COMPUTER NETWORKS

(16BF22)
- 6th Sem BCA

Unit 1- INTRODUCTION

Presented by :
C P Harshitha
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 Uses of Computer Networks

 Business Applications

 Home Applications

 Mobile Users

 Social Issues

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 Business Applications
 Resource sharing
( Goal is to make all programs, equipments, and data available to anyone on the network
without regard to physical location of the resource and the user).

 The process of conveying from one entity to another.

 Client Server Model : client, server, administrator.

(applicable if client & server are in same building)

 Remote web Server.

 2 processes : one on client machine,

one on server machine.

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 2 processes : one on client machine,
one on server machine.

E-mail.
Far apart employees working & writing report together.
Video Conferencing.
Doing business electronically, especially suppliers and consumers.
E-Commerce.

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 Home Applications

Popular uses of the Internet for home users:

• Access to remote information. ( WWW, newspaper, digital library)

• Person-to-person communication. ( E-mail, instant messaging, chat room, peer-to-peer
communication, Napster, Internet Gambling, Telelearning).
• Interactive entertainment. ( Live television, multiperson real-time simulation games).
• Electronic Commerce. ( Home shopping , on-line technical support on any products
usage)

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 Mobile Users
Portable systems.
Fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery.
Wireless networks in military.

Vending machine.
Utility meter reading.

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 Any Questions?

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Social Issues
• Views posted in social groups may be deeply offensive to some people.

• Network is just like a telephone company/ post office and cannot be expected to police
what its users say.

• Cookies stored in web browsers.

• Anonymous accusations cannot be used as evidence, but helps to blow whistle on illegal
behaviour of higher authorities.

• Electronic junk mail (spam) may contain virus.

• Copyright violations.
Network Hardware

• 2 dimensions : Transmission technology and scale.

• 2 types of transmission technology :

• Broadcast links.
• Point-to-point links.
Broadcast Networks
• A single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the network.

• Small messages called packets – sent & received by stations.

• Multicasting.

• Personal Area Networks, LAN, MAN, WAN.

Point-to-point Networks
• Consist of many connections between individual pairs of machines.

• One sender one receiver – Unicast.

Classifying networks in their scale
Local Area Networks (LAN)
• Privately owned network within a single building or campus.
• Used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices to share
resources & exchange information.
• 3 Characteristics :
1. their size,
2. their transmission technology,
3. their topology
• Speed : 10Mbps to 100 Mbps. Newer LANs upto 10Gbps.
• Bus based broadcast network with decentralized control – Ethernet.
• IEEE 802.5 & FDDI – Ring based LAN.
• Broadcast networks : static, dynamic.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

• Covers a city, ex: cable television network.

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

• Spans large geographical area.

• Hosts are connected by communication
subnet/ subnet. Owned & operated by
telephone company or ISP.
• Subnet consists of : transmission lines &
switching elements.
• Transmission lines move bits between
links.
• Switching elements are specialized
computers that connect three or more
transmission lines.
• Subnet organized according to the
principle: Store-and-forward/ packet
switched.
• When a packet arrives at router
A, it is up to A to decide if this
packet should be sent to the line
B or the line C.
• These decision of A is routing
algorithm.
Wireless Networks
• Ship-to-shore wireless telegraph using Morse code.
• 3 categories: System Interconnection
Wireless LANs.
Wireless WANs.
• System interconnection – interconnecting components of computer using short range
radio.
• Bluetooth allows devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within
range.
• Uses master slave paradigm.
• In wireless LAN systems, every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which it
can communicate with other systems.

• IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless LANs.

• If systems are close, they can communicate through peer-to-peer configuration.

• The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth
wireless systems – Wireless WAN.
• 3 generations.
• Similar to wireless LAN, except the distances involved are much greater & bit
rates much lower.
Home Networks

• Computers (desktop PC, notebook PC, PDA, shared peripherals).

• Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camcorder, camera, stereo, MP3).
• Telecommunications (Telephone, mobile telephone, intercom, fax).
• Appliances (microwave, refrigerator, clock, furnace, airco, lights)
• Telemetry (utility meter, smoke/burglar alarm, thermostat, babycam).
Internetworks
• Gateways are used to make connection and provide the necessary translation, both in
terms of hardware & software.
• Collection of interconnected networks – Internet/ Internetwork.
( collection of LANs connected by a WAN).
Network Software
• Protocol Hierarchies
• Design issues for the layers
• Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
• Service Primitives
• The Relationship of Services to Protocols
Protocol Hierarchies
• Most networks are organized as a stack of layers/ levels, each one built upon the one
below it.

• Each layer is a virtual machine offering certain services to the layer above it.

• Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine.

Rules & convections used – Protocol.

• Entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines – peers.

Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.
Design Issues for the Layers
• As a consequence of having multiple destinations, some form of addressing is needed
in order to specify a specific destination.
• Error Control – Physical communication circuits are not perfect. Error- detecting &
correcting codes are known, but both ends of the connection must agree on which one
is being used.
• Flow Control – limit the sender to an agreed-on transmission rate.
• Multiplexing & Demultiplexing
• Routing – A decision have to be made to select one of the available circuits based on
the current traffic load.
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless

• Connection-oriented service is modeled after the telephone system.

• Connectionless service is modeled after the postal system.
• Quality of Service.
• Reliable connection-oriented service has two variations :
*Message sequences
*Byte streams
• Unreliable connectionless service is called datagram service (no acknowledgement).
• Acknowledged datagram service is reliable.
• Request-reply service : Sender transmits a single datagram containing a request, the
reply contains the answer (Used in Client-server model).
Summary of types of services
Service Primitives

• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations)

available to a user process to access the service.
Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction
on a connection oriented network
The Relationship of Services to Protocols
• A service is a set of primitives that a layer provides to the layer above it.
• A protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets, or
messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
• Service relate to the interfaces between the layers.
• Protocol relate to the packets sent between peer entities on different machines.
Fig. Relationship between a service and a protocol
Reference Models

• OSI Reference Model (Open System Interconnection)

• TCP/IP Reference Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

OSI Reference Model
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
1. Physical Layer
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.
• These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, as
well as the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.
2. Data Link Layer
• The main task : transform a raw transmission facility into a line that appears free of
undetected transmission errors.
• It does so by masking the real errors so the network layer does not see them.
• It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into data frames
and transmit the frames sequentially.
• If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by
sending back an acknowledgement frame.
3. Network Layer
• The network layer controls the operation of the subnet.
• A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination.
• In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin
or even nonexistent.

4. Transport Layer
• The basic function : accept data from above it, split it up into smaller units if need be,
pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the
other end.
• The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel
that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.
5. Session Layer
• Allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them, including
dialog control, token management, synchronization.

6. Presentation Layer
• Concerned with syntax and semantics.

7. Application Layer
• Contains a variety of protocols, HTTP.
TCP/IP Reference Model
1. Host to Network Layer/ Network Interface/ Link Layer
• Concerned with physical transmission of data.
• Accepts IP packets from network layer and encapsulates into frames.

2. Internet Layer
• Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to the destination (potentially on a different network).
• They may even arrive in a completely different order than they were sent, in which
case it is the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired.
3. Transport Layer
• Designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a
conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer.
• Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here.
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that
allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error on
any other machine in the internet.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for
applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide
their own.
4. Application Layer
• Virtual terminal (TELNET), protocol allows a user on one machine to log onto a
distant machine and work there.
• The file transfer protocol (FTP), provides a way to move data efficiently from one
machine to another.
• Electronic mail was originally just a kind of transfer, but later specialized protocol
(SMTP) was developed for it.
Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP Reference Models
• The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on
the concept of a stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers
is roughly similar.
• Again in both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented users of
the transport service.
• Three concepts are central to the OSI model
*Services.
*Interfaces.
*Protocols.
• A layer‘s interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what
the parameters are and what results to expect.
• The imperfections in OSI model listed as follows
*Bad timing.
*Bad technology.
*Bad implementations.
*Bad politics.
• The TCP/IP model and protocols have their problems too. First, the model does
not clearly distinguish the concepts of services, interfaces, and protocols.
• The TCP/IP model is not much of a guide for designing new networks using new
technologies.