UNIT-5

GROUP DYNAMICS
SYLLABUS: Group Dynamics: Types of Groups, Stages of Group
Development, Group Behaviour and Group Performance Factors,
Organizational conflicts: Reasons for Conflicts, Consequences of Conflictsin
Organization, Types of Conflicts, Strategies for Managing Conflicts,
Organizational Climate and Culture, Stress, Causes and effects, coping
strategies of stress

Group: Definition, Functions, Types of Groups

A group is a collection of individuals who interact with each other such that one
person’s actions have an impact on the others. In other words, a group is defined
as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular objectives. In organizations, most work is done
within groups.

What is a Group?
Groups where people get along, feel die desire to contribute to the team, and are
capable of coordinating their efforts may have high-performance levels. Group
can be defined as a collection of individuals who have regular contact and
frequent interaction, mutual influence, the common feeling of camaraderie, and
who work together to achieve a common set of goals.

The definition of a group can be given by some other simple ways like:

 Several people or things that are together or in the same place.

 Several people who are connected by some shared activity, interest, or quality.
 Several individuals assembled or having some unifying relationship.
 A set of people who meet or do something together because they share the same
purpose or ideas.

The term group can be defined in several different ways, depending on the
perspective that is taken.

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 A comprehensive definition would say that is a group exists in an organization,
its members:

 Are motivated to join.

 Perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting with people.
 Contribute in various amounts to the group processes (that is, some people
contribute more time or energy to the group than do Others).
 Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction.

Functions of Groups
The organizational functions of groups help to realize an organization’s goals.

Such functions include the following:

 Working on a complex and independent task that is too complex for an

individual to perform and that cannot be easily broken down into independent
tasks.
 Generating new ideas or creative solutions to solve problems that require inputs
from several people.
 Serving liaison or coordinating functions among several workgroups whose
work is to some extent independent.
 Facilitating the implementation of complex decisions. A group composed of
representatives from various working groups can coordinate the activities of
these interrelated groups.
 Serving as a vehicle for training new employees, groups teach new members
methods of operations and group norms.

The list is not comprehensive. The importance of groups in organizations cannot

be overemphasized because most of the organizational activities are carried out
by groups. Since jobs in organizations are becoming more complex and
interdependent, the use of groups in performing task functions will become
increasingly important.

One of the most common findings from the research on groups in organizations
is that most groups turn out to have both formal and informal functions, they
serve the needs of both organizational and individual members.

Psychological groups, therefore, may well be the key unit for facilitating the
integration of organizational goals and personal needs.

For example, a formal workgroup in an industrial establishment often evolves

into a psychological group that meets a variety of its members’ psychological
needs.

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 If this process occurs, the group often becomes the source of much higher levels
of loyalty, commitment, and energy in the service of organizational goals that
would be possible if the members’psychological needs had to be met elsewhere.

Types of Groups
Groups may be classified according to many dimensions, including function, the
degree of personal involvement and degree of organization.

Types of Groups are;

 Formal Group.
 Informal Group.
 Managed Group.
 Process Group.
 Semi-Formal Groups.
 Goal Group.
 Learning Group.
 Problem-Solving Group
 Friendship Group.
 Interest Group.

Formal Groups
Formal groups are created to achieve specific organizational objectives.
Usually, they are concerned with the coordination of work activities.

People are brought together based on different roles within the structure of the
organization. The nature of the task to be undertaken is a predominant feature of
the formal groups.

Goals are identified by management and short and rules relationships and norms
of behavior established. Formal groups chain to be related to permanent
although there may be changes in actual membership.

However temporary formal groups may also be created by management, for

example, the use of project teams in a matrix organization.

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Informal Groups
Within the formal structure of the organization, there will always be an informal
structure.

The formal structure of the organization and system of role relationship, rule,
and procedures, will be augmented by interpretation and development at the
informal level.

Informal groups are based more on personal relationships and agreement of

group’s members than on defined role relationships. They serve to Satisfy
psychological and social needs not related necessarily to the tasks to be
undertaken.

Groups may devise ways of attempting to satisfy members’ affiliations and

other social motivations that are lacing in the work situation, especially in
industrial organizations.

Managed Group

Groups may be formed under a named manager, even though they may not
necessarily work together with a great deal. The main thing they have in
common, at least the manager and perhaps a similar type of work.

Process Group

The process group acts together to enact a process, going through a relatively
fixed set of instructions. The classic environment is a manufacturing production
line, where every movement is prescribed.

There may either be little interaction within process groups or else it’ is largely
prescribed, for example where one person hands something over to another.

Semi-Formal Groups

Many groups act with less formality, in particular where power is distributed
across the group, forcing a more collaborative approach that includes-
negotiation rather than command and control.

Families, communities and tribal groups often act as semi-formal ways as they
both have nominal leaders yet members can have a high degree of autonomy.

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Goal Group

The goal group acts together to achieve a shared objective or desired outcome.
Unlike the process groups, there is no clear instruction on how they should
achieve this, although they may use some processes and methods along the way.

As there is no detailed instruction, the members of the goal group need to bring
more intelligence, knowledge, and experience to the task.

Learning Group

The learning group comes together to increase their net knowledge. They may
act collaboratively with discussion and exploration, or they may be a taught
class, with a teacher and a syllabus.

Problem-Solving Group

Problem-solving groups come together to address issues that have arisen. They
have a common purpose in understanding and resolving their issue, although
their different perspectives can lead to particular disagreements.

Problem-solving may range along a spectrum from highly logical and

deterministic, to uncertain and dynamic situations there creativity and instinct
may be better ways of resolving the situation.

Friendship Group

Groups often develop because individual members have one or more common
characteristics. We call these formations of friendship groups.

Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be
based on similar age or ethnic heritage, support for Kolkata Knight Riders
cricket, or the holding of similar political views, to name just a few such
characteristics.

Interest Group

People who may or may not be aligned into a common command or task groups
may affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is
an interest group.

Employees who band together to have their vacation schedules altered, to

support a peer who has been fired, or to seek improved working conditions
represent the formation of a united body to further their common interest.

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 Differences between Formal Group and Informal Group

Basis for Comparison Formal Group Informal Group

Groups created by the Groups created by the

organization, to employees themselves,
Meaning accomplish a specific for their own sake are
task, are known as known as Informal
Formal Groups. Groups.

Formation Deliberately. Voluntarily

Size Large. Comparatively small.

It depends on the type of It depends on the

Life
group. members.

Structure Well Defined. Not well defined.

The importance is given

Position. Person.
to

Relationship Professional. Personal.

Moves in a defined Stretches in all the

Communication
direction. directions.

Skills for a Healthy Group Climate

To work together successfully, group members must demonstrate a sense of

cohesion. Cohesion emerges as group members exhibit the following skills:

 Openness.
 Trust and Self-Disclosure.
 Support.
 Respect.
 Individual Responsibility and Accountability.
 Constructive Feedback.

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Openness

Group members are willing to get to know one another, particularly those with
different interests and backgrounds. They are open to new ideas, diverse
viewpoints, and the variety of individuals present within the group.

They listen to others and elicit their ideas. They know how to balance the need
for cohesion within a group with the need for individual expression.

Trust and Self-Disclosure

Group members trust one another enough to share their ideas and feelings.

A sense of mutual trust develops only to the extent that everyone is willing to
self-disclose and be honest yet respectful. Trust also grows as a group the
members demonstrate personal accountability for the tasks they have been
assigned.

Support

Group members demonstrate support for one another as they accomplish their
goals. They exemplify a sense of team loyalty and both cheer on the group as a
whole and help members who are experiencing difficulties.

They view one another not as competitors (which is common within a typically
individualistic educational system) but as collaborators.

Respect

Group members communicate their opinions in a way that respects others,

focusing on “What can we learn?” rather than “Who is to blame?”

Individual Responsibility and Accountability

All group members agree on what needs to be done and by whom. Each
member determines what he or she needs to do and takes responsibility to
complete the task(s).

They can be held accountable for their tasks, and they hold others accountable
for theirs.

Constructive Feedback

Group members can give and receive feedback about group ideas. Giving
constructive feedback requires focusing on ideas and behaviors, instead of

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 individuals, being as positive as possible and offering suggestions for
improvement.

Receiving feedback requires listening well, asking for clarification if the

comment is unclear, and being open to change and other ideas.

6 Reasons Why Individuals Join Groups

A small group is a combination of more than two people who are

interdependent on one another.

So communication among the members of a group consisting of a small number

of members is known as small group communication

Every organization employs small groups to collect, process, and produce

information, solve problems and make decisions.

Group communication helps to get a synergistic benefit. Synergy means

combined efforts of a group result in greater output than the sum of the
individual output.

That is, groups can do more for individuals than individuals can do for
themselves. People join groups for many reasons.

Some group members are motivated by working in a group and others are
motivated by creating interpersonal relationships with other members of the
group.

Great OB scholar K. Aswathappa said there is no single reason why individuals

join groups.

Since most people belong to many groups, it is obvious that different groups
offer different attractions and benefits to their members.

The most popular reasons for joining a group are related to our needs for
security, esteem, affiliation, power, identity, huddling, and task functions.

1. Security.
2. Esteem.
3. Affiliation.
4. Power.
5. Identity.
6. Huddling.

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Security

Probably the strongest reason for group formation is the people’s need for
security. By joining a group we can reduce our insecurity – we feel stronger,
have fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to threats.

Esteem

An individual can increase his self-esteem through group membership.

First, one may gain esteem by becoming a member of a high-status group.

Associating with high-status people is reinforcing, and one who belongs to such
a group is usually accorded a high status by outsiders.

Second, the close relationship an individual can develop as a group member

provides opportunities for recognition and praise that are not available outside
of the group.

Affiliation

Another reason why people join groups is that they enjoy the regular company
of other people, particularly those who possess common interests. Individuals
may seek out others at work who shares common hobbies or common
backgrounds.

Power

Membership of groups offers power to members in at least two ways.

First, there are sayings such as “united we stand, divided we fall” and there is
strength in numbers.” These are driving forces behind unionizations. Workers
enjoy much greater power collectively than they do as individuals.

Second, the leadership of an informal group enables an individual to exercise

power over group members, even if he does not enjoy the formal position of
authority in the organization.

Identity

Group membership contributes to the individual’s eternal quest for an answer to

the question “who am I”. It is common knowledge that’ tries to understand
ourselves through the behavior of others towards us.

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If others praise us, we feel we are great, if others enjoy our jokes, we see
ourselves as funny persons, and so on. Groups provide several “others” who
will laugh, praise or admire us.

Huddling

One more reason why individuals want to join groups is for huddling.

Because of the way bureaucracies work, individuals, particularly executives,

make use of informal get-togethers called huddles. There are intimate task-
oriented encounters of executives trying to get something done. Huddling
enables executives to deal with emerging matters and minimize the amount of
surprise.

It also serves to reduce red tape by cutting through hierarchical channels of

communication and minimizing misunderstandings.

Because organization charts represent real duties, huddling can compensate for
a lack of leadership by taking collective and unofficial responsibility for getting
things done.

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STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Psychologist Bruce Tuckman developed his group development model in
1965 to explain how healthy teams cohere over time. Tuckman's model
identifies the five stages through which groups progress: forming, storming,
norming, performing, and adjourning.

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GROUP DEVELOPMENT
What Is Tuckman’s Model of Group Development?
Psychologist Bruce Tuckman developed his group development model in 1965
to explain how healthy teams cohere over time. Tuckman’s model identifies
the five stages through which groups progress: forming, storming, norming,
performing, and adjourning. Each of the five stages of team development
represents a step on the team-building ladder. As the group members climb the
ladder, they morph from a random assembly of strangers into a high-
performing team that can work toward a common goal. Here are Tuckman’s
five stages of group development explained in detail:

1. The forming stage of group development: The forming stage is the

first stage in Tuckman’s stages of group development and is a similar
experience to your first day on a new job or at a new school. In this
phase, most group members are overly polite and are still extremely
excited about what their future may hold. Since the group dynamics and
team roles aren’t yet established, the team leader will often take charge
to direct the individual members. During Tuckman’s forming phase,
new team members may discuss team goals, ground rules, and
individual roles, but since this stage of development prioritizes people
over the actual work, it’s unlikely the team will be high-performing at
this time.
2. The storming stage of group development: The storming phase is like
when you reach that point with a new roommate where you begin to
notice their small idiosyncrasies that get on your nerves. For teams, the
conflict often arises due to clashing working styles between team
members. Some people may start to even doubt the team’s goals
discussed in the earlier stage and will stop performing their necessary
jobs altogether. This has a negative and stressful effect on those who
keep up the hard work since the pre-established group processes no
longer function smoothly. Some project teams think they can skip this
stage, but it’s better to acknowledge conflicts now and work them out
rather than avoiding them until they explode.
3. The norming stage of group development: The next of Tuckman’s
stages is the norming phase. This is when the team moves past their
previous quarrels and begins to recognize and value their teammates’
strengths. During this stage, team members increasingly respect those
who are in leadership roles. Now that everyone has begun to bond and
familiarize themselves with the team processes, teammates feel
comfortable giving each other constructive feedback as they work
toward accomplishing new tasks. Since these new tasks often come with

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 a high degree of difficulty, it is not uncommon for groups to regress
back into the storming phase. Even if a group slides back into old
behavior, members’ new decision-making skills will make conflicts
easier to resolve than they were during the initial storming phase.
4. The performing stage of group development: The performing phase is
the happiest of all the stages of development. In this stage, your team
performance is at an all-time high. This high-performance level means
all team members are self-reliant and confident enough in their own
problem-solving skills that they can function without oversight from the
leaders. Everyone is working like a well-oiled machine, free of conflict
and moving in sync toward the same end goal.
5. The adjourning stage of group development: The fifth stage of
Tuckman’s development sequence is the adjourning phase. This final
stage actually wasn’t added to the Tuckman model until 1977, and it is
the most melancholy of all the stages of team formation. The adjourning
phase assumes that project teams only exist for a set period of time;
once the team’s mission is accomplished, the team itself dissolves. You
can equate this stage to a breakup since team members often find it
difficult to separate from people with whom they’ve formed close
bonds. In fact, this phase is also sometimes known as the “mourning
phase” because it is common for team members to experience a feeling
of loss when the group is disbanded.

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TOPIC 3: GROUP BEHAVIOUR AND GROUP
PERFORMANCE
Some of these processes that effect group performance include – the
communication patterns, leader behaviour, group decision making, inter group
behaviour, group cohesiveness etc. The group processes may have a positive
or at times even a negative impact on the group performance.

Introduction:
Once the groups have been formed, it happens that some groups perform well
whereas some groups do not perform well. This happens because there are
several factors both within and outside the groups, what effect its performance.

1. External conditions:
A group is a part of large organisations. They are created by the organisation
and as such they do not exist in isolation. A group has to rather work within the
framework provided by the organisation. Every group is influenced by a number
of external conditions imposed from outside it. These external conditions
include: the organization’s strategy, its rules, regulations, its culture, physical
work setting, employee selection process etc.

2. Group structure:
A group comprises of a number of individuals and has a well defined structure.
Groups have structures that shape the behaviour of its members and make it
possible to predict and explain the individual behaviour within the group as well
as the performance of the group as a whole.

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Some of the structural components are:
(i) Group Size:
A minimum of two persons as required to form a group, as far as the maximum
number in concerned, the group should have as many members as can interact
meaningfully amongst one another. However, an ideal group size is said to
comprise of 5-7 members over a smaller group in terms of idea generation. The
evidence indicates that smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than the
larger ones. The group size should be determined by taking in consideration
factors such as nature of task to be performed, the maturity of the group
members etc.

(ii) Group Composition:

A group comprises of a number of individuals with varied qualities and
characteristics. In fact most of the group activities require a variety of skill and
knowledge. As far as group composition is concerned, a group may be
homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous groups are those which are
composed of similar individuals, similar in terms of personality, age, gender,
experience, knowledge etc.

Heterogeneous groups on the other hand are the ones which comprise of
dissimilar individuals i.e. the individual who differ from one another in one way
or the other. In some types of tasks homogeneous groups could be more
appropriate while in other types heterogeneous groups could be more
appropriate.

(iii) Group Status:

The term status refers to the relative ranking that a person holds in a group.
Status is determined in the context of comparison. Therefore, status defines the
rank of an individual relative to others in the organisation and the group. Status
is in-fact defined in terms of rights, privileges, duties and obligations the
individual holds in an organisation.

It is an important factor in understanding human behaviour. When an individual

perceives a disparity between his status with that of other group members, it
creates a disequilibrium that results in interpersonal conflicts. So, what is

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important for the group members is to believe that the status hierarchy is
equitable and just.

(iv) Group Norms:

Group norms are the “The oughts” or “should be” of behaviour. They are
prescriptions for acceptable behaviour determined by the group. “Group Norms
are a set of beliefs, feelings, and attitudes commonly shared by group members.
These are also referred to as rules or standards of behaviour that apply to group
members”.

A very comprehensive definition of group norms is given by The Handbook of

Industrial and Organisational Psychology. According to this definition, “All
groups have established norms, that is, acceptable standards of behaviour that
are shared by the group members. Norms tell members what they ought and
ought not to do under certain circumstances. From an individual’s stand point,
they tell what is expected of them in certain situations. When agreed to and
accepted by the group, norms act as a means of influencing the behavior of
group members with a minimum of external controls. Norms differ among
groups, communities and societies, but they all have them.”

According to D.C. Feldman:

(In the Academy of management Review), “Group norms are the informal
guidelines of behaviour and a code of conduct that provides some order and
conformity to group activities and operations. These rules are expected to be
followed by all the group members. These norms and rules generally develop
gradually and informally as group members learn as to what behaviors are
necessary for the group to function effectively”.

From the above definitions, we can observe the following characteristics of

group norms:
1. Just as an individual’s characteristics are revealed through his personality, the
characteristics of a group are revealed or represented through norms.

2. Norms are the basis of behaviour of members in the group. For example it is
an unwritten norm that employees do not criticize their bosses in public. Thus,

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this norm is related to the behaviour which is considered important by most
group members.

3. The norms are the basis for predicting and controlling the behaviour of good
members. For example, norms may include behavior in a particular manner both
within and outside the group meetings.

4. The norms are applied to all members, though very stringent uniformity is not
followed. In certain cases, some deviations may be allowed but not to the extent
of jeopardizing group goals. For example, if a code of dress for the meetings or
for the work place is there, it is to be followed by all the members.

5. Norms also identify the values and ethics of the group members. They are
established on the basis of what is right and decent and expected of
professionals.

6. Though formalized norms are written up in organisational manuals setting out

rules and procedures for employees to follow, but by far the majority of norms
in organisations are informal. For example, you don’t have to tell someone that
it is unacceptable to gossip while the meeting is going on.

Types of Norms:
Every group has different established norms depending upon the nature of its
members and location. For example, the norms of factory workers will be
different from the norms of office workers. Moreover, the group norms may be
strong or weak depending upon the status of the group, the importance of
behaviour to the group and the relative stability of the group

Yet there are some common classes of norms which are common to all
groups:
1. Performance Norms:
The most common class of norms which is applicable to all the groups is
performance norms. Work groups typically provide their members with explicit
clues on how hard they should work, how to get the Job done, their level of
output, appropriate level of tardiness and so on. Norms regulate the
performance and productivity of the individual members.

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Workers who are performing below the lower acceptable level are generally
informally reprimanded and encouraged to produce more. On the other hand, an
ambitious worker who produces more and performs above the upper acceptable
limit set by group are also ostracized for encouraging the management to raise
its expectations.

2. Appearance Norms:
The second types of norms are appearance norms. These include things like
appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or organisation etc. Some
organisations have formal dress codes. However even in their absence norms
frequently dictate the kind of clothing that should be worn to work.

Other appearance norms might involve loyalty or confidentiality on the part of

members. Workers are not expected to report about fellow workers to
supervisors. Similarly, confidentiality is a powerful group norm so that no
matter how much tension may be between workers and management, the
workers will not divulge company secrets to competing organisations.

3. Arrangement Norms:
These norms come from informal work groups and primarily regulate social
interactions within the group. With whom group members eat lunch, friendship
on and off the job, social games and the like are influenced by these norms.

4. Allocation of Resources Norms:

These norms can originate in the group or in the organisation and cover things
like pay, assignment of difficult job and allocations of new tools and equipment.

5. Behaviour Norms:
These are rules and guidelines defining the day to day behaviour of people at
work. This behaviour pattern may include punctuality as a habit, completing
any given assignments within the required time framework, not losing temper,
showing respect for other member’s opinions and so on. Certain
professionalism is expected from all members and this professionalism is
predictable form of behaviour.

How do Norms Develop?

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Norms usually develop gradually and informally as members learn what
behaviours are necessary for the group to function.

Most norms develop in one of the following four ways:

1. Explicit Statements Made by a Group Member:
Explicit statements made by the supervisors or a powerful member may become
norms. Norm develops this way to prevent any threats to the status quo. For
example, the supervisor may explicitly say that tea breaks are to be kept to ten
minutes and this will become a norm.

2. Critical Events in the Group’s History:

Critical events in the group’s history set important precedents. For example, a
person who was standing too close to a machine was injured in a work group. It
became an established norm in that group that no person other than the operator
gets within five feet of any machine.

3. Primacy:
Primacy is another way of forming group norms. Primacy refers to the first
behaviour pattern that emerges in a group. This behaviour pattern sets group
expectations. For example, if the first group meeting is marked by very formal
interaction between supervisors and subordinates then the group expects future
meetings to be conducted in the same way.

4. Past Experiences:
Many norms develop because members bring their past experiences from other
groups in other organisations. This can explain why work groups typically
prefer to add new members who are similar to current ones in background
experience.

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Why are ‘Norms’ Enforced?
Once the norms are established, they are enforced on members. But groups
don’t establish or enforce norms for every conceivable situation. The norms
which the group tends to strongly enforce are those which are important to it.
Norms which help in achieving the twin aims of performing successfully and
keeping morale high are considered to be important.

To be specific, the reasons why norms are enforced are the following:
1. If it facilitates the group’s survival:
Groups do not like to fail, so they strongly enforce those norms that increase
their chances of success. This means that they will try to protect themselves
from interference from other groups or individuals.

2. If it increases the predictability of group member’s behavior:

Norms that increase predictability enable group members to anticipate each
other’s actions and to prepare appropriate responses.

3. If it reduces embarrassing interpersonal problems:

Norms are likely to be strongly enforced if they help the group in avoiding
embarrassing interpersonal problems. Norms will be important if they ensure
satisfaction to their members and prevent as much interpersonal discomfort as
possible.

4. If it allows members to express the central value of the group and clarify
what is distinctive about the group’s identity:

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Norms that encourage expression of the group’s values and distinctive identity
help to solidify and maintain the group.

5. If it reflects the preferences of the supervisor:

Norms are likely to be strongly enforced if these reflect the preferences of
supervisor or other powerful group members.

(v) Group Roles:

All members of group are expected to play specific roles. By this term, we mean
a set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit. Quite often, this role is a function of the individual’s
job description. A role consists of a pattern of norms, it is a position that can be
acted out by an individual. The content of a given role is prescribed by the
prevailing norms. Role can best be defined as a position that has expectations
evolving from established norms.

The main issue is that a person is required to play a number of roles and the
behaviour varies with the role he is playing. Different groups impose different
role requirements on individuals. When we examine the concept of role in
depth, it becomes obvious that there are different types of roles.

Role Requirements of the Members:

1. Role Identity:
Role identity is created by certain attitudes and actual behaviours which are
consistent with a role. When people change a job, the situation and job demands
also change. It has been observed that in such circumstances, people have the
ability to shift their roles rapidly. For example, in a particular work place when
some workers were promoted to supervisory jobs, their attitudes changed from
pro-union to pro-management within a few months of their promotion. It means
there was a rapid change in their role identities.

2. Role Perception;
Every person has his own perception of as to how he should act in a given
situation. Role perception is the view of a person, which consists of those
activities or behaviours the individual believes are supposed to be fulfilled in
the given situation. The individual gets this perception from stimuli all around

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us—friends, books, movies, television etc. In India, for example, every female
police officer will certainly be influenced by Mrs. Kiran Bedi. Because of role
perception, apprenticeship programmes exists in many trade and professions,
which allow beginners to watch an ‘expert’, so that they can learn to act as they
are supposed to.

3. Role Expectations:
Role expectations are defined as how others believe or expect, you should act in
a given situation. How you behave is determined to a large extent in which way
you are acting? The Advertising manager of a company, for example, is
expected to review the proposals and plans of the subordinates, rejecting those
that will not promote company products and approving those that will
contribute to increased roles.

Another example is that role of a university professor is viewed as having

dignity and propriety, whereas a football coach is seen as aggressive, dynamic
and inspiring to his players. When role expectations are concentrated into
generalized category, we have role stereotypes. In the work place, it can be
helpful to look at the topic of role expectations through the perspective of the
psychological contract. According to an unwritten agreement which exists
between employees and the employer, the psychological contract sets out
mutual expectations, what management expects from workers and vice versa.

Management is expected to treat the employees justly, provide good and

acceptable working conditions, proper communication and giving a feedback on
how well the employee is doing. Employees are expected to respond by
demonstrating a positive attitude following directions and showing loyalty to
the organisation. When role expectations as implied in psychological contract
are not met, there will be negative repercussions from both the sides. The
psychological contract is regarded as a powerful determiner of behaviour in
organisations.

4. Role Enaction:
From the perceived and expected role, comes the enacted role. Role enaction is
the way the person actually behaves. Many of the things a manager says and

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does during a meeting will be determined by his or her interpretation of the
proper way to carry out the perceived role.

5. Role Conflict:
When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations, the result is
role conflict. It exists in a situation, where an individual finds that compliance
with one role requirement may make compliance with another more difficult. At
the extreme, it would include situations in which two or more role expectations
are mutually contradictions. All of us are faced with and will continue to face
role conflicts.

The most critical question is how conflicts imposed by divergent expectations

within the organisations affect the behaviour. Certainly they increase internal
tension and frustration. There are number of behavioural responses a person
may engage in.

(vi) Conformity:
Conformity means adjusting one’s behaviour to align with the norms of the
group. There is considerable evidence that groups can place strong pressures on
individuals to change their attitudes and behaviours to conform to the group’s
standards. Sometimes, people belong to many groups at the same time and their
norms vary in some cases, there may be even contradictory norms. The people,
in such situations, conform to the norms of the important group to which they
belong or hope to belong. The important groups have been referred to as
Reference Groups.

These groups are those where the person is aware of the others, the person
defines himself or herself as the member or would like to be a member and the
person feels that the group members are significant to him or her. All this
implies that all groups do not impose equal conformity pressures on their
members.

The groups enforce conformity with norms in many ways. They can reward
people who comply group norms by appreciating them, by listening to them in a
respectful manner and by making them leaders of the group. Also, they can take
negative action against those persons who deviate from group norms in the form

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of ridicule, or silent ‘treatment’ or by withdrawing privileges or by ultimate
action of expelling them from the group. This explains why individuals
generally conform to their group norms. They will not like to separate from the
group which satisfies their social needs and helps in achieving their personal
goals.

(vii) Group resources:

By the term group resources, we mean the resources that an individual member
brings to the group. The Groups performance to a large extent depends upon the
resources of its members.

These resources may be categorized into two types:

(i) Knowledge, skills, efficiency, capabilities and

(ii) Personality characteristics (such as openness, honesty, dominance,

extrovertness etc.)

Both these resources strongly affect the group performance by influencing how
an individual will interact with other group members.

(viii) Group Process:

Another component in our group performance model is the group process. A
process can be simply defined as a systematic method of handling activities.
Some of these processes that effect group performance include – the
communication patterns, leader behaviour, group decision making, inter group
behaviour, group cohesiveness etc. The group processes may have a positive or
at times even a negative impact on the group performance.

The group process may at times lead to synergy whereby the groups can create
output much greater than the sum of their inputs. The negative aspect is best
depicted by social loafing, which represents negative synergy i.e. the output is
much less than the sum of inputs. The impact of group process on the group’s
performance to a great deal depends upon the tasks that the group is doing.

(ix) Group Performance:

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Group performance is contingent upon a number of factors. For instance, the
external conditions which include the rules, regulations, selection procedure of
the organisation etc. highly affect groups performance. Similarly the group is
more likely to be productive when its members have requisite skills and
personality characteristics. The group size, composition, norms, cohesiveness
etc.

4 Main Factors that Influence Group Performance within Organisations

There are several factors influencing performance of groups. The prominent
among these are as follows:

(1) Composition of the Group:

It refers to the extent of homogeneity in members of the group. If members of
the group are similar in one or more ways such as their age, teaching
experience, qualifications, expertise, cultural background and several other such
variables which are important for work performance, then the group is said to be
homogeneous. In a command group it is essential that the members are
homogeneous in terms of expertise though they may be differing in terms of age
or teaching experience.

It has been empirically found that a group, heterogeneous in terms of age or

experience, exhibits frequent turnover in terms of changes in membership.
Other researchers have found conflicting results with reference to the age of
employees.

In some studies it was found that managers in business establishments found

older employees to be rigid, difficult to re-train and very expensive in terms of
salaries.

On the other hand, some studies have found older employees to be more regular
in attendance, less frequently changing their jobs, have a stronger work ethics
compared to younger employees and once trained, perform equally well as
younger employees.

Moreover, if the work group is heterogeneous in terms of opinions, there could

be positive benefits in that the group is forced to pay complete attention to the
activity, and proceedings and sometimes leads to creative solutions to problems.

A homogeneous group is likely to be more beneficial when:

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(i) The tasks are simple

(ii) The tasks are arranged in a sequential order;

(iii) Co-operation is necessary in task performance; and

(iv) The task is to be completed in short time span.

A heterogeneous group is likely to be more beneficial when:

(i) The tasks are complex;

(ii) The tasks require a collective effort;

(iii) The tasks require new and creative alternatives/solutions; and

(iv) There is ample time to perform the tasks;

homogeneous group could have fewer differences of opinions and conflicts,

more interaction and better communication as compared to a heterogeneous
group.

The foregoing discussion suggests that the extent of homogeneity of a group,

i.e., its composition and the nature of the task have an interactive influence on
work performance.

If a group is culturally heterogeneous, the principal could expect mutual distrust

among the members of the group, stereotyped labeling of each other as well as
communication problems. Thus, initially, such a group may not function
effectively but as the group matures, its functioning may improve.

2) Size of the Group:

It refers to the number of members in the group. The size of the group
influences group performance. If, on account of its size, the group has more
resources at its disposal, it may be able to perform many independent tasks. It
may be able to generate more ideas and solutions.

However, if a group is very large, the interactions among the members become
complex and communication may become more difficult thereby leading to
disagreements. But if such a large group has prepared a formal procedure or
agenda discussions can be controlled and work may proceed smoothly. Besides

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in a large group, some People may dominate the proceedings whereas the shy
ones may remain in the background. There are possibilities that in a group some
people may not contribute at all to the tasks and while away their time purely
social interactions.

The effectiveness of work in a very large group, therefore, depends on the

nature of the task, characteristics of members of the group and the ability of the
leader to understand the problem and take action to make the group function
effectively.

The optimum and effective group size depends on:

(a) Members’ interactions and mutual influence;

(b) Maturity of individual members of the group;

(c) Task-it nature

d) Maturity of the group;

(e) Ability of the manager in handling the group, managing communications,

handling conflicts and handling procedures,

There is no specified group size for effective task performance. It depends of

the situation and can vary between three and fifteen or more.

(3) Norms:
According to Davis (1964), a norm refers to a standard against which the
appropriateness of behaviour is judged. Thus, a norm determines expected
behaviour in a particular circumstance. A group determines its norms during the
second stage of its formation and continues it till the fourth stage. Norms help in
predicting other people’s behaviours and enable people to behave in an
acceptable manner. Norms prevent chaos.

A norm is developed through an interaction of factors such as the traditions of

the group, the nature of tasks, the situation and the personality characteristics
members. If a norm is not conformed to by an individual, he/she may receive
verbal abuse or physical threat, boycott or removal from group.

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For example, if the institutional norm for women employees is to wear a sari to
convey a traditional image to students and parents, then a teacher wearing a
salwar kameez or a western outfit will be viewed as violating the group norm
and will immediately face the consequences.

Functions of Norms:
There are four major functions fulfilled by norms:

(a) Norms enable group members avoid embarrassing situations. They help
individuals in preserving their self-image and help members in not hurting each
other.

(b) Norms help in a group’s survival by rejecting deviant behaviour that do not
help in accomplishing the group’s goals. Following a norm implies that a
group’s survival is not threatened but ensured. An effective group is one which
is more tolerant towards deviant behaviour.

(c) Norms signify the values that are important to the institution and provide the
group with a unique identity. This identity could be expressed in the form of
clothes, behaviour, mannerisms and so on.

(d) Norms help group members in expecting other people’s behaviour. This
saves them from analyzing other people’s behaviour, attitudes or response.
Members can anticipate each other’s actions based on group norms which
ultimately enhances performance and goal accomplishment.

However, norms can only regulate behaviour of its members. It has no control
on their thoughts, beliefs, feelings or personal emphasis on values.

(4) Cohesiveness:
It refers to a group’s commitment towards staying together resulting from the
forces operating on members to do so. The forces responsible for cohesiveness
are attraction to the group, motivation to stay in the group and resistance to
leave the group.

If the group is composed of homogeneous individuals, has reached maturity in

its development, its size is not vary large, interactions among its members are
frequent, its goals are clear, there is competition with outsiders or threats from
external factors and is concerned about effectiveness with regard to reaching the

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goals enhance cohesiveness of groups. High levels of cohesiveness lead to goal
accomplishment, job satisfaction, improved interactions and synergy.

As opposed to this, group cohesiveness will be low if the group is

heterogeneous in composition, newly formed, large in size, its members are
dispersed physically, its goals are ambiguous or have failed in reaching its
goals.

Low levels of group cohesiveness leads to problems and difficulties in attaining

goals, more chances of the group getting broken down, decrease in interactions,
orientation towards self rather than the group and reduced commitment to group
goals.

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Factors affecting group behavior

A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and independent, who

have come together to achieve particular objectives. Group behaviors are
affected or influenced by some significant variables or factors. The major
variables are:

1. Formal leadership: Almost every work group has a formal leader. The
common titles of those leaders are superior, foreman, project leader,
department manager, general manager, chainman or managing director etc.
These leaders can play an important role in group’s success. They are also
liable for the failure of group.
2. Roles: The world is a stage and all men and women are merely players. All
group members are actors; they are playing different types of roles. A role is
an expected behavior in a given position in a social unit. Different groups
impose different roles on different individual. We can have different concepts
about role in a group.
1. Role identity: there are certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a
role. This is called role identity.
3.
1. Role perception: Group’s members need role perception. Role
perception in an individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to
act in a given situation.
2. Role expectations: Role expectations are defined as how others
behave the one should act in a given situation.
3. Role conflict: Role conflict is a situation in which an individual is
confronted by divergent role expectation.
4. Norms: All groups have some establish norms. Norms refer to the
acceptable standards of behaviors that are shared by the group’s
members. Formalized norms are written up in organizational manuals,
and all the people in an organization are bound to follow that rules and
regulations. But the majority of norms in organizations are informal.
5. Group status: Status may be defined as a social rank or position given in
a group by others. We live in a class structured society. Status is
important for group members.
6. Group size: The size of a group affects the group’s overall performance
or behavior. Small groups are faster at completing task than are larger
ones. If the group is encouraged in problem solving, large groups are

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 perfect to small group. So if the goal of hand, smaller group is better in
achieving productivity.
7. Composition of the group: Since group is association of different types
of people with variety of skills and knowledge. When a group is
heterogeneous rather than homogeneous in terms of age, gender, race,
educational background, personalities, opinions, abilities skills and
knowledge, it can be effective to complete a work.
8. Group cohesiveness: The degree in which members are attracted to each
other and are motivated to stay in the group are called group
cohesiveness. Group behavior are significantly
9. affected by group are cohesiveness. The following suggestions can
increase group cohesiveness:
i. the group smaller
ii. Make Increase the members spend
together
iii. Encourage agreement about group
goals
iv. Increase the status of the group
v. Stimulate competition with other
group
vi. Give reward to the group rather than
the members
vii. Physically isolate the group

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 Organizational Conflict
Definition: Organizational Conflict or otherwise known as workplace conflict,
is described as the state of disagreement or misunderstanding, resulting from the
actual or perceived dissent of needs, beliefs, resources and relationship between
the members of the organization. At the workplace, whenever, two or more
persons interact, conflict occurs when opinions with respect to any task or
decision are in contradiction.

In simple terms, organizational conflict alludes to the result of human

interaction, that starts when one member of the organization discerns that
his/her goals, values or attitude are incompatible, with those of other members
of the organization. The incompatibility in opinions can come into being, within
a member, between two members, or between groups of the organization.

Factors Influencing Organizational Conflict

1. Unclear Responsibility: If there is lack of clarity, regarding who is responsible

for which section of a task or project, conflict takes place. And, to avoid this
situation, the roles and responsibility of the team members should be stated
clearly and also agreed upon by all.

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2. Interpersonal Relationship: Every member of an organization, possesses
different personality, which plays a crucial role in resolving conflict in an
organization. Conflicts at the workplace, are often caused by interpersonal
issues between the members of the organization.
3. Scarcity of Resources: One of the main reason for occurence of conflict in an
organization is the inadequacy of resources like time, money, materials etc. due
to which members of the organization compete with each other, leading to
conflict between them.
4. Conflict of Interest: When there is a disorientation between the personal
goals of the individual and the goals of the organization, conflict of
interest arises, as the individual may fight for his personal goals, which
hinders the overall success of the project.
Conflicts alleviate at the workplace due to individual and inter-individual
factors. Individual related causes entails attitudes, beliefs, personality
orientation and human-frailties. Inter-individual conflicts arises when a manager
breaches norms of the organization.

Types of Organizational Conflict

 Relationship Conflict: The conflict arising out of interpersonal tension among

employees, which is concerned with the relationship intrinsically, not the
project at hand.

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 Task Conflict: When there is a discord, among members regarding nature of
work to be performed is task conflict
 Process Conflict: Clashes among the team members due to the difference in
opinions, on how work should be completed, is called process conflict.
Organizational conflict can also be personal conflict (one that exist between two
people because of mutual dislike), intragroup conflict (one arising out of lack of
liberty, resource, etc. in a group) and intergroup conflict (one that exist between
two groups).

Causes of Organizational Confict

 Managerial Expectations: Every employee is expected to meet the targets,

imposed by his/her superior and when these expectations are misunderstood or
not fulfilled within the stipulated time, conflicts arises.
 Communication Disruption: One of the major cause of conflict at the
workplace is disruption in the communication, i.e. if one employee requires
certain information from another, who does not respond properly, conflict
sparks in the organization.
 Misunderstanding: Misunderstanding of information, can also alleviate dispute
in organization, in the sense that if one person misinterpret some information, it
can lead to series of conflicts.
 Lack of accounhtability: If in a project, responsibilities are not clear and some
mistake has arisen, of which no member of the team wants to take responsibility
can also become a cause of conflict in the organization.
The causes of organizational conflict are to be known, to resolve them as early
as possible, because it hinders the efficiency, effectiveness and productivity of
the employees and the organization as well, which ultimately hampers its
success.

Ways to Manage Conflicts in Organization

1. Handle the conflict positively.

2. Formation of official grievance procedure for all members.
3. Concentrate on the causes rather than their effect, to assess conflicts.
4. Parties to conflicts should be given an equal voice, irrespective of their position,
term or political influence.
5. Active participation of all the parties to conflict can also help to counter it.

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In an organization, conflict is inevitable and so various means are to be
discovered to resolve them or use them in a way that can help the organization
to increase its productivity.

Reasons for conflicts

In a distributed, virtual team, your team members are working in different

locations, sometimes even different time zones, speaking different languages,
and coming from different cultures.

They don’t have the same personal rapport as in-office teams; they only
collaborate using digital tools, and they might feel isolated and alone. All of this
means you must take even more care to manage conflict when it arises. The
most important step is to identify the cause of the conflict, so you can choose
your role.

Broadly, there are five causes of conflict:

1. Information: Something was missing, incomplete or ambiguous.

2. Environment: Something in the environment leads to the conflict.

3. Skills: People lack the appropriate skills for doing their work.

4. Values: A clash of personal values leads to conflict.

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5. Identity: The participants' sense of identity puts them at odds with each
other.

Information
Suppose Janine sends Chris a simple email request: “Chris, I need this
document by 2pm Friday.” Janine understands exactly what she wants, but there
are some potential information gaps:

- If they work in different time zones, whose 2pm is she referring to?

- Which Friday does she mean? She might mean, say, tomorrow, but she can’t
assume Chris will read the email in time.

- What format does “this document” need? It could be an editable Word

document, a finalised PDF document, or something else.

Most information issues are easy to resolve, and your role is to advise. Point out
the problem and guide them towards finding their own solution. In a distributed
team, you can handle this by email or some other written communication, or
talking directly.

Environment
Even with the right information, something in the environment could act as an
obstacle. For example:

- In an online meeting, some people are bright and alert at the start of their
working day while others are tired and ready to end their day.

- “Office politics” exists even in a distributed team, and some people may be
jostling for influence.

- “Head office” staff might resent the freedom of people working from home,
and people working from home might resent “taking orders” from head office.

In these cases, your role is to manage. Again, ask the people involved for their
suggestions, but the solution might be outside their authority or responsibility.

If it’s within your control, take control. For example, if conflicts arise because
of people working in different time zones, you might be able to adjust work
days or meeting times to suit everybody. For issues beyond your control, enlist
the help of IT, HR, or other parties. But it’s still your responsibility to resolve
the issue. This is especially important for your remote team members, who are
relying on you to act on their behalf.

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Skills
Some conflicts occur simply because people don’t have the skills to work in a
distributed team. They might not know how to manage their email inbox, start
online meetings, use virtual workspaces, or choose the right communication
channels. This can lead to misunderstandings, confusion, and perhaps even to
the person being subtly excluded in the future.

In this situation, take on the role of trainer or coach. Provide your team
members with the professional development they need to build their skills and
avoid potential future conflicts.

Values
A clash of values can cause unintended conflicts. For example, people from
different cultures might have different expectations about punctuality, gender
roles, standards of living, and appropriate professional behaviour.

Here, your role is mediator. Ideally, you want to help guide the conflicting
parties to resolve the issue themselves, so mediate the discussion to keep it civil,
professional, and ultimately working to a fair and positive resolution.

Keep all communication clear and unambiguous. It’s difficult to resolve these
issues by email or other written means. Bring the parties together by
teleconference, video conference call, or even in person. If these conflicts fall
outside your area of responsibility, they might need HR support.

Identity
Finally, conflicts can arise when people clash because of their deep personal
beliefs about their identity.

For example:

- One person feels a piece of work is beneath them and passes it on to someone
they consider “inferior”.

- Two people refuse to back down from conflicting positions because they think
“losing” the argument would be humiliating.

When conflict is based on somebody’s identity, your role is that of counsellor.

But keep in mind that most of these issues should be handled by your HR team.

Managing conflict: a skill all of us need

Conflict is a normal part of humans working together, and part of your role as a
leader is to steer your team members through it when it inevitably arises. Don’t

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be afraid of it, and don’t shy away from it. Be open to it, be alert to it, and
address it as quickly as possible.

There’s no doubt our workplaces will become increasingly distributed, so the

conflict resolution skills you learn and apply today will prepare you for being a
leader tomorrow.

6 Common Causes of Workplace Conflict and How to Avoid Them

Conflicts happen in every workplace. They can start with a simple disagreement
and often escalate into an argument that impedes the productivity of a team.

Although conflicts themselves are common – effective resolution of those

conflicts tends not to be. Even though it may not always be possible to avoid
conflict completely, It’s important to be able to recognize common causes of
workplace conflict to help stifle them early on.
Here are some common causes of workplace conflict and some tips on how
to avoid them

1. Resistance to Change
People get stuck in their habits because they are familiar and easy to follow.
With change comes fear of the unknown that not everyone is ready to embrace.
Change can be stressful and often results in conflict between a team member
and management.
It’s helpful to remember that some employees will naturally go through denial,
anger, and confusion on their way to embracing change. It’s a common human
reaction to resist the unknown and it’s not uncommon for this resistance to turn
to hostility.

Considering these factors and guiding team members through the process of
change will result in an easier and healthier transition:

 Communicate the reasons behind change

 Involve your team members in the process so they know that they are a part
of it
 Train the team members in their new job responsibilities

When your team is calm, relaxed, and open to change and growth, they are less
likely to get involved in a change-related conflict.

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2. Unclear Job Expectations
A job description with an overview of responsibilities always comes with a new
position. But it’s extremely difficult for team members to become top performer
without training and coaching. Every position has a learning curve that plays a
big role in the future success of the employee.
Some people stay at their jobs for years trying to guess what their manager’s
expectations are. Others quit and move on. If someone is unsure of how they
need to perform, they might lose confidence and get defensive. Wouldn’t it be
easier to state what you expect of the team member from the get-go and avoid
frustration that oftentimes turns into a conflict?

 Communicate the “non-negotiable activities” - direct responsibilities that

your team member has to perform in order to be successful at their job.
 Describe the company culture so the team member knows what kind of work
environment they will be a part of.
 Clarify the reporting procedure that the team member will have to follow.
 Avoid conflicts by making your team members aware of what’s expected
of them, so they can perform with confidence.
 3. Poor Communication
 Communicating is involved in almost every activity that we do in the
workplace. Everyone thinks they’re a great communicator, yet so many
conflicts happen because of poor communication
Let’s look at the process of communicating:

 “Sender” decides to convey a message

 “Sender” codes the message
 “Receiver” decodes the message
 “Receiver” interprets the message and makes assumptions

There is so much room for misunderstanding at every stage of this process,

which makes for many opportunities for a conflict to arise.

Here are some quick communication tips to help avoid miscommunication-

stemmed conflict:

 Be clear and concise; don’t leave your team members assuming or

guessing.
 Listen to hear your team members’ new ideas or learn about their
concerns.

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  Deliver messages designed for your team members; if they understand
what you expect of them, they are set for success.
 Manage your nonverbal behaviors and learn to read others’.

4. Toxic Work Environment

The way people feel about themselves and others in the workplace greatly
affects their productivity. Loving your job doesn’t just mean enjoying your
everyday tasks, but also involves being a part of a happy work community.
Some companies go the extra mile and design their offices to have ping pong
tables, bowling alleys, dog friendly areas, libraries, beer stations, etc. to ensure
that their employees feel at home and can perform at their best.
Adding bells and whistles to the office space is not always in the budget, nor is
it the only way to create a healthy work environment. Here are some of the
things you can do to ensure your team is thriving, and avoid a toxic work
environment

 Encourage communication. Don’t let conflicts escalate, let your team

members know that you are open to hearing them out.
 Focus only on facts in assessing you team members’ behavior and never take
sides.
 Implement procedures. Everyone should know what responsibilities they
have, how to perform them, and what they are accountable for.
 Organize team building events where people can spend time together out of
work.
 Offer training to teach team members essential skills of communicating.

5. Differences in Personality
Any workplace unites people with different backgrounds, temperaments,
experiences, and preferences. We don’t become friends with everyone we meet
– so we should’t expect all team members to get along perfectly either.
Although it’s not necessary for all coworkers to be friends, a level of mutual
respect is crucial for a healthy workplace culture.
It’s a manager’s responsibility to set the tone for healthy relationships within a
team. If you, as a manager, are always unbiased, your team members will more
likely seek your help in resolving conflicts.

Try to be proactive as well by recognizing disagreements between team

members and addressing them immediately:

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  Consider both points of view in a conflict.
 Focus on factual information, avoid commenting on people’s attitudes
and characters.
 Ask for team members’ ideas on how to best resolve the conflict.
 Follow up with a meeting to check on employees’ progress.

6. Poor Work Habits

Many habits that people demonstrate at work are harmless and even helpful for
their personal work performance. Even seemingly unusual ones like getting up
few times a day to do sit ups or drinking 3 cups of coffee before lunch can
hardly be disruptive to others.

However, certain habits can affect the whole team, cause irritation, and spark
conflict. These are some of the poor work habits that a manager needs to
address:

 A team member is often late to work or distracted at work. Some other team
members might fall into similar patterns thinking that this is a norm.
 A team member expresses negativity, anger or gossips about others. This
behavior might spread among other employees and undermine the team
morale.
 A team member is disorganized and misses deadlines, which can result in
the work not being accomplished and reflect on the team’s image.
 Once you’ve identified the poor work habit, talk to the team member
privately, ask them for reasons why the habit occurs, and guide them to
come up with a solution.
 Once you’ve identified the causes of conflicts in your team, be prepared
for action. Deal with conflicts quickly, always follow up to track progress
of your team members, and express confidence in their success. After all,
a united harmonious team is key to the growth of your organization!

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STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS
What Are the Five Conflict Resolution Strategies?

Different people use different methods to resolve conflict, and most people have
one or more natural, preferred conflict resolution strategies that they use
regularly. It is possible to scientifically measure an individual's inclinations
toward specific conflict resolution strategies. In this article, we will discuss the
five different categories of conflict resolution from the Thomas-Kilmann model,
as well as their advantages and disadvantages.

The Thomas-Kilmann Model identifies five different approaches to resolving

conflict. These approaches include:

Avoiding

Someone who uses a strategy of "avoiding" mostly tries to ignore or sidestep the
conflict, hoping it will resolve itself or dissipate.

2. Accommodating

Using the strategy of "accommodating" to resolve conflict essentially involves

taking steps to satisfy the other party's concerns or demands at the expense of
your own needs or desires.

3. Compromising

The strategy of "compromising" involves finding an acceptable resolution that

will partly, but not entirely, satisfy the concerns of all parties involved.

4. Competing

Someone who uses the conflict resolution strategy of "competing" tries to

satisfy their own desires at the expense of the other parties involved.

5. Collaborating

Using "collaborating" involves finding a solution that entirely satisfies the

concerns of all involved parties.

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 The Thomas-Kilmann model identifies two dimensions people fall into when
choosing a conflict resolution strategy: assertiveness and cooperativeness.
Assertiveness involves taking action to satisfy your own needs, while
cooperativeness involves taking action to satisfy the other's needs.

Each of the conflict resolution strategies above involves different degrees of

assertiveness and cooperativeness. For example, while accommodating includes
a high degree of cooperativeness and a low degree of assertiveness, competing
consists of a low degree of cooperativeness and a high degree of assertiveness.

Choosing the Right Conflict Resolution Method

Even though you may prefer one of the conflict resolution strategies discussed
above over the others, all of these strategies can be used effectively in certain
situations.

For example, if the issue is minor and won't have lasting consequences, it may
be in your best interest to accommodate the other party rather than to try to
serve your own needs. However, if the issue is more severe and will impact
multiple people, it may make sense to choose a strategy with more
assertiveness.

To choose the best conflict resolution method in any given situation, you need
to consider several factors, such as:

 How important your desires are.

 The impact on you or others if your desires are not served.
 The consequences of choosing to be more assertive.
 Whether a collaborative or cooperative solution exists

Improving Your Ability to Resolve Conflict

Being able to choose and apply the best conflict resolution strategy effectively
is made possible by developing better conflict resolution skills. Examples of
conflict resolution skills that can help you include the ability to:

 Listen effectively.
 Identify specific points of disagreement.
 Express your own needs clearly.
 View conflict as an opportunity for growth.
 Focus on specific issues without generalizing or escalating the situation.

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Although you may have a proclivity towards a specific type of conflict
resolution, you are not required to use this strategy in every situation. With time
and effort, you can learn new conflict resolution skills that improve your ability
to negotiate and resolve issues with others. Eventually, you will be able to select
and use the conflict resolution strategy that is best for the situation, as opposed
to the one that is most comfortable or familiar.

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ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND CULTURE
Organizational climate is briefly defined as the meanings people attach to
interrelated bundles of experiences they have at work. Organizational
culture is briefly defined as the basic assumptions about the world and the
values that guide life in organizations.

Organizational culture is tied to organizational purpose. Why do your business?

What do you hope to achieve? How will your employees help to get you there
in a way they can believe in, too? Creating a sustainable work environment
where employees feel engaged, loyal, and satisfied should be the goal of every
organization. Good company culture breeds employees who enjoy their
workplace, the work they do, and those they work with. Without it, employees
may be inclined to take their skills and knowledge elsewhere.

But the culture of your organization doesn’t always reflect the climate of your
organization. The company’s mission, diversity initiatives, incentives, and perks
all make for good culture on paper, but does the climate in your workplace
reflect the culture you hope to have? Do your promises live up to your reality?

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 The terms organizational culture and organizational climate get thrown around a
lot, often interchangeably. But they’re not the same thing — and the distinction
is important.

What is Organizational Culture?

Simply put, organizational culture is your company identity. It’s your values
and the norms that have arisen organically over time.

Common Values Include:

 Curiosity – Embracing the desire to be continually learning and growing

 Quality – Assessing accuracy and logically thinking over situations and
problems
 Innovation – Risk-taking and introducing new ideas
 Outcome Orientation – Focusing on overall results and achievements
 Diversity and Inclusion — creating space for minorities, women, those with
disabilities, and other underrepresented groups.

For example, a bank might have,what would be considered, a more traditional

company culture. A corporate bank is a structured environment, as the banking
industry is heavily regulated by well-established laws. Banking is an old
industry, which suggests the culture has had a long time to develop and is firmly
ensconced.

At a bank, you’ll likely find a culture where people are expected to follow
proper channels and defer to the chain of command — where being
experimental in your methods and practices would be less favorable and where
staff members present a calm, courteous face to the customer so as to convey
trust and reliability.

On the other hand, a company like a tech start-up is likely to be more

collaborative and unstructured — where disruption, innovation, and
entrepreneurship is not only welcome, but also encouraged. Disruptive conflict,
wild ideas, and challenging traditions might even be a key value in their culture.
Everyone from the company president to the newest intern may be able to
communicate laterally and casually.

How the Pandemic May Change Company Culture

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, many workplace conventions have been

upended. A lot of people are working from home indefinitely, changing the way

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we interact with our coworkers, managers, leadership, and how we structure our
work. Our idea of work/life balance has been recalibrated.

And born out of the pandemic comes another re-focus on values: The Black
Lives Matter movement has challenged employers to take a closer look at
diversity, equity, and inclusion programs and examine how they actually work
with employees. Your company may say they value diversity — but do your
underrepresented groups feel included? Is every seat at the table equitable? It’s
an important place to review whether your organizational climate reflects the
culture you aim to foster.

Defining Organizational Climate

Organizational climate is the way people experience the work environment.

What is it like to work there? How do individuals feel when operating in that
culture? How do business conditions, management decisions, and the actions
leadership affect the general mood? When you consider the collective
experience of all the talent in the organization, you’re evaluating climate.

Revenue swings, for example, can affect climate without changing the culture.
If you work for a company built around a culture of process and efficiency, and
then revenue drops, the solution would likely be to double down on improving
processes and efficiencies — this might mean cutbacks in other areas,
consolidation of responsibilities, or increased workloads. As a result, employees
may start to feel resentful or despondent that their bonuses were canceled,
coworkers were laid off, or they’ve lost certain perks or benefits. In this
scenario, the culture stayed the same, but the climate changed.

If your company has a diversity and inclusion initiative, how many people from
underrepresented groups have you actually hired? What positions do they hold?
How many of those individuals are in managerial positions or within
leadership? It’s one thing to have a diverse staff, but if every group isn’t
represented through every department and at all levels, does the climate really
reflect the value your organization claims as part of their culture? Your
organization may have the diversity, but you can’t leave out the inclusion.

How Coaching Impacts Climate

An important part of fostering an organizational climate that is representative of

your organizational culture is through leaders who embody those values and
exhibit them throughout their work. A shift in mindset — from manager to
coach — helps leaders not only demonstrate organizational values, but also
listen to what’s happening throughout the workplace and help promote and

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 build a climate where employees feel seen, heard, and supported on their way to
achieve the desired culture.

Issues That Arise With Organizational Culture

Problems of organizational culture arise when the existing culture is detrimental

to achieving business goals or realizing the organization’s ideal state. For
example, a tech company where the culture is collegial, collaborative, and
academic — and where behaviors that are brash, autonomous, or cut-throat are
discouraged — may be an engaging place for easygoing managers and low-key
product engineers to work. However, the tech world is highly competitive and
disruptive, and while internally, a tech company such as this may flourish, they
may find themselves unequipped to deal with the characteristically more
aggressive and venturesome competitors within the industry.

Other drawbacks to organizational culture include:

 It can become too entrenched, making it difficult to adapt or change

 It may ostracize employees who don’t feel like they fit in, or cause people to
isolate themselves from coworkers they can’t relate to
 May form cliques or biases
 May make it difficult for employees to present opportunities for improvement
or express concerns
Problems of Organizational Climate

Problems of organizational climate arise when you’re not paying attention. At

companies that seem relatively healthy, management tends to chug along and
maintain the status quo. However, many organizations are vulnerable to slowly
escalating problems because they aren’t tuned in to the daily experience. It may
be a problem with communication and messaging, general dissatisfaction with
leadership and business decisions, or deeper structural and procedural flaws that
are fomenting frustration and harming engagement and satisfaction.

It’s a good idea for business leaders to keep a finger on the pulse of the
organization, so to speak, and not allow themselves to be blindsided. Employee
surveys are a good way to get a broad sense of staff members’ prevailing
thoughts, and survey results can serve as a springboard for programs around
improved transparency, greater collaboration, better alignment of talent, or
greater potential to address business concerns.

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 Employee surveys can address a number of different areas, all answers/results
providing a clearer picture of how motivated employees are. Areas the survey
may cover are:

 Individual feelings and beliefs

 Whether employees feel properly represented and seen
 How well leadership demonstrates and promotes company values
 Whether employees have the resources and support they need
 How employees fit in with their managers and team members
 Any additional open-ended concerns, suggestions, or ideas
 By taking steps to ensure a positive culture and a healthy climate,
management can both move the company forward and perform the
preventative maintenance needed to maximize business results.
 Caliper has the tools and expertise to identify and correct problems of
culture and climate within your organization. Contact us today and tell us
about your ideal future state. We’ll help you get there.

OR

Organizational culture is the mix of traditions, attitudes, values and

expeditions that shapes life for its staff. Does everyone work late or do they
strive for work-life balance? Are acceptable work clothes traditional, casual or
cutting-edge hip? In some cases, such as a company that tolerates bullying and
abuse, there can be a big negative impact of organizational culture

Creating Corporate Culture

Good leaders take an interest in the positive and negative effects of

organizational culture. Effective leaders have a vision for the culture they
want and work to develop it in the organization:

 They encourage staff to believe in their vision and empower them to help
make it a reality.
 They encourage employees to respect and care about each other.
 They build trust between themselves and their team.
 When employees act in ways that exhibit the desired culture, leaders
celebrate them. For instance, to develop a culture where employees act

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 independently, management should acknowledge staffers who do great
independent work
 They eliminate negative behaviors. If the CEO wants a workplace
culture that celebrates diversity, they have to discourage bigotry and
discrimination.
 They walk the walk. No amount of vision statements and speeches will
be as effective as staff seeing the leader lives by the values they talk
about.

What Makes Culture Toxic?

Promoting the values you want in your organization doesn't guarantee they'll
be adopted. In any organization, there are multiple influences on people's
behavior. In some organizations, those influences push culture to the dark side.

 Poor communication. If managers don't talk openly to their staff, or if

employees can't share their thoughts with management, that leads to a
breakdown in trust.
 A toxic employee who backstabs or bullies colleagues can erode
organizational culture. If management doesn't rein the employee in, other
employees may assume the company will tolerate them behaving the same
way.
 Prioritizing profit above everything else encourages employees to cut ethical
corners to suit the bottom line.
 Setting employees competing against each other works against building a
cooperative culture.
 Micromanagement. If employees feel they're under constant scrutiny,
they stress out.
 Resistance to change makes it harder to fight the negative impact of
organizational culture.
 If managers or other workers don't perform to the company's
standards, employees will realize how much they can get away with.
 Lack of engagement. If the company shows no interest in employees,
that makes it harder for them to care.

Effects on Management

The positive and negative effects of organizational culture influence managers

as well as lower-ranked employees. For example, a small company may expect
managers to help out employees when they need it. That's a positive culture,
fostering a spirit of teamwork.

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 The effects of organizational culture on managers also shape how decisions
get made. The culture can emphasize data-driven decisions dominated by
analytics and statistics, or favor going with your gut. Does it prioritize results,
even if managers have to compromise on their ethics? Culture shapes decisions
as much as the facts in the case.

Negative Impact of Organizational Culture

In a healthy organization, the effects of organizational culture on employee

performance will be positive. Employees know they're valued and enjoy the
work environment, so they're ready to give their best.

A negative culture has the opposite effect:

 An organizational culture that doesn't value quality work gives the

employees no reason to strive for quality.
 A culture that tolerates bad behavior gives other employees license to
behave the same way.
 Unhealthy organizational culture leaves employees feeling miserable, with
decreased motivation to commit to their job.
 An unpleasant culture can increase employee turnover because nobody wants
to stick around where they're miserable. If the culture becomes known outside
the company, it may become harder to attract new recruits too.

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ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND STRESS

Organizational Climate and Stress- The organizational climate factors are

closely associated with the level of stress experienced by the employees in
the organization. Organizational climate serves as a measure of individual
perceptions or feelings about an organization.

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Overall Effects of Organizational Stress

Organizational stress can have a profound effect on production and motivation

in the workplace. Worries about job security or the demands of a heavy
workload increase stress levels and cause a variety of emotional and physical
ailments. When stress factors, or stressors, are coupled with ineffective or
uncaring management, stress can become a problem that extends to the entire
department or company. Identifying signs of organizational stress is the first
step in designing a strategy to address problems.

Health Effects

Stress causes a variety of health problems, including high blood pressure,

upset stomach, ulcers, headaches, palpitations, fatigue, sweating, weight
changes, diarrhea, nausea, dizziness, dry mouth, appetite changes, sexual
problems, stiff neck, muscle aches and back pain. If you are stressed, you
might feel tired all the time, no matter how much you sleep, or you might have
trouble sleeping at night. Poor emotional health can weaken your body’s

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immune system, making you more likely to contract colds and other
infections. These health problems can increase work absenteeism, usage of
health insurance and work-related accidents.

Poor Performance

Stress also can affect your ability to perform your job well. Stress can make it
difficult to concentrate on complex problems or issues, and it might affect
memory. You might neglect to complete certain important tasks or forget to
perform a key part of a procedure. If you don’t feel as if management supports
or empowers you, you might feel that no reason exists to do your best work.
Stress can lead to feelings of negativity, lack of enthusiasm and apathy. When
you experience these feelings, you might no longer care about doing a good
job.

Unmet Expectations and Deadlines

If you feel overwhelmed and exhausted, then meeting expectations or

deadlines can be difficult. The effects of stress on your cognitive abilities can
affect your ability to prioritize, and it can be difficult to decide which project
should take priority. Feeling that you have no control or input into your work
also can affect your ability to complete tasks in a timely manner. Workers are
less likely to experience work stress when they have more control over their
work, have more control over the way they do their work and participate more
in decisions that concern their jobs.

Turnover

When stress makes working for a company an unpleasant experience,

employees begin to look for new jobs or consider retirement. The loss of
experienced employees can cause decreases in production and increases in
costs associated with recruiting, hiring and training new workers. A high
turnover rate also can make replacing stressed employees difficult for a
company. Recruiting new employees can be challenging if prospective
employees hear that the company's working environment is stressful.

Organizational stressors such as work overload, role conflict, under-

promotion and level of participation interact with individual factors such as
personality and family problems to create mental and physical ill health in
employees.

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 COPING STRATEGIES OF STRESS
The following are important coping strategies to address the physical
symptoms of stress.
 Practice good sleep hygiene. ...
 Give yourself regular breaks. ...
 Regularly practice self-soothing techniques. ...
 Exercise regularly. ...
 Maintain a healthy diet.

The five emotion-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus

are: disclaiming. escape-avoidance.
...
Emotion-focused coping strategies
 releasing pent-up emotions.
 distracting oneself.
 managing hostile feelings.
 meditating.
 mindfulness practices.
 using systematic relaxation procedures.

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