring
Applications
Waste Water
Agriculture
Monitoring

Figure 8. Applications of WSN [34]–[36]

The infrastructure is very impost for smart communication and a smart city, and the safety lifecycle
for fully autonomous cars is all part of the recommended smart communication solution [37]. It is crucial to
localize sensor nodes because without knowing where they came from, the data they collect may be
worthless. Some of the sensor nodes may run out of battery life too soon and stop performing their intended
purpose because of the network’s unevenly loaded data and the limited battery life [38]. This could cause the
network to become divided, with some parts of the network unable to transmit their sensed data to the sink
node. In this case, we must deploy additional new nodes into the network [39], [40].

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348  ISSN: 2722-2586

6. CONCLUSION
A multidisciplinary approach is required when designing a NoC for WSN considering hardware
design, energy efficiency, communication protocols, and application-specific requirements. Before deploying
a NoC into a real-world environment, simulation, and modeling tools may also be useful for assessing the
efficacy of various NoC designs. The research can concentrate on augmenting the efficiency of NoC by
enhancing data transfer speeds, minimizing latency, and optimizing power consumption by designing
optimized routing algorithms and protocols to enhance communication efficiency among on-chip
components. The integration of WSN IoT and edge computing enables advanced data processing and
decision-making capabilities, enhancing research in the field of Integration with IoT and edge computing.
Exploring the function of WSN facilitating applications such as smart cities, healthcare monitoring, and
environmental sensing. Researchers in both NoC and WSN collaborate to investigate combined solutions that
utilize the advantages of both technologies. This includes developing communication systems that are both
energy-efficient and scalable, specifically designed for emerging applications.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to the UPES Communication System Lab for providing the platform for carrying out
the work.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Ompal a research scholar in the Electronics and Communication Engineering

Department, Veer Madho Singh Bhandari Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun India.
He is M. Tech in Electronics & Communication Engineering from M.M.M Engineering
College, Gorakhpur. He is also working as an assistant professor in the Department of
Electronics & Communication Engineering, UIET, Chhatrapati Sahu Ji Maharaj University,
Kanpur, India. His areas of interest are digital systems, wireless communication, and VLSI
design. He can be contacted at [email protected].

Wireless sensor networks protocols, applications, and network-on-chip communications (Ompal)

350  ISSN: 2722-2586

Niraj Kumar is working as an associate professor in Department of Electronics

and Communication Engineering, UIET, Chhatrapati Sahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur,
India. He is a Ph.D. in Electronics and Communication Engineering Department, Veer Madho
Singh Bhandari Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun India His areas of interest are
digital systems, smart grid communication, and VLSI design. He can be contacted at
[email protected].

Vishnu Mohan Mishra is working as a professor and Head of the Department of

Electrical Engineering at G. B Pant Engineering College, Pauri Garhwal India, and assistant
professor at Madan Mohan Malviya Engineering College, Gorakhpur, India. He has a B.E. in
Electrical Engineering from M.M.M Engineering College, Gorakhpur, an M.Tech. in Power
Systems from NIT Kurukshetra, and a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Uttar Pradesh
Technical University, Lucknow, India. His areas of interest are an area of teaching and
research are power electronics and drives, electrical machines, power systems, facts
controllers TSR, TSC, SVC, STATCOM, UPFC, power quality, harmonics analysis,
harmonics injection due to different sources, motor drives controls using artificial
intelligence, genetic algorithms and fuzzy controllers. He can be contacted at
[email protected].

Adesh Kumar has been working as a professor in the Department of Electrical

and Electronics, Engineering, in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
School of Advanced Engineering, The University of Petroleum and Energy Studies (UPES),
Dehradun, India since 2010. He has a B.Tech. in Electronics and Communication Engineering
from UPTU, Lucknow India in 2006. MTech (Hons) in Embedded Systems Technology, from
SRM University, Chennai in 2008. Ph.D. (Electronics Engineering) from UPES, Dehradun
India in 2014. He has also worked as a Senior Engineer in TATA ELXSI LIMITED
Bangalore and as a faculty member in ICFAI University, Dehradun. His areas of interest are
VLSI design, embedded systems design, telecommunications, and signal processing. He has
supervised 8 Ph.D. scholars, and 5 candidates are doing research under his supervision. He
has worked on more than 10 editorial assignments for Edited books, Conference proceedings,
and journals, having citations of more than 2000, H-index-25, i10-index-45. He has 16 years
of experience in the teaching research industry, published more than 120 research papers in
international peer-reviewed journals (SCI/Scopus) and conferences. He can be contacted at:
[email protected]; or [email protected].

IAES Int J Rob & Autom, Vol. 13, No. 3, September 2024: 338-350