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 Electromagnetic Waves
and
Antennas

Exercise book

Sophocles J. Orfanidis1
Davide Ramaccia2
Alessandro Toscano2

1
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854
[email protected]
www.ece.rutgers.edu/~orfanidi/ewa
2
Department of Applied Electronics, University "Roma Tre"
via della Vasca Navale, 84 00146, Rome, Italy
[email protected]
[email protected]
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

Table of Contents

Chapter1 Maxwell's Equations ................................................................................... 1

1.1 Exercise.......................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Exercise.......................................................................................................... 6

1.3 Exercise........................................................................................................ 12

1.4 Exercise........................................................................................................ 16

1.5 Exercise........................................................................................................ 18

1.6 Exercise........................................................................................................ 20

1.7 Exercise........................................................................................................ 25

1.8 Exercise........................................................................................................ 29

1.9 Exercise........................................................................................................ 30

1.10 Exercise........................................................................................................ 32

1.11 Exercise........................................................................................................ 42

1.12 Exercise........................................................................................................ 54

1.13 Exercise........................................................................................................ 56

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

Chapter1
Maxwell's Equations

1.1 Exercise

Prove the vector algebra identities:

a) A × ( B × C ) = B ( A ⋅ C ) - C ( A ⋅ B )

It is possible to write the vectors in the form:

⎧ A = A x xˆ + A y yˆ + A z zˆ
⎪⎪
⎨B = B x xˆ + B y yˆ + Bz zˆ (1.1.1)
⎪
⎪⎩C = C x xˆ + C y yˆ + C z zˆ

and to use the follow relationship:

xˆ yˆ zˆ
U × V = Ux Uy Uz =
(1.1.2)
Vx Vy Vz

( ) (
= xˆ U y Vz − U z Vy − yˆ ( U x Vz − U z Vx ) + zˆ U x Vy − U y Vx )
Now we can prove the algebra identities with simply mathematical substitutions:

(( ) (
A × ( B × C ) = A × xˆ B y C z − Bz C y − yˆ ( Bx C z − Bz C x ) + zˆ Bx C y − B y C x )) =
= ( ( )
xˆ A y Bx C y − B y C x + A z ( Bx C z − Bz C x ) ) (1.1.3)
− yˆ ( A x ( Bx C y − B y C x ) − A z ( B y C z − Bz C y ) )

+ zˆ ( − A x ( Bx C z − Bz C x ) − A y ( B y C z − Bz C y ) )

Expanding the terms in (1.1.3), we have:

A × ( B ×C ) =

(
+ xˆ A y Bx C y − A y ByCx + A z Bx Cz − A z Bz C x )
+ yˆ ( A x By Cx − A x Bx C y + A z By Cz − A z Bz C y ) (1.1.4)

+ zˆ ( A x Bz Cx − A x Bx Cz − A y By Cz + A y Bz C y )

Let us write eq. (1.1.4) in matrix form, separating the terms with the minus sign and the terms
with the plus sign:

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 1

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

⎡ 0 ByA xCx Bz A x C x ⎤ ⎡ 0 C yA x Bx Cz A x Bx ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A × ( B × C ) = ⎢Bx A yC y 0 Bz A yC y ⎥ − ⎢C x A y B y 0 C z A y B y ⎥ (1.1.5)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ B x A z C z ByA zCz 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ C x A z B z C y A z Bz 0 ⎥⎦

Note that the elements of the diagonal of each matrix are zero. Each term can be filled with the
product of the three component with the same subscript ( a ii = A i B i C i ) :

⎡Bx AxCx ByAxCx BzAxCx ⎤ ⎡Cx Ax Bx CyAx Bx CzAx Bx ⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A× ( B×C) = ⎢Bx AyCy ByAyCy BzAyCy ⎥ − ⎢Cx AyBy CyAyBy CzAyBy ⎥ =
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ Bx AzCz ByAzCz BzAzCz ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ Cx AzBz CyAzBz CzAzBz ⎥⎦
( ) ( ) (
= +AxCx Bx xˆ + Byyˆ + Bzzˆ + AyCy Bx xˆ + Byyˆ + Bzzˆ + AzCz Bx xˆ + Byyˆ + Bzzˆ − )
− Ax Bx ( Cx xˆ + Cyyˆ + Czzˆ ) − AyBy ( Cx xˆ + Cyyˆ + Czzˆ ) − AzBz ( Cx xˆ + Cyyˆ + Czzˆ ) = (1.1.6)

= B ( AxCx + AyCy + AzCz ) − C( Ax Bx + AyBy + AzBz ) =

= B ( A ⋅ C) − C( A ⋅ B)

b) A ⋅ ( B × C ) = B ⋅ ( C × A ) = C ⋅ ( A × B )

Using relationships (1.1.1) and (1.1.2), we can write:

(( ) (
A ⋅ ( B × C ) = A ⋅ xˆ B y C z − B z C y − yˆ ( B x C z − B z C x ) + zˆ B x C y − B y C x )) =
( A x B y C z − A x Bz C y ) − ( A y B x C z − A y Bz C x ) + ( A z B x C y − A z B y C x ) = (1.1.7)

( A x B y C z + A y Bz C x + A z B x C y ) − ( A x Bz C y + A y B x C z + A z B y C x )
(( ) (
B ⋅ (C × A) = B ⋅ xˆ C y A z − C z A y − yˆ ( C x A z − C z A x ) + zˆ A x C y − A y C x )) =
( B x C y A z − B x C z A y ) − ( B y C x A z − B y C z A x ) + ( Bz A x C y − Bz A y C x ) =
( Bx C y A z + By Cz A x + Bz C x A y ) − ( Bx Cz A y + By C x A z + Bz C y A x ) =↑ (1.1.8)

order them

( A x B y C z + A y Bz C x + A z B x C y ) − ( A x Bz C y + A y B x C z + A z B y C x )
(( ) (
C ⋅ (A × B) = C ⋅ xˆ A y Bz − A z B y − yˆ ( A x Bz − A z B x ) + zˆ A x B y − A y B x )) =
( C x A y Bz − C x A z B y ) − ( C y A x Bz − C y A z B x ) + ( C z A x B y − C z A y B x ) =
( Cx A y Bz + C y A z Bx + Cz A x By ) − ( Cx A z By + C y A x Bz + Cz A y Bx ) =↑ (1.1.9)

order them

( A x B y C z + A y Bz C x + A z B x C y ) − ( A x Bz C y + A y B x C z + A z B y C x )
If we compare the last row of each expression, we note that they are identical so the algebra
identity is verified.

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 2

S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

2 2 2 2
c) A×B + A ⋅B = A B

Using relationships (1.1.1) and (1.1.2), we can write:

( ) ( )
2
A × B + A ⋅ B = xˆ A y Bz − A z B y − yˆ ( A x Bz − A z Bx ) + zˆ A x B y − A y Bx
2 2
+

( )
2
+ A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz =
2
⎛ ⎞
( A y Bz − A z B y ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
+ ( A x Bz − A z B x ) + A x B y − A y B x
2
⎜ ⎟ + A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz =
⎝ ⎠

( A y Bz − A z B y ) ( ) + ( A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz )
2 2 2
+ ( A x Bz − A z B x ) + A x B y − A y B x
2
=

A 2y B2z + A 2z B2y − 2A y Bz A z B y + A 2x B2z + A 2z B2x − 2A x Bz A z B x +

( )
2
A 2x B2y + A 2y B2x − 2A x B y A y Bx + A x Bx + A y B y + A z Bz =

A 2y Bz2 + A z2 B2y − 2A y Bz A z B y + A 2x Bz2 + A z2 B2x − 2A x Bz A z B x +

A 2x B2y + A 2y B2x − 2A x B y A y Bx + A 2x B2x + A 2y B2y + A 2z B2z +
2A x B y A y B x + 2A x Bz A z Bx + 2A x B y A y Bx =
↑
cancel the opposites

A 2y Bz2 + A z2 B2y + A 2x Bz2 + A z2 B2x + A 2x B2y + A 2y B2x + A 2x B2x + A 2y B2y + A z2 Bz2 =

( A2x + A2y + A2z )( B2x + B2y + B2z ) = A 2 B 2

d) A = nˆ × A × nˆ + (nˆ ⋅ A)nˆ
Does it make a difference whether nˆ × A × nˆ is taken to mean ( nˆ × A ) × nˆ or nˆ × ( A × nˆ ) ?

The unit vector n̂can be expressed as follow:

⎧nˆ = n x xˆ + n y yˆ + n z zˆ
⎪
⎨ (1.1.10)
⎪⎩ nˆ = n x + n y + n z = 1
2 2 2

Let us begin considering the first case:

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 3

S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

( nˆ × A ) × nˆ = ⎡⎣ xˆ ( n y A z − n z A y ) − yˆ ( n x A z − n z A x ) + zˆ ( n x A y − n y A x )⎤⎦ × nˆ =

( )
+ xˆ ⎡( n z A x − n x A z ) n z − n x A y − n y A x n y ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
− yˆ ⎡( n y A z − n z A y ) n z − ( n x A y − n y A x ) n x ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡( n y A z − n z A y ) n y − ( n z A x − n x A z ) n x ⎤ = (1.1.11)
⎣ ⎦

+ xˆ ⎡ n 2z A x − n x n z A z − n x n y A y + n 2y A x ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
− yˆ ⎡ n y n z A z − n z2 A y − n 2x A y + n y n x A x ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ n 2y A z − n z n y A y − n z n x A x + n 2x A z ⎤
⎣ ⎦
And now consider the second case:

( ) (
nˆ × ( A × nˆ ) = nˆ × ⎡ xˆ A y n z − A z n y − yˆ ( A x n z − A z n x ) + zˆ A x n y − A y n x ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ )

( )
+ xˆ ⎡ n y A x n y − A y n x − n z ( A z n x − A x n z ) ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
−yˆ ⎡ n x ( A x n y − A y n x ) − n z ( A y n z − A z n y ) ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ n x ( A z n x − A x n z ) − n y ( A y n z − A z n y ) ⎤ = (1.1.12)
⎣ ⎦

+ xˆ ⎡ A x n 2y − A y n y n x − A z n z n x + A x n 2z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
−yˆ ⎡ A x n x n y − A y n 2x − A y n z2 + A z n z n y ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ A z n x − A x n x n z − A y n y n z + A z n y ⎤
2 2
⎣ ⎦
It is very easy to show that ( nˆ × A ) × nˆ = nˆ × ( A × nˆ ) .

The second term of the identity can be written as:

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 4

S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

(
(nˆ ⋅ A)nˆ = n x A x + n y A y + n z A z )( n x xˆ + n y yˆ + n z zˆ ) =
(
+ xˆ ⎡ n x n x A x + n y A y + n z A z
⎣ )⎤⎦ +
(
+ yˆ ⎡ n y n x A x + n y A y + n z A z
⎣ )⎤⎦ +
+ zˆ ⎡ n z ( n x A x + n y A y + n z A z ) ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ (1.1.13)

+ xˆ ⎡ n 2x A x + n x n y A y + n x n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ yˆ ⎡ n y n x A x + n 2y A y + n y n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ n z n x A x + n z n y A y + n z2 A z ⎤
⎣ ⎦
Adding the two results, we obtain:
nˆ × A × nˆ + (nˆ ⋅ A)nˆ =
+ xˆ ⎡ A x n 2y − A y n y n x − A z n z n x + A x n 2z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
−yˆ ⎡ A x n x n y − A y n 2x − A y n 2z + A z n z n y ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ A z n 2x − A x n x n z − A y n y n z + A z n 2y ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ xˆ ⎡ n 2x A x + n x n y A y + n x n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ yˆ ⎡ n y n x A x + n 2y A y + n y n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ n z n x A x + n z n y A y + n z2 A z ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ ↑
change signs in parentheses at first yˆ and add

+ xˆ ⎡ A x n 2y − A y n y n x − A z n z n x + A x n 2z + n 2x A x + n x n y A y + n x n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ yˆ ⎡ A y n x + A y n z − A x n x n y − A z n z n y + n y n x A x + n y A y + n y n z A z ⎤ +
2 2 2
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ A z n 2x − A x n x n z − A y n y n z + A z n 2y + n z n x A x + n z n y A y + n 2z A z ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦
(1.1.14)

+ xˆ A x ⎡ n 2y + n z2 + n 2x ⎤ + + yˆ A y ⎡ n 2x + n 2z + n 2y ⎤ + + zˆ A z ⎡ n 2x + n 2y + n 2z ⎤ = A
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 5

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

1.2 Exercise

Prove the vector analysis identities:

1. ∇ × ( ∇φ ) = 0

2. ∇ ⋅ ( φ∇ψ ) = φ∇ 2 ψ + ∇φ ⋅ ∇ψ (Green's first identity)

3. ∇ ⋅ ( φ∇ψ − ψ∇φ ) = φ∇ 2 ψ − ψ∇ 2 φ (Green's second identity)

4. ∇ ⋅ ( φ A ) = ( ∇φ ) ⋅ A + φ∇ ⋅ A

5. ∇ × ( φ A ) = ( ∇φ ) × A + φ∇ × A

6. ∇ ⋅ ( ∇ × A ) = 0

7. ∇ ⋅ A × B = B ⋅ ( ∇ × A ) − A ⋅ ( ∇ × B )

8. ∇ × ( ∇ × A ) = ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ 2 A

First of all we have to express the operator ∇ in general orthogonal coordinates in four common
applications. All vector components are presented with respect to the normalized base ( eˆ 1 , eˆ 2 , eˆ 3 ) :

⎧ eˆ1 ∂φ eˆ 2 ∂φ eˆ 3 ∂φ
⎪∇φ = h ∂q + h ∂q + h ∂q
⎪ 1 1 2 2 3 3
⎪ 1 ⎡ ∂ ⎛ h 2 h3 ∂φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ h1h3 ∂φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ h1h 2 ∂φ ⎞ ⎤
⎪∇2 φ = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎪ h1h 2 h3 ⎣⎢ ∂q1 ⎝ h1 ∂q1 ⎠ ∂q 2 ⎝ h 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ∂q3 ⎝ h3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎪
⎪ 1 ⎡ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
⎪ ∇ ⋅ F = ⎢ ( F1h 2 h 3 ) + ( F2 h1 h 3 ) + ( F3 h1h 2 ) ⎥
h1h 2 h3 ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3 ⎦
⎪
⎪⎪ h1eˆ1 h 2eˆ 2 h3eˆ 3
⎨
⎪∇ × F = 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
⎪ =
h1h 2 h3 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3
⎪
⎪ h1F1 h 2 F2 h3F3
⎪
⎪ eˆ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤ eˆ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤
⎪ + 1 ⎢ ( h3F3 ) − ( h 2 F2 )⎥ + 2 ⎢ ( h1F1 ) − ( h3F3 )⎥ +
h 2 h3 ⎣ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦ h1h3 ⎣ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎦
⎪
⎪ eˆ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤
⎪ + 3 ⎢ ( h 2 F2 ) − ( h1F1 )⎥
⎩⎪ h1h 2 ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q2 ⎦ (1.2.1)
where ( h1 , h 2 , h 3 ) are the metric coefficients. For common geometries they are defined as follow:

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 6

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

⎧ h1 = 1, h 2 = 1, h 3 = 1 (rectangular coordinates)
⎪
⎨ h1 = 1, h 2 = r, h 3 = 1 (cylindrical coordinates) (1.2.2)
⎪ h = 1, h = r, h = r sin ϑ
⎩ 1 2 3 (spherical coordinates)

For simplicity, the proves are done using rectangular coordinates ( h1 = 1, h 2 = 1, h 3 = 1) :

• Identity n° 1

eˆ1 eˆ 2 eˆ 3
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × ( ∇φ ) = =
∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3
⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ⎠
⎡ ⎛ ∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ⎞ ⎤
⎢eˆ1 ⎜ − ⎟ − eˆ 2 ⎜ − ⎟ +⎥
⎢ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ∂q3 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q3 ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎥
=⎢
⎛ ⎞ ⎥=0
⎢ +eˆ 3 ⎜ ∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ⎥
− ⎟
⎢⎣ ∂
⎝ 1 2
q ∂q ∂q 2 ∂q1⎠ ⎦⎥
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
For the property of linearity of the derivate operator φ= φ , so each term in the
∂q i ∂q j ∂q j ∂q i

parentheses vanishes and also the result.

• Identity n° 2
⎛ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ ⎞
∇ ⋅ ( φ∇ψ ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ eˆ 1 φ + eˆ 2 φ + eˆ 3φ ⎟=
⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠
∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞
= ⎜φ ⎟+ ⎜φ ⎟+ ⎜φ ⎟=
∂q1 ⎝ ∂q1 ⎠ ∂q 2 ⎝ ∂q 2 ⎠ ∂q 3 ⎝ ∂q 3 ⎠
⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2 ψ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2 ψ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2ψ ⎞
=⎜ +φ +
⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ + φ +
⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ + φ ⎟⎟ =
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂ q ∂q ∂q ∂ q ∂ q ∂ q ∂ q
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3 3 ⎠
⎛ ∂ 2 ψ ∂ 2 ψ ∂ 2 ψ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ ⎞
=φ ⎜ + + + + + = φ∇ 2 ψ + ∇φ ⋅ ∇ψ
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠
• Identity n° 3
First of all we expand the sum inside parentheses:
⎧ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
⎪φ∇ψ = φeˆ 1 ∂q + φeˆ 2 ∂q + φeˆ 3 ∂q
⎪ 1 2 3
⎨
⎪ψ∇φ = ψeˆ ∂φ + ψeˆ ∂φ + ψeˆ ∂φ
1
⎩⎪
2 3
∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 7

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

so
⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞
( φ∇ψ − ψ∇φ) = eˆ1 ⎜ φ −ψ ⎟ + eˆ 2 ⎜ φ −ψ ⎟ + eˆ 3 ⎜ φ −ψ ⎟
⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ∂q3 ⎠

Now we can apply the dot product:

⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞ ⎤
∇ ⋅ ( φ∇ψ − ψ∇φ ) = ⎢ ⎜φ −ψ ⎟+ ⎜φ −ψ ⎟+ ⎜φ −ψ ⎟⎥ =
⎣⎢ ∂q1 ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ∂q 2 ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ∂q 3 ⎝ ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2 ψ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ 2 φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2 ψ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂2φ ⎞
= +⎜ +φ − −ψ ⎟ +⎜ +φ − −ψ ⎟+
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ∂ q 2 ∂q 2 ∂ q 2 ∂q 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2 ψ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂2φ ⎞
+⎜ +φ − −ψ ⎟ =
⎜ ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠ ↑
⎝ cancel opposite terms in parentheses

⎛ ∂2ψ ∂2ψ ∂2ψ ⎞ ⎛ ∂2φ ∂2φ ∂2φ ⎞

=φ ⎜ + ⎟ − ψ⎜ + = φ∇ 2 ψ − ψ∇ 2 φ
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎟
+ +
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

• Identity n°4
⎡ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
∇ ⋅ ( φA ) = ∇ ⋅ ( φA1eˆ1 + φA 2 eˆ 2 + φA3eˆ 3 ) = ⎢ ( φA1 ) + ( φA 2 ) + ( φA3 )⎥ =
⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦

⎡⎛ ∂A ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂A3 ∂φ ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ φ 1 + A1 ⎟ + ⎜φ + A2 ⎟ + ⎜φ + A3 ⎟⎥ =
⎢⎣⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎛ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 2 ∂A3 ⎞
= ⎜ A1 + A2 + A3 ⎟ +φ ⎜ + + ⎟ = ( ∇φ ) ⋅ A + φ∇ ⋅ A
⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎠

• Identity n° 5

eˆ 1 eˆ 2 eˆ 3
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × ( φA ) = =
∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3
φA1 φA 2 φA 3

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 8

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤
+eˆ1 ⎢ ( φA3 ) − ( φA 2 )⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢ ( φA1 ) − ( φA3 )⎥ + eˆ 3 ⎢ ( φA 2 ) − ( φA1 )⎥ =
⎣ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎦

⎡⎛ ∂φ ∂A3 ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂A 2 ⎞⎤ ⎡⎛ ∂φ ∂A ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂A3 ⎞ ⎤
=eˆ1 ⎢⎜ A3 + φ⎟ − ⎜ A2 + φ ⎟ ⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢⎜ A1 + 1 φ ⎟ − ⎜ A3 + φ ⎟⎥ +
⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣⎝ ∂q3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ ∂φ ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂A ⎞ ⎤
+eˆ 3 ⎢⎜ A2 + φ⎟ − ⎜ A1 + 1 φ ⎟ ⎥ =
⎣⎢⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥

⎡ ∂φ ∂φ ⎤ ⎡ ∂φ ∂φ ⎤ ⎡ ∂φ ∂φ ⎤
=eˆ1 ⎢ A3 − A 2 ⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢ A1 − A3 ⎥ + eˆ 3 ⎢ A2 − A1 ⎥ +
⎣ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎦
⎡ ∂A ∂A 2 ⎤ ⎡ ∂A ∂A ⎤ ⎡ ∂A ∂A ⎤
+eˆ1 ⎢ 3 φ − φ ⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢ 1 φ − 3 φ ⎥ + eˆ 3 ⎢ 2 φ − 1 φ ⎥ = ( ∇φ ) × A + φ∇ × A
⎣ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎦

• Identity n° 6
⎡ ⎛ ∂A ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞ ⎤
∇ ⋅ ( ∇ × A ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎢eˆ 1 ⎜ 3 − ⎟ − eˆ 2 ⎜ − ⎟ + eˆ 3 ⎜ − ⎟⎥ =
⎣⎢ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A 2 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A1 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞ ⎤
=⎢ ⎜ − ⎟− ⎜ − ⎟+ ⎜ − ⎟⎥ =
⎢⎣ ∂q1 ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ∂q 2 ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ∂q 3 ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ∂ ∂A 3 ∂ ∂A 2 ∂ ∂A 3 ∂ ∂A1 ∂ ∂A 2 ∂ ∂A1 ⎤
=⎢ − − − + − ⎥=0
⎢⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q1 ∂q 3 ∂q 2 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ∂q1 ∂q 3 ∂q 2 ⎥⎦
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
For the linearity of the derivate operator φ= φ , so the term in brackets is null.
∂q i ∂q j ∂q j ∂q i

• Identity n°7
To evaluate the expression ∇ ⋅A×B , we have to calculate first the cross product and then the
divergence of vector A × B . This choise is obligated by the fact that if first we calculated the
divergence of the vector A , the results would be a scalar. Cross product with the vector B would be
impossible. So we have:

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 9

S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

∇ ⋅ ( A × B ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎡⎣eˆ 1 ( A 2 B3 − A3 B2 ) − eˆ 2 ( A1B3 − A 3 B1 ) + eˆ 3 ( A1B2 − A 2 B1 ) ⎤⎦ =

∂ ∂ ∂
= ( A 2 B3 − A3 B2 ) − ( A1B3 − A3 B1 ) + ( A1B2 − A 2 B1 ) =
∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ( A 2 B3 ) − ( A3 B2 ) − ( A1B3 ) + ( A3 B1 ) + ( A1B2 ) − ( A 2 B1 ) =
∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ∂q 3
⎛ ∂A 2 ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂A3 ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂A ∂B ⎞
= ⎜ B3 + A 2 3 ⎟ − ⎜ B2 + A 3 2 ⎟ − ⎜ B3 1 + A1 3 ⎟ +
⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠
⎛ ∂A3 ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂B ∂A 2 ⎞
+ ⎜ B1 + A 3 1 ⎟ + ⎜ B2 + A1 2 ⎟ − ⎜ A 2 1 + B1 ⎟=
⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 3 ∂q3 ⎠
⎛ ∂A ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A3 ⎞ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞
=B1 ⎜ 3 − ⎟ + B2 ⎜ − ⎟ + B3 ⎜ − ⎟+
⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠
⎛ ∂B ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂B ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂B ∂B ⎞
+ A1 ⎜ 2 − 3 ⎟ + A 2 ⎜ 3 − 1 ⎟ + A 3 ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ =
⎝ ∂q3 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q1 ⎠
=B ⋅ ( ∇ × A ) − A ⋅ ( ∇ × B )

• Identity n° 8
⎛ ⎛ ∂A ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂A ∂A ⎞ ⎛ ∂A ∂A ⎞ ⎞
∇ × ( ∇ × A ) = ∇ × ⎜ eˆ 1 ⎜ 3 − ⎟ − eˆ 2 ⎜ 3 − 1 ⎟ + eˆ 3 ⎜ 2 − 1 ⎟ ⎟ =
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎠
⎛ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎞
=eˆ1 ⎜ ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟⎟ +
⎜ ∂q ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
⎝ 2 ⎝ q1 q 2 ⎠ q 3 ⎝ q 3 q1 ⎠⎠
⎛ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎞
− eˆ 2 ⎜ ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟⎟ +
⎜ ∂q ∂q ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
⎝ 1 ⎝ 1 q 2 ⎠ q 3 ⎝ q 2 q 3 ⎠⎠
⎛ ∂ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 3 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎞
+ eˆ 3 ⎜ ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟⎟ =
⎜ ∂q ∂ q ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
⎝ 1⎝ 3 q1 ⎠ q 2⎝ q 2 q 3 ⎠⎠

⎛ ∂ ∂A 2 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ ∂A 3 ⎞
=eˆ 1 ⎜ − − + ⎟+
⎜ ∂q 2 ∂q1 ∂ q ∂q ∂q ∂q ⎟
⎝ 2 3 3 1 ⎠
⎛ ∂2A2 ∂ ∂A1 ∂ ∂A 3 ∂ 2 A 2 ⎞
− eˆ 2 ⎜ − − + ⎟+
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠
⎝
⎛ ∂ ∂A1 ∂ 2 A 3 ∂ 2 A 3 ∂ ∂A 2 ⎞
+ eˆ 3 ⎜ − − + ⎟=
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q ⎟
⎝ 1 2 2 3 ⎠

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 10

S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

⎛ ∂ ∂A 2 ∂ ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂A1 ∂ ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂A1 ∂ ∂A 2 ⎞
=eˆ 1 ⎜ + ⎟ − eˆ 2 ⎜ − − ⎟ + eˆ 3 ⎜ + ⎟+
∂
⎝ 2q ∂q1 ∂ q 3 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂ q 2 ∂q 3 ∂ q 2 ⎠ ∂
⎝ 1 3
q ∂q ∂ q 2 ∂ q 3 ⎠
⎛ ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 A2 ∂2 A2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2 A3 ∂ 2 A3 ⎞
+e1 ⎜ −
ˆ − ⎟ − e2 ⎜
ˆ + ⎟ + e3 ⎜ −
ˆ − ⎟=
⎜ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎟ ⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝

⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 2 ⎞⎤
=eˆ 1 ⎢ ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢ ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ + eˆ 3 ⎢ ⎜ + ⎟⎥ −
⎢⎣ ∂q1 ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ∂q 2 ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ∂q 3 ⎝ ∂ q1 ∂q 2 ⎠⎦
⎛ ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 A2 ∂2 A2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2 A3 ∂ 2 A3 ⎞
− e1 ⎜
ˆ + ⎟ − e2 ⎜
ˆ + ⎟ − e3 ⎜ +
ˆ + ⎟ = ∇ (∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇2 A
⎜ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠⎟
⎝ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 11

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

1.3 Exercise

Consider the infinitesimal volume element ΔxΔyΔz shown below, such that its upper half lies in
medium ε1 and its lower half in medium ε2 . The axes are oriented such that nˆ = zˆ .

Fig. 1.3.1: Infinitesimal volume element between two medium.

1. Applying the integrated form of Ampère's law to the infinitesimal face abcd, show that
∂D x
H 2 y − H 1y = J x Δ z + Δz (1.3.1)
∂t
2. In the limit Δz → 0 , the second term in the right–hand side may be assumed to go to zero,
whereas the first term will be non–zero and may be set equal to the surface current density,
that is, J sx ≡ lim Δ z → 0 ( J x Δ z ) . Show that this leads to the boundary condition

H 1y − H 2 y = − J sx . Similarly, shows that H 1x − H 2 x = J sy , and that these two boundary

conditions can be combined vectorially into:

nˆ × ( H 1 − H 2 ) = J s (1.3.2)

3. Apply the integrated form of Gauss's law to the same volume element and show the
boundary condition D1z − D 2 z = ρ s = lim Δ z → 0 ( ρΔ z ) .

Solution
• Question n° 1
In its historically original form, Ampère's circuital law relates the magnetic field to its electric
current source. The law can be written in two forms, the integral form and the differential form. The
forms are equivalent, and related by the Kelvin–Stokes theorem. The identity demonstrated by
Stokes is the follow:

∫∫ ( ∇ × F ) dS = ∫ F⋅d (1.3.3)
S c(S)

So applying (1.3.3) to the second Maxwell's equation, we obtain the Ampere's law in integral
form with few simply steps:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 12
 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

∂D
∇× H = J +
∂t
Integrate terms of the identity over an opened surface S:
∂D
∫∫ ( ∇ × H ) ⋅ nˆ dS = ∫∫ J ⋅ nˆ dS + ∫∫ ∂t
⋅ nˆ dS
S S S

and apply the Stokes theorem:

∂D
∫ H ⋅ d = ∫∫ J ⋅ nˆ dS + ∫∫
∂t
⋅ nˆ dS (1.3.4)
c(S) S S

where is the infinitesimal vector, tangent to the curved line c that bounds the surface S.

Now we can consider the infinitesimal face abcd, that has area S = ΔzΔy and perimeter
p = 2Δz + 2Δy . The left–hand side of (1.3.4) can be decomposed into a sum of four integral
expression, one for each infinitesimal side of the rectangular abcd, and we have to define the sense
of integration. Choose an counterclockwise path so that, using the right–hand rule, the normal is x̂.
Note that the z–parallel sides have the first half in the medium 1 and the second in medium 2. So
the integral on that part of the path needs to be decomposed into two integral with different
arguments. For simplicity, denote the points of contact between mediums along the segments ab

and cd with O1 and O 2 , respectively.

On the contrary, to solve the right–side of (1.3.4) we have to identify the correct component of J
and D that flows through the face abcd, i.e. the component Jx and D x .

So we obtain:
O1 b c O2 d a
− ∫ H1 ⋅ dzˆ − ∫ H 2 ⋅ dzˆ + ∫ H 2 ⋅ dyˆ + ∫ H 2 ⋅ dzˆ + ∫ H1 ⋅ dzˆ − ∫ H1 ⋅ dyˆ =
a O1 b c O2 d
∂D x
= J x Δ zΔ y + Δ zΔ y
∂t
H 1 and H 2 are constant inside each medium, so the line integrals can be written as:

Δz Δz Δz Δz ∂D x
− H1z − H 2z + H 2y Δy + H 2z + H1z − H1y Δy = J x ΔzΔy + ΔzΔy
2 2 2 2 ∂t
i.e.
∂D x
H 2 y Δ y − H 1y Δ y = J x Δ z Δ y + Δz Δy
∂t
∂D x
H 2 y − H 1y = J x Δ z + Δz
∂t

• Question n° 2

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 13

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

In the limit Δz → 0 , the eq. (1.3.1) is reduced in H 1y − H 2 y = − J sx and similarly

H 1x − H 2 x = J sy . In order to obtain eq. (1.3.2), we can subtract vectorially these two boundary

conditions:

( )
yˆ ( H1x − H 2x ) − xˆ H1y − H 2y = Jsx xˆ + Jsy yˆ

nˆ × ( H 1 − H 2 ) = J s

where nˆ = zˆ .

• Question n° 3
Gauss's law relates the electric field to its electric charge sources. Like Ampère's circuital law, it
can be written in two forms, the integral form and the differential form. The forms are equivalent,
and related by the divergence theorem:

∫∫∫ ( ∇ ⋅ F ) dV = ∫∫ F ⋅ nˆ dS (1.3.5)
V S(V)

So applying (1.3.5) to the third Maxwell's equation, we obtain the Gauss's law in integral form
with few simply steps:
∇⋅ D = ρ
Integrate terms of the identity over a volume V:

∫∫∫ ( ∇ ⋅ D ) dV = ∫∫∫ ρ dV
V V

and apply the divergence theorem:

∫∫ D ⋅ nˆ dS = ∫∫∫ ρdV = Qin (1.3.6)

S(V) V

where n̂ is the outgoing unit vector normal to the closed surface S that bounds the volume V.
Now consider the volume V = ΔxΔyΔz . The left–hand side of (1.3.6) can be decomposed into two
integrals with arguments D1 and D2 , respectively in the medium 1 and medium 2. The right–hand

side of (1.3.6) is a simple volume integral. So we have:

∫∫ ( D1 ⋅ nˆ ) dS1 + ∫∫ ( D2 ⋅ nˆ ) dS2 = ∫∫∫ ρdV = ρΔxΔyΔz (1.3.7)

S1 S2 V

where S1 and S2 are portions of S in the medium 1 and medium 2, respectively and ρ is considered
constant inside the volume V.
The terms on the right–hand side of eq. (1.3.7) can be decomposed into several surface integrals,
one for each side of parallelepiped ΔxΔyΔz :

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 14

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

Δz Δz Δz Δz
D1z ΔxΔy + D1y Δx + D1x Δy − D1y Δx − D1x Δy −
2 2 2 2
Δz Δz Δz Δz
− D 2z ΔxΔy + D 2y Δx + D 2x Δy − D 2y Δx − D 2x Δy = ρΔxΔyΔz
2 2 2 2
i.e.
D1z − D2z = ρΔz

In the limit Δz → 0 , the amount ρΔz collapses in ρs which is the surface electric charge density.

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 15

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

1.4 Exercise

Show that time average of the product of two harmonic quantities Α(t) = Re ⎡ Ae jω t ⎤ and
⎣ ⎦

B (t) = Re ⎡ Be jω t ⎤ with phasors A, B is given by:

⎣ ⎦
T
1 1 ∗⎤
A(t) B (t) =
T ∫ A(t) B (t)dt = 2 Re ⎡⎣ AB ⎦
(1.4.1)
0

where T = 2π ω is one period. Then show that the time–averaged values of the cross and dot

products of two time–harmonic vector quantities A (t) = Re ⎡ A e jω t ⎤ and B (t) = Re ⎡ Be jω t ⎤ can be

⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
expressed in terms of the corresponding phasors as follows:
1
A(t) × B(t) = Re ⎡ A × B∗ ⎤ (1.4.2)
2 ⎣ ⎦
1
A(t) ⋅ B(t) = Re ⎡ A ⋅ B∗ ⎤ (1.4.3)
2 ⎣ ⎦

Solution
First of all, we express the harmonic quantities A(t) and B(t) in their extended form:

⎧⎪ A(t) = A cos (ω t + ϕ1 )
⎨ (1.4.4)
⎪⎩ B (t) = B cos (ω t + ϕ 2 )

and substitute eq. (1.4.4) into eq. (1.4.1):

T T
1 1
∫ AB cos (ω t + ϕ1 ) cos (ω t + ϕ 2 ) dt
T∫
A(t) B (t) = A(t) B (t)dt = (1.4.5)
T
0 0

Now we have to use Euler's formula:

⎧ e jx + e − jx
⎧⎪ e = cos x + jsin x
jx ⎪ cos x =
⎪ 2
⎨ − jx ⇔ ⎨ (1.4.6)
− jx
⎪sin x = e − e
jx
⎩⎪ e = cos x − jsin x
⎪⎩ 2j

Substitute eq. (1.4.6) into eq. (1.4.5) and we obtain:

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 16

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

1
T ⎛ e jω t eϕ1 + e− jω t e−ϕ1 ⎞⎛ e jω t eϕ2 + e− jω t e−ϕ2 ⎞
T∫
A(t) B(t) = AB ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ dt =
⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟
0 ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
T jω t ϕ1
AB e e + e (− jω t −ϕ1
e )(
e jω t eϕ2 + e− jω t e−ϕ2 )
2T ∫
= dt =
2
0

AB e2 jω t e( 1 2 ) + e( 1 2 ) + e ( 1 2 ) + e−2 jω t e ( 1 2 )
T ϕ +ϕ ϕ −ϕ − ϕ −ϕ − ϕ +ϕ

2T ∫
= dt =
2
0

AB
T
ABcos (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) 1 1
= ∫ cos ( ϕ − ϕ ) dt = T = ABcos (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = Re ⎡ AB∗ ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦
1 2
2T 2T 2
0

Operating in similar way, we can demonstrate the time–averaged values of the cross and dot
products of two time–harmonic vector quantities.
• Cross Product
T T T
1 1 a×b
∫ ( A(t) × B (t) ) dt = ∫ Re[Ae jω t ]a × Re[Be jω t ]b dt = Re[Ae jω t ] Re[Be jω t ]dt
T ∫
A (t) × B (t) =
T T
0 0 0
The result of integral is note by previous exercise, so:
a×b 1 1
A(t) × B(t) = Re[AB∗ ] = Re[aA × bB∗ ] = Re[A × B∗ ]
2 2 2
• Dot Product
T T T
1 1 a⋅b
A(t) ⋅ B (t) = ∫ ( A(t) ⋅ B (t) ) dt = ∫ Re[Ae jω t ]a ⋅ Re[Be jω t ]bdt = ∫ Re[Ae jω t ] Re[Be jω t ]dt =
T T T
0 0 0
a⋅b 1 1
= Re[AB*] = Re[aA ⋅ bB∗ ] = Re[ A ⋅ B∗ ]
2 2 2

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 17

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

1.5 Exercise

Assuming that B = μH :
1. Show that Maxwell's equations
∇ × E = − jω B
∇ × H = J + jω D
∇⋅D = ρ
∇⋅B = 0

imply the following complex–value version of Poynting's theorem:

( )
∇ ⋅ E × H ∗ = − jωμ H ⋅ H ∗ − E ⋅ J ∗tot (1.5.1)

where J tot = J + jω D .
2. Extracting the real–parts of both sides of eq. (1.5.1) and integrating over a volume V
bounded by closed surface, show the time–averaged form of energy conservation:
1 1
− ∫∫ Re[E × H∗ ] ⋅ nˆ dS = ∫∫∫ Re ⎡E ⋅ J∗tot ⎤ dV (1.5.2)
2 2 ⎣ ⎦
S(V) V

which states that the net time–averaged power floating into a volume is dissipated into
heat.
3. For a lossless dielectric, show that the integrals in (1.5.2) are zero and provide an
interpretation.

Solution
• Question n° 1
Using the identity ∇ ⋅ ( E × H ) = H ⋅ ( ∇ × E ) − E ⋅ ( ∇ × H ) and Maxwell's equations, we have:

( ) ( )
∇ ⋅ E × H ∗ = H ∗ ⋅ ( ∇ × E ) − E ⋅ ∇ × H ∗ = H ∗ ⋅ ( − j ω B ) − E ⋅ J * − j ω D* = ( )
= − jωμ H ⋅ H ∗ − E ⋅ J ∗tot

• Question n° 2
Integrate over a volume V the right–hand side of eq. (1.5.1) and apply the divergence's theorem:

∫∫∫ ( ∇ ⋅ ( E × H
∗
)) dV = ∫∫ ( E × H∗ ) nˆ dS
V S(V)

and now calculate the time–averaged value:

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 18

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

1 ⎡⎢ ⎤
( )
T
∗ ˆ
E × H n dS ⎥dt
T ∫ ⎢ ∫∫ ⎥
0 ⎣ S(V) ⎦
Invert the order of integrals:
⎡1 T ⎤
(∗
) 1 ∗
∫∫ ⎢⎢ T ∫ E × H dt ⎥⎥ nˆ dS = ∫∫ 2 Re ⎣⎡E × H ⎦⎤ nˆ dS (1.5.3)
S(V) ⎣ 0 ⎦ S(V)

In similar way on left–hand side, we obtain:

1 ⎡ ⎤
( )
T
∗ ∗
T ∫ ⎢ ∫∫∫
⎢ − j ωμ H ⋅ H − E ⋅ J tot dV ⎥dt =
0⎣ V ⎥⎦
⎡1 T ⎤
∫∫∫ ⎢ T ∫
⎢ − (
j ωμ H ⋅ H ∗
− E ⋅ J ∗
tot dt
⎥⎦
)
⎥ dV = (1.5.4)
V ⎣ 0
⎡1 ∗ 1 ∗ ⎤
∫∫∫ ⎢⎣ 2 Re ⎡⎣ − jωμ H ⋅ H ⎤⎦ − 2 Re ⎡⎣E ⋅ J tot ⎤⎦ ⎥⎦ dV
V

The real part of j ωμ H ⋅ H ∗ is zero because the product H ⋅ H ∗ = H 2 is real and so the quantity

j ωμ H ⋅ H ∗ is imaginary. Only the term associated with the heat survives and we can write:

1 ⎡ 1
− ∫∫ Re E × H∗ ⎤ nˆ dS = ∫∫∫ Re ⎡E ⋅ J∗tot ⎤ dV (1.5.5)
2 ⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎣ ⎦
S(V) V

The minus sign is been associated with the left–hand side because it identifies the quantity of
energy that goes in the volume V –while the Poynting's vector is defined outgoing from V– and the
right–hand side represents the energy dissipated as heat.

• Question n° 3
Inside a lossless dielectric, the current density J is zero while the displacement current D is
simply equal to ε E . So:
1 ∗
∫∫∫ 2 Re ⎡⎣ E ⋅ ( − jωε E ) ⎤ dV = 0
⎦
(1.5.6)
V

being the real part of jωε E ⋅ E∗ zero. Moreover zero for the right–hand side of (1.5.5), that
represents the quantity of energy ingoing the volume bounded by the surface S, implies that not all
the energy remains inside the volume. Exactly in steady state the quantity of energy ingoing is equal
to the outgoing one. It is correct because electromagnetic wave pass through the dielectric.

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 19

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

1.6 Exercise

Assuming that D = ε E and B = μH ,

1. Show that Maxwell's equations imply the following relationships:
⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
ρ E x + ⎜ D × ⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E x E − xˆ ε E 2 ⎟ (1.6.1)
⎝ ∂t ⎠ x ⎝ 2 ⎠
∂D
( J × B )x + ⎛⎜ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1
× B ⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ μ H x H − xˆ μ H 2 ⎟ (1.6.2)
⎝ ∂t ⎠x ⎝ 2 ⎠
where the subscript x means the x–component.
2. From eq. (1.6.1) and (1.6.2), derive the following relationship that represent momentum
conservation:
∂G x
fx + = ∇ ⋅ Tx (1.6.3)
∂t

where f x , G x are the x–components of the vectors f = ρE + J × B and G = D × B , and Tx

is defined to be the vector(equal to Maxwell's stress tensor acting on the unit vector x̂):

Tx = ε Ex E + μ Hx H − xˆ
1
2
(ε E 2 + μ H2 )
3. Write similar equations of y, z components. The quantity G x is interpreted as the field

momentum (in the x–direction) per unit of volume, that is, the momentum density.

Solution
• Question n° 1
Let us begin with eq. (1.6.2) because it is easy to note from the left–hand side that it is the cross
∂D
product of the second Maxwell's equation (i.e. ∇× H = J + ) with the vector B and then we
∂t
extract the x–component. So we have to demonstrate the right–hand side of eq. (1.6.2). We can
write:
⎡ ⎛ ∂H z ∂H y ⎞ ⎛ ∂H z ∂H x ⎞ ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞ ⎤
( ∇ × H ) × B = ⎢ xˆ ⎜ − ⎟ − yˆ ⎜ − ⎟ + z
ˆ ⎜ − ⎟⎥ × B =
⎣⎢ ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎥⎦

xˆ yˆ zˆ
(1.6.4)
⎛ ∂H ∂H y ⎞ ⎛ ∂H z ∂H x ⎞ ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞
= ⎜ z − ⎟ −⎜ − ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Bx By Bz

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 20

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

Now we consider only the x–component, writing Bi = μ Hi :

⎡ ⎛ ∂H z ∂H x ⎞ ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞ ⎤
( ∇ × H ) × B x −component = μ ⎢−H z ⎜ − ⎟ − H y ⎜ ∂x − ∂y ⎟ ⎥ =
⎣⎢ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥
(1.6.5)
⎡ ∂H z ∂H x ∂H y ∂H x ⎤
= μ ⎢ −H z + Hz − Hy + Hy ⎥
⎣ ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ⎦

From the forth Maxwell's equation (i.e. ∇ ⋅ B = 0 ) and the constitutive relation B = μH , we can

add to eq. (1.6.5) the term H x ( ∇ ⋅ H ) and the couple of terms ± H x ∂ H x , because they're both zero:
∂x

( ∇ × H ) × B x −component =

⎡ ∂H z ∂H x ∂H y ∂H x ∂H x ⎤
⎢ −H z + Hz −H y + Hy + Hx +⎥
⎢ ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂x ⎥
(1.6.6)
=μ⎢ ⎥=
∂H y ∂ H ∂ H ∂ H
⎢+Hx + Hx z
+ Hx x
−H x x ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ⎥⎦

Let us consider the only emphasized terms of eq. (1.6.6):

⎡ ∂H z ∂H y ∂H x ⎤ 1 ⎡ ∂H z ∂H y ∂H x ⎤
−μ ⎢Hz + Hy + Hx ⎥ = − μ ⎢ 2H z + 2H y + 2H x ⎥=
⎣ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎦ 2 ⎣ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎦

1 ⎡ ∂H 2z ∂H y ∂H 2x ⎤
2
1
− μ ⎢ + + ⎥ = −xˆ μ∇H 2
2 ⎢ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦
and now consider the remaining terms:
⎡ ∂H x ∂H x ∂H x ∂H y ∂H z ∂H x ⎤
μ ⎢Hz + Hy + Hx + Hx + Hx + Hx ⎥ =
⎣ ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ⎦ ↑
order them

⎡ ∂H x ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞ ⎛ ∂H x ∂H z ⎞⎤
= μ ⎢ 2H x + ⎜ Hx + Hy ⎟ + ⎜ Hz + Hx ⎟⎥ =
⎣⎢ ∂x ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂z ⎠ ⎦⎥

(
⎡ ∂H 2 ∂ H y H x )
∂ (Hx Hz ) ⎤
=μ⎢ x +
⎢ ∂x ∂y
+
∂z ⎥
( (
⎥ = μ∇ ⋅ H x H x xˆ + H y yˆ + H z zˆ ) ) = μ∇ ⋅ ( H x H )
⎣ ⎦
So we have that eq. (1.6.6) can be written as:
1
( ∇ × H ) × B x−component = μ∇ ⋅ ( Hx H ) − xˆ μ∇H2 =
2
(1.6.7)
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ∇ ⋅ ⎜ μ H x H − xˆ μ H2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
that is the right–hand side of eq. (1.6.2).

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 21

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

⎛ ∂B ⎞
Eq. (1.6.1) is obtained in similar way. In the left–hand side, there is the term ⎜ D × ⎟ that
⎝ ∂t ⎠x

∂B
suggests us the cross product of the first Maxwell's equation (i.e. ∇ × E = − ) with the vector D
∂t
and then we extract the x–component. So we have to demonstrate the right–hand side of eq. (1.6.1).
We can apply the cross product to the first Maxwell's equation:
∂B
D × ( ∇× E) = −D ×
∂t
From the properties of the cross product, it's possible to invert the order of the terms in the left–
hand side and change the sign in the right–hand–side:
∂B
( ∇ × E) × D = D ×
∂t
Now consider the term ( ∇ × E ) × D :

⎡ ⎛ ∂E z ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂E z ∂E x ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ∂E x ⎞ ⎤
( ∇ × E ) × D = ⎢ xˆ ⎜ − ⎟ − yˆ ⎜ − ⎟ + z
ˆ ⎜ − ⎟⎥ × D =
⎣⎢ ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎥⎦

xˆ yˆ zˆ
(1.6.8)
⎛ ∂E ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂E z ∂E x ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ∂E x ⎞
= ⎜ z − ⎟ −⎜ − ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Dx Dy Dz

Now we consider only the x–component, writing Di = ε Ei :

⎡ ∂E z ∂E x
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ∂E x
⎞⎤
( ∇ × E ) × D x −component = ε ⎢−Ez ⎜ − ⎟ − E y ⎜ ∂x − ∂y
⎟⎥ =
⎢⎣ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
(1.6.9)
⎡ ∂E ∂E ∂E y ∂E ⎤
= ε ⎢ −E z z + E z x − E y + Ey x ⎥
⎣ ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ⎦

As for eq. (1.6.5), we can add to eq. (1.6.9) the third Maxwell's equation (i.e. ∇⋅ D − ρ = 0 ), but in
this case there is the term ρ and it's correct for the results that we want to obtain. In fact,
multiplying it with E x , the term −ρ Ex completes the left–hand side of eq. (1.6.1), changing its
sign.
With these considerations, we can add to eq. (1.6.9) the term E x ∇ ⋅ D and the couple of terms
∂E x
±Ex :
∂x

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 22

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

( ∇ × E ) × D x −component =

⎡ ∂E z ∂E ∂E y ∂E ∂E x ⎤
⎢ −E z + E z x −E y + Ey x + Ex +⎥
⎢ ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂x ⎥
(1.6.10)
=ε⎢ ⎥
∂E y ∂E z ∂E x ∂E x
⎢+E x + Ex + Ex −E x ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ⎥⎦

Let us consider the only emphasized terms of eq.(1.6.10):

⎡ ∂E z ∂E y ∂E ⎤ 1 ⎡ ∂E ∂E y ∂E ⎤
ε ⎢ −E z − Ey − E x x ⎥ = − ε ⎢ 2E z z + 2E y + 2E x x ⎥ =
⎣ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎦ 2 ⎣ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎦

1 ⎡ ∂E 2z ∂E y ∂E 2x ⎤
2
1
=− ε⎢ + + ⎥ = −xˆ ε∇E 2
2 ⎢ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦
and now consider the remaining terms:
⎡ ∂E x ∂E x ∂E x ∂E y ∂E z ∂E x ⎤
ε ⎢Ez + Ey + Ex + Ex + Ex + Ex ⎥ =
⎣ ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ⎦ ↑
order them

⎡ ∂E x ⎛ ∂E x ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂E x ∂E z ⎞ ⎤
= ε ⎢ 2E x + ⎜ Ey + Ex ⎟ + ⎜ Ez + Ex ⎥=
⎢⎣ ∂x ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦

(
⎡ ∂E 2 ∂ E x E y )
∂ ( Ex Ez ) ⎤
=ε⎢ x +
⎢ ∂x ∂y
+
∂z ⎥
( (
⎥ = ε∇ ⋅ E x E x xˆ + E y yˆ + E z zˆ ) ) = ∇ ⋅ (ε E x E )
⎣ ⎦
So we have that eq. (1.6.10) can be written as:
1
( ∇ × E) × D x−component = ∇ ⋅ ( ε E x E ) − xˆ ε∇E2 =
2
(1.6.11)
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E x E − xˆ ε E 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
that is the right–hand side of eq.(1.6.1).

• Question n° 2
The identity (1.6.3) is obtained adding eq.(1.6.1) and (1.6.2) as follow:
⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂D ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
ρ E x + ( J × B )x + ⎜ D × ⎟ + ⎜ × B ⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E x E + μ H x H − xˆ ε E 2 − xˆ μ H 2 ⎟
⎝ ∂t ⎠ x ⎝ ∂t ⎠x ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
∂ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
ρ E x + ( J × B ) x + ( D × B ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E x E + μ H x H − xˆ ε E 2 − xˆ μ H 2 ⎟
∂t x ⎝ 2 2 ⎠

It is easy to note the presence of f x , ∂G x and Tx as defined in the text of the exercise.
∂t

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 23

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

• Question n° 3
Operating in the similar way to question n°1, it is possible to demonstrate that the relationships
(1.6.1) and (1.6.2) can be written for the y and z–component as follow:
⎡⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⎛ 1 2 ⎞
⎢⎜ D × ∂t ⎟ − ρ E y = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ yˆ 2 ε E − ε E y E ⎟
⎢⎝ ⎠y ⎝ ⎠
(1.6.12)
⎢ ⎛ ∂D ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢( J × B ) y + ⎜ × B ⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ yˆ μ H 2 − μ H y H ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ ∂t ⎠y ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎡⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⎛ 1 2⎞
⎢⎜ D × ∂t ⎟ + ρ E z = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E z E − zˆ 2 ε E ⎟
⎢⎝ ⎠z ⎝ ⎠
(1.6.13)
⎢ ⎛ ∂D ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢( J × B )z + ⎜ × B ⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ μ H z H − zˆ μ H 2 ⎟
⎣ ⎝ ∂t ⎠z ⎝ 2 ⎠

From eq. (1.6.12) and (1.6.13) as in question n°2, we can derive the relationship that represents
momentum conservation for y and z–component:
∂G y
fy + = ∇ ⋅ Ty (1.6.14)
∂t
∂G z
fz + = ∇ ⋅ Tz (1.6.15)
∂t
where
⎧ ⎧
⎪f y = ( J × B ) y − ρ E y ⎪f z = ( J × B ) z + ρ E z
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎛∂ ⎞ ⎪ ⎛∂ ⎞
⎨G y = ⎜ ( D × B ) ⎟ ⎨G z = ⎜ ( D × B ) ⎟
⎪ ⎝ ∂t ⎠y ⎪ ⎝ ∂t ⎠z
⎪ ⎪
(
1
)
⎪Ty = yˆ ε E 2 + μ H 2 − ε E y E − μ H y H
⎩ 2 ⎩
1
2
(
⎪Tz = ε E z E + μ H z H − zˆ ε E − μ H
2 2
)

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 24

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

1.7 Exercise

Consider the permittivity of a dispersive material

ε 0 ω p2
ε (ω ) = ε 0 + (1.7.1)
ω02 − ω 2 + jωγ
where ω p is the so–called plasma frequency of the material defined by:

Ne2
ωp = (1.7.2)
ε0m
and γ measures the rate of collisions per unit of time.
Show that the casual and stable time–domain dielectric response of eq. (1.7.1) is given as follows:
⎧ε ( t ) = ε 0δ ( t ) + ε 0 χ ( t )
⎪
⎨ ωp2 −γ t/2
⎪ ( )
χ t = e sin (ω0 t ) u ( t )
⎩ ω0

where u ( t ) is the unit–step function and ω0 = ω02 − γ 2 4 , and we must assume that γ < 2ω0 , as

typically the case in practice. Discuss the solution for the case γ 2 > ω0 .

Solution
For the linearity of Fourier transform, we have
⎧ ε 0ωp2 ⎫⎪
−1 ⎪
ℑ −1
{ε (ω )} = ℑ ⎨ε 0 + 2 ⎬=
⎩⎪ ω0 − ω 2 + jωγ ⎭⎪ (1.7.3)
⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
= ℑ−1 {ε 0 } + ε 0ωp2 ℑ−1 ⎨ ⎬
⎩⎪ ω0 − ω + jωγ ⎭⎪
2 2

where ℑ−1 denotes the inverse Fourier transform operator.

The first term of eq. (1.7.3) is constant, so it's easy to calculate:

ℑ−1 {ε 0 } = ε 0δ (t) (1.7.4)

because the Fourier transform of Dirac delta function is:

+∞
− jω t
ℑ {δ (t)} = ∫ δ (t)e dt = e − jω t =1
t =0
−∞

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 25

 S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1

The second term of eq. (1.7.3) is more complicate and it is necessary to simplify the argument.
First of all, we can reduce the denominator in the product of two polynomials of first degree. So we

have to find the solutions of the equation ω 02 − ω 2 + j ω γ = 0 in ω and we obtain:

− jγ ± −γ 2 + 4ω02
ω1,2 = (1.7.5)
−2

Assuming that −γ 2 + 4ω02 = 2ω0 and that 2ω0 > γ , we can rewrite eq. (1.7.5) as follow.

γ
ω1,2 = j ∓ ω0 (1.7.6)
2
where it's important to note that ± has been substituted by ∓ because of the minus sign of the
denominator. Now we can write:

⎪⎧ 1 ⎪⎫ ⎧
−1 ⎪ 1 ⎪⎫ ⎧
−1 ⎪ A B ⎫⎪
ℑ−1 ⎨ ⎬=ℑ ⎨ ⎬=ℑ ⎨ + ⎬
⎩⎪ ω 0 − ω + jωγ
2 2
⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ (ω − ω1 )(ω − ω 2 ) ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ (ω − ω1 ) (ω − ω 2 ) ⎪⎭

where A and B are two constant that we calculate applying the method of weighted residuals:
1 1 1 1
A = lim = = =−
ω →ω1 (ω − ω2 ) (ω1 − ω2 ) ⎛ γ γ ⎞ 2ω0
⎜ j − ω0 − j − ω0 ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
,
1 1 1 1
B = lim = = =
ω →ω2 (ω − ω1 ) (ω2 − ω1 ) ⎛ γ γ ⎞ 2ω0
⎜ j + ω0 − j + ω0 ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
so:

⎧ ⎫⎪ ⎧− 1 1 ⎫
−1 ⎪ 1 −1 ⎪ 2ω0 2ω0 ⎪
ℑ ⎨ 2 ⎬=ℑ ⎨ + ⎬ (1.7.7)
⎪⎩ ω0 − ω + jωγ ⎪⎭ ⎪ (ω − ω1 ) (ω − ω2 ) ⎪
2
⎩ ⎭
Now the problem is only to transform the trivial expression 1 (ω − ω i ) and then to apply the

result to eq. (1.7.7). To solve this problem, consider:

{ }
ℑ je − jωi t u(t) ,

where u(t) is the unit step function, and we obtain:

D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 26

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Carstairs looked at the drawings and Darwen explained. They sat down
together side by side on the bed; for half an hour longer they discussed
technicalities, then Carstairs went out. He noticed two photographs on the
mantelpiece as he passed, both of girls, both pretty. He noticed also that
both of them were autographed across the corner. One of them he thought
had "with love" written on it too. "Shouldn't have thought Darwen was the
sort of ass to get engaged," he said to himself as he went into his own room
and glanced round at the landlady's wishy-washy prints and cheap
ornaments.

At the works Carstairs and Darwen were always on together, with Smith
as charge engineer. On the night shift (that is, from midnight to eight in the
morning), Smith spent most of his time in the drawing office reading novels
or newspapers, and sleeping; he took periodical walks round to see that the
others were awake, then he went back into the drawing office and reclined
peacefully in a chair, his head thrown back against the wall (cushioned by a
folded coat), and his feet supported by a small box. During the first two or
three hours the two juniors spent their time tracing out connections behind
the switchboard, making diagrams, and clambering about on the tops of
engines or boilers; later on, they too, usually dozed off, sprawling over the
switchboard desk, or stretched out on the floor somewhere out of sight.
After about two o'clock a.m. the whole works, in fact, became a sort of
temporary palace of sleep; the stoker dozed on his box in the boiler house,
the engine driver made himself snug on the bed plate of an engine, the fires
in the boilers died gradually down from a fierce white to a dull red glow,
the steam pressure gauge dropped back twenty or thirty pounds, the engines
hummed away merrily, with a rather soothing sort of buzz from the
alternator, and a mild sort of grinding noise from the direct current
dynamos, with a little intermittent sparking at the brushes. On the
switchboard, the needles of all the instruments remained steady, the
pressure showing perhaps a little drop. At irregular intervals the driver
would get up and slowly oil round his engines, feeling the bearings at the
same time; the stoker would arise and throw a few shovelfuls of coal on his
fires, glance up at his water gauges and regulate the feed water, perhaps
putting the pump on a little faster, or stopping it off a bit; a switchboard
attendant would open one eye and glance sleepily at the big voltmeter
swung on an arm at the end of the switchboard, note that the pressure was
only a little way back, and close his eyes again in quiet unconcern.

One night Smith had been drinking a lot of strong tea and couldn't sleep;
he strolled round at an unaccustomed hour and surveyed the sleeping
beauties with a little smile of glee, for Smith was twenty-three years old,
and to the healthy young man at that age many things appear humorous
which a few years later take on a hue of tragedy.

Going through the boiler house, he carefully examined the steam and
water gauges. Then he stood for some moments gazing interestedly at the
recumbent stoker; he was rather a ferocious-looking man in ordinary
wakeful moments, but thus, with his big jaw dropped to its full extent, his
eyes closed, and every feature relaxed, he seemed singularly feeble. Smith
took a shovel and threw it with a clatter down on the iron checker plates.

It was quite an appreciable number of seconds before the man moved,

then he sprang bolt upright, with his eyes wide open, both arms extended
above his head, and every expression of alarm on his countenance; he saw
Smith standing there smiling, but it was some moments before his face
resumed its normal expression; he looked at the shovel on the iron plates.
"Did you drop that, sir?" he asked.

"Yes," Smith answered.

"I must a' dropped off," the man said, half apologetically, half
humorously.
 "I think you must have," Smith agreed, smiling broadly.

A joke loses more than half its zest if there's no one to share it with. "I'll
have those chaps in the engine room now. Come in and see," Smith said, as
he led the way to the engine room door. The heavy stoker followed; he was
a man over forty, but he grinned like a boy of twelve.

"Half a minute," the engineer said, in a whisper. Leaving the expectant

stoker at the door, he carefully surveyed the engine room and switchboard,
then he returned with an oil bucket in his hand. "Shut the door, and when I
switch the lights out, rattle that like blazes." He handed over the bucket and
crossed the engine room again to the station-lighting switchboard, picking
up two more buckets as he went. Then he switched off the main switch,
putting the place in inky darkness; instantly the stoker rattled his bucket
with great vigour. Smith bowled one of his along the iron checker plates on
top of the pipe trench, and rattled the other vigorously in his hands.

From the security of their corners they heard voices shouting in the
darkness, and the sounds of men in anger swearing.

"What the hell's up?"

"Stand by your engine, Jones!"

"Got a match? Let's have a look at the blooming volts."

Smith heard a bump above his head on the switchboard gallery as

though some one had fallen, a match was struck down in the engine room
and another on the switchboard, then he heard Darwen's voice say, "Good
God! Smith! Hullo! Smith!"

He switched on the lights and ran up the switchboard steps.

Carstairs was lying limp and helpless on his back with Darwen bending
over him. Smith turned as white as a ghost.

"What's up?" he asked, in an agitated voice.

 "I don't know. Got a shock, I think. Look at his hands, got across the
contacts in the dark somehow."

They stretched him out on his back with a folded coat underneath him,
and put him through the motions for artificial respiration. The driver and
stoker waived ceremony and mounted the switchboard steps to see what
was wrong; they stood leaning over the prostrate form watching the anxious
efforts of Smith and Darwen in silent, interested sympathy. "Shall I have a
spell, sir?" the brawny stoker asked, as the agitated Smith paused for a
moment in his efforts.

No one present was ever able to say precisely how long they worked at
Carstairs, probably not many minutes before his chest began to heave in a
natural breathing motion. They carried him out into the yard, and the fresh
air so revived him that in half an hour he walked through the engine room
unaided, and lay down on the floor of the drawing office, made comfortable
with coats and newspapers, and dozed off into a sleep. When he woke up,
and had had a wash, he seemed quite normal again.

Smith was profuse in his apologies. "I'm beastly sorry. I never dreamt of
anything of that sort, etc."

"Oh, it's alright," Carstairs answered, with a sincere desire to let the
matter drop. "I ought to have stood still, went shoving my hands out, knew I
was somewhere near the machine switch, too. Got right past the guards and
touched the bare metal first go off, wouldn't happen once in a thousand
times. Not your fault at all."

So the incident passed, and remained a secret in the bosoms of those

five men till years later, when, Carstairs and Darwen were dim and distant
memories at those works, a driver or a stoker would sometimes tell
wondering pupils a tale of how a man was nearly killed on the night run
through the Shift Engineer "skylarking."

Things went very smoothly for a bit. Darwen and Carstairs got more
chummy than ever. They were leaning over the switchboard rail together, it
was not quite a week since Carstairs had got the shock. "I rather wanted to
see a chap get a shock, not killed, you know," Darwen was saying.
 "I was rather curious on the point myself, too."

"What was it like? Just a two hundred shock magnified?"

"Very much magnified. It was devilish."

They drifted off. "I've never seen an alternator burn out yet, have you?"

"No! Wish number three would go now."

They separated to take reading; it was half-past nine in the evening;

Carstairs stood looking at an ammeter which was set some way above his
head. The divisions on the scale were small and indistinctly figured;
Carstairs stood very close in, on tip-toe, straining his neck upwards; the
high tension fuses were at the bottom of the board, about level with his
knees (carefully calculated as the most awkward possible position), they
were seven inches long and enclosed in porcelain pots, which invariably
shattered when a fuse blew. As Carstairs stood there taking feeder reading,
with what he afterwards learnt was unnecessary accuracy, the needle of the
instrument he was looking at gave a sudden violent plunge, the fuse pot,
almost touching his trousers, was shattered into a hundred pieces with a
report like a miniature cannon, and a vivid arc blazed away under his eyes
with a rattling, screaming roar. Carstairs jumped back in an instant, to the
furthest limit that the width of the gallery would allow.

Darwen came along from the low tension switchboard; he was all
eagerness, his eyes were bright. He stopped and looked at his new friend in
amazement. Carstairs cowered against the handrail, gripping his scribbling
block and pencil, palpitating, useless.

For two or three seconds Darwen gazed at him in astonishment. Then he

fetched the long, insulated crook kept for that purpose, and himself pulled
out the feeder switch.

"Bring down your volts, Carstairs," he said, in a kindly, soothing voice,

avoiding his eyes.
 With a deep, gasping sigh Carstairs pulled himself together, and with an
unsteady hand adjusted the rheostat.

They looked down into the engine room and saw Thompson, the chief
assistant, looking up, watching them. He came up the steps and looked at
the shattered fuse pot and burnt slate; he expressed no surprise, nor even
anger; in those early days sparks and blinding flashes were the daily fare of
the electrical engineer, very much more than they are now. Thompson
picked up one or two of the pieces of partially fused porcelain and
examined them with interest, then he glanced at Carstairs with a great
wonder in his eyes, but he spoke to Darwen.

That night, as they walked home together, Carstairs was more than
usually silent, and the remarks of Darwen were choppy and abrupt. They
ate their supper almost in silence, then they lit their pipes and smoked, in
easy chairs, one on each side of the fireplace. They puffed in silence for
some time, then Carstairs spoke.

"I'm going to start applying," he said.

"Why? You haven't been here three months yet!"

"No! Quite so! But I'm going to look out for a nice, quiet little job in the
country with two low tension machines, where the wheels are very small,
and fuses never blow."

"My dear chap, you'll get over that; the first one I saw go knocked me
all in a heap."

Carstairs appreciated Darwen's sympathetic lying, but it cut him more

than all. "Don't give me silly lies, for God's sake," he said, letting his
temper get the better of him. "I have found out that I am a skunk with no
nerve, not a ha'porth, so I drop behind, into my place, the place of the cur.
And the bottom is knocked out of my universe." He puffed vigorously at his
pipe, blowing great clouds of smoke.

Darwen was silent, too, for some time, then he spoke slowly,
thoughtfully, punctuating his remarks by blowing softly at the wreaths of
smoke about him. "I must say (puff), honestly (puff), I was never more
surprised in my life (puff). You're such a deliberate, cool sort of chap (puff).
Thought earthquakes wouldn't upset you."

"Damn it! I thought so too."

Darwen proceeded: "Surely must be something abnormal (puff). I mean

to say, a fuse going is startling, and all that—but (puff), damn it! (puff) you
haven't got over that shock, you know, that's what it is." He sat upright with
a sudden vigour and a light in his expressive eyes. "That's it, man. You want
to go slow for a bit. Dash it! two thousand volts, that usually 'corpses' a
chap, you know."

Carstairs brightened somewhat. "Yes," he said, "I'm convinced that's it,

too, but how long will it take to get over it? If ever?" He stood up excitedly;
it was obvious he was not himself even then. His hand was unsteady as he
held his pipe outwards, pointing with the stem at Darwen. "That shock was
devilish, Darwen. A nightmare. Devilish. I could feel you chaps working at
me, for hours it seemed to me, working so damn slowly. And I wanted to
tell you to get on, to keep it up, to go faster, and I couldn't, couldn't budge,
couldn't get out a word. Did I sweat? You didn't notice if I sweated. Think I
must have. There was a sensation of something fluttering round me,
something like a damn great moth in the dark. I could hear it, and I was
frightened of the thing, frightened as hell. I wanted to put my arm up to
shield my eyes, to beat the thing off, to lash out in sheer terror, and I
couldn't budge. God! It was awful! I had no idea terror was so really
terrible. Wonder what the moth thing was?"

Darwen looked at him steadily with bright eyes, a world of sympathy in

them, sympathy and interest. "Your face was very drawn, I noticed that. You
looked terror-stricken."

"I was. And when that fuse went to-night, the bang and the flash and
roar brought it all back. I lost control of myself. I wanted to be steady, but I
couldn't, I shook like a leaf; you saw it, and Thompson saw it. You'd hardly
believe how angry I was, how I was cursing myself." He broke off suddenly
and shook his clenched fist in the air. "Curse that blasted silly Smith and his
blasted monkey tricks." It was almost a scream.
 "Sit down, old chap. You want a rest, that's what it is—shock to the
system and that sort of thing, you know. I'll go round with you in the
morning and see a doctor."

Carstairs sat down, he seemed almost himself again; calm, discerning,

calculating. "Can't do that! What am I to say? Sure to get old Smith into a
row. These bally doctors and councillors they're all mixed up, you know,
sure to get round."

"My dear chap, damn Smith! You have yourself to consider."

"He'd get the sack; it would wreck him. His people are not very well off;
he told me once that before he came here he was getting a quid a week in
London—and living on it."

Darwen spread out his hands with an almost continental gesture. "My
dear chap, you're following quite an erroneous line of reasoning, it's rather a
pet theory of mine, as an engineer. However, tell the doctor you had an
accident in the execution of your duty, etc., etc. No need for it to get round
at all. He'll forget all about you as soon as you've paid him his fee."

Carstairs was thoughtful, he puffed his pipe in silence for some minutes,
then he stood up. "Alright, let's go to two while we're about it, then we can
check 'em one on the other. I'm going to bed."

CHAPTER VI

In the morning Carstairs and Darwen went together to first one doctor
and then another. Their verdicts were remarkably alike. "Shock! you'll feel
the effects for some time. You really want a month's rest."

"Shall I get alright again in a month?" Carstairs asked.

"Probably, most probably."

 "What are you going to do?" Darwen asked when they got outside. "Ask
for a month?"

"No!" Carstairs answered, definitely. "Smith's the sort of chap who'd

own up at once if the subject were brought up; I'll sit it out, now I know it's
only temporary, I don't mind. The thought of it otherwise fairly took the
stuffing out of me."

Darwen reasoned with him. "My dear chap, you fly in the face of
providence all the way round. As an engineer you should have learnt to
pursue truth relentlessly."

"That is my desire," Carstairs grunted.

"Well, the elementary truth underlying all things is that a man's first
duty is to himself. When you introduce sentimental side issues, you
overload yourself and consequently shorten the run of your existence. You
also render it less pleasant."

"What are my sentimental side issues? I'm not engaged on anything of

that sort." Carstairs shot a quick glance at Darwen.

He was quite unmoved. "Your idea about screening Smith, etc. The fool
must pay the penalty of his folly. Smith is a fool. In the great scheme of the
Universe all things are interdependent. Naturalists say that if there had been
no worms there would be no men, and an engineer is a man who uses this
interdependence to his own advantage."

Carstairs gave a grudging assent. "Where is the limit?" he asked.

"I see no limit," Darwen answered.

"Then you're a common or garden rogue."

"Perhaps! Rogue is so often simply a term applied by fools to men

smarter than themselves. However, I said, 'I see no limit'; I should add 'as
yet.' My theory is incomplete, I am expanding it as I grow older."

"You'll expand yourself into prison if you don't look out."

 Darwen laughed. "Have you read 'The Prince'?" he asked.

"No."

"You're an ignorant chap, Carstairs. I'll lend it to you."

"Thanks. What's it about, engines?"

"No—men."

"Then I won't borrow it, thanks all the same."

"It's part of my theory that every man should be a sort of little Prince, as
far as his intellect, etc., will allow him."

"Hear, hear! Go on."

"Well, the essential part of a prince's job is handling men."

"So is an engineer's."

"Hear! hear! to that. Now our views begin to converge. The engineer is
essentially analytical and mathematical. Why not apply his abilities to men
as well as engines, eh?"

"No reason at all."

"Good! then as in engineering it is necessary not only to have theory,

but practice as well, practise, practise, practise, eh? We will experiment so
that we may know the limit of the truth of our theories, so that we may
know and recognize the little difficulties that crop up in the application of
all theories. On the night shift next week we'll experiment on Smith and
Jones and Foulkes."

The following week as they were preparing to go on night shift together,

Carstairs noticed that the landlady put up a bag of large onions for Darwen.
"What in thunder are those things for?" he asked.
 "The experiment. We'll see if we can persuade those other chaps to eat
raw onions. I believe you can make most men do anything if you have
observed them closely and drawn accurate deduction from your
observations. Now Foulkes, the stoker, is a strong, hard-headed sort of
chap, but he's immensely impressed with his own hardihood. We'll attack
him on that side. Twig?"

"I think a sledge-hammer would be a more appropriate weapon to tackle

old Foulkes with."

"That's the good old masculine idea. In these things you want to take a
line from the feminine."

"Alright. I'll be a spectator."

So shortly after midnight Carstairs and Darwen repaired to the boiler

house.

"Hullo, Foulkes," Darwen said, cheerily. "How did you sleep to-day?"

Foulkes was gruff and hearty. "I can sleep any time," he said.

"Lucky dog! wish I could. My landlady recommended me to eat onions.

Jolly good things, but they burn my mouth out."

Foulkes laughed, a great guffaw.

Darwen laughed too. "I suppose," he said, "that they don't have any
effect on you. I daresay you could eat 'em like apples." He pulled an onion
from his pocket and threw it up and caught it. "I've heard of chaps with very
strong heads being able to do it," he remarked, gazing at the onion in his
hand tentatively. "I couldn't tackle 'em like that. No more could you,
Foulkes."

Foulkes stretched out a big, black paw. "Give me ta onion," he said.

Darwen handed it over. "I bet you'll soon chuck it."

 They stood and watched. Carstairs very solemn, Darwen with just a
flicker of a smile of satisfaction, as the big stoker ate the best part of a raw
onion till the tears ran down his cheeks and he almost gasped for breath.
Darwen kept him at it. "That's beaten you, Foulkes, you can't go on with it."
But he did, and finished it.

As they turned to the engine room Darwen said: "How's that for an
experiment."

"I call it underhand, unsporting."

"My dear chap, you don't give sporting chances to an engine." He

looked at Carstairs curiously. "We have different methods of looking at
things; I wonder who will prove most successful in the end."

"Your experiment would have failed any way if Foulkes hadn't been a
plucky, obstinate sort of chap."

"Exactly. That goes to prove the correctness of my observations. I had

placed Foulkes rightly as the man to eat onions. That is to say, to eat an
entire onion. The successful man is the man who can make others eat
onions, and also pair up the right man with the right onion. I have an
ambition to be a successful man."

"So have I, but I also wish to play the game."

"Again we disagree, I wish to collar the stakes."

Carstairs was silent for some time. "Let us agree to differ. You don't
mean all you say, or all that your words convey to me. You're a sportsman."

"That's true. I'm somewhat hampered by a sporting instinct, and if I

followed my theory to its logical conclusion, I should not now be reasoning
with you."

They sat down on the switchboard and glanced over the technical papers
that were just out that day.
 Two months passed away and Carstairs found to his very great pleasure
that his nerves had regained their normal steadiness. He and Darwen were
both scanning the advertisement columns of the technical press with great
anxiety and interest; they were both answering advertisements, and they had
come to an agreement not to both apply for the same job. They were
watching with eager interest a town in the south of England. They had both
seen tenders out for plant about a year ago; then they saw an advertisement
for a chief engineer.

"In about a month he'll want shifts," Carstairs said.

Now the advertisement was before them, set out with much pomp and
ceremony among a long list of other stuff. Three shift engineers at a salary
of £104 per annum.

Carstairs felt a singular sense of satisfaction as he surveyed the

advertisement. "We'll toss for first choice as usual, I suppose," he said.

"Of course," Darwen answered. "They'll never select two chaps from
one station, and I'm certain it reduces the chances of both." He threw a coin
in the air.

"Tails," Carstairs said.

Darwen turned it up. "Tails" it was. "There you are," he said, with a
genial smile, pocketing the coin.

Carstairs wrote out his application, and copied his testimonials with
great care on unruled foolscap. About a fortnight later, Thompson, the chief
assistant, called him into his office.

He picked up a letter from his desk. "I've got a letter from Southville in
reference to your application for Shift Engineer. The chief there asks my
recommendation between you and Darwen."

"Darwen?" Carstairs repeated in astonishment.

 Thompson glanced at the letter. "Yes, Darwen," he said. He hummed
and hesitated a minute, while Carstairs was turning over various thoughts
and reasons in his mind. "You see it's a new job, Carstairs. I have a very
high opinion of your abilities. The testing and that, that we have done
together, but—er—things are always going wrong in a new job, you know. I
think it will be better for you if you stay here till you get more accustomed
to fuses, etc., going."

Carstairs flushed; from his neck to the roots of his hair he was a vivid
red. Thompson looked down at the letter he held in his hands.

"Then you're recommending Darwen?" Carstairs asked.

"Ye-es, I think, for a new job, you understand. Darwen would be rather
more suitable. I tell you this because I thought probably Darwen would tell
you, and you might misinterpret my action."

Thompson was a sportsman, he liked to have things square and

aboveboard.

"Thanks! I understand," Carstairs said, and went out. He crossed the

engine room and looked for Darwen.

"So you're putting your theory into practice," he said, looking Darwen
sternly in the eyes.

"What do you mean?" he asked, flushing angrily, and Carstairs couldn't

help thinking what a remarkably handsome fellow he was.

"Why, you've got Southville."

"Yes, I know. Thompson told me just now. What about it?"

"You're a damn skunk, that's all. I won the toss."

"You're a liar or a fool, and I'll punch your head if you call me a skunk."

Carstairs looked at him in astonishment, his anger seemed so genuine

and righteous. "You're welcome to try any time you like," he answered.
 Darwen gazed at him a moment, then he suddenly smiled. "Look here,
old chap, I can see you believe you're in the right, but I assure you you're
not. I'm positive I won the toss."

"And I'm equally positive I won it."

"My dear chap, I held the coin right under your eyes, and I remember
distinctly it was a tail."

"Precisely; that's what I guessed."

Darwen's face seemed to lighten with a sudden comprehension. "I'm

devilish sorry," he said. "I remember now. I didn't notice particularly at the
time what you said. I was watching the coin. "Head" is so often the choice
that I assumed it was head. Look here, I'll withdraw my application. I'll tell
Thompson." He started off.

Carstairs followed, and stopped him at the office. "Let it go now,

Darwen," he said.

Thompson looked from one to the other inquiringly. Darwen explained.

"It's too late now, any way," Thompson said. "The letter's gone. I think
it's best as it is, too."

They went out into the engine room again together. Darwen was
profuse, more than profuse, in his apologies. "I'd sooner almost anything
had happened than this," he said.

Carstairs watched him closely. "Oh, it doesn't matter. Let's drop it," he
said.

In a week Darwen left for Southville. They parted excellent friends,

almost the same as before the unpleasant incident, but not quite. There was
a "something."

The new man who came to fill Darwen's place was very bumptious and
very conceited, the son of a large shopkeeper. He would have been a decent
fellow if he had not been so conceited. For his first time on night shift he
was as lively as a cricket for the first two hours, singing and whistling and
trying to startle the stoker and driver by dropping heavy spanners on the
checker plates unawares, etc.; then he announced loudly that he'd "keep the
beggars awake."

At three o'clock Smith found him tilted back in his chair, mouth wide
open, fast asleep. Smith's eyes sparkled, he gently called Carstairs; they
both repaired to the drawing office and came back with bottles of ink of
various colours—red, green, black, and purple—and two fine camel-hair
brushes: delicately and with great care they painted his face with streaks
and circles and elaborate scrolls of many colours; every now and again
during the process the sleeper raised a hand to brush away the flies. He
turned his head uneasily occasionally too, but they finished it in style, and
stood back to regard their masterpiece with keen satisfaction; he looked a
most fearsome warrior. Then they stood back and dropped a heavy book
with a bang on the floor. He jumped up startled, but saw them laughing.

"I wasn't asleep," he said, with a self-satisfied pomposity.

"Pretty nearly, though," Smith suggested.

"Oh no, I wasn't. I bet you don't catch me asleep."

Smith smiled. "Alright, don't get your hair off," he said; he strolled
towards the steps, Carstairs followed, and the new man dropped in behind.
They strolled across the engine room in solemn procession, and the engine
driver, catching sight of the new man's face, went off into shrieks of
hysterical laughter. Smith and Carstairs took no notice, but the new man
hurried up alongside, frowning severely, which added exceedingly to the
comic effect of his countenance.

"That chap's mad, I think," he said.

The other two turned and looked at the driver with a sort of tolerant
good humour. "He is a bit touched, I think," Smith observed. "He's been in
India for a long time—in the army, you know."
 "Cheeky brute, he broke out like that when he saw me. I'll ask him what
the hell he's laughing at if he doesn't shut up."

"Never mind him," they said, "he can't help it, he'll be alright in a
minute." They went out into the boiler house and the new man followed; the
stoker was asleep on his box against the wall; they paused, all three, and
stood looking at him.

"They are a drowsy lot, these chaps," the new man remarked. "See me
wake him up." He picked up a heavy firing iron, and, standing in front of
the stoker, dropped it on the iron plates with a huge clatter.

The stoker—he had been in a very light doze—jumped up instantly and

stood fronting the new man, face to face, directly under a lamp; for fully
half a minute he stared, in speechless, motionless, wonder, then he burst
forth into mighty guffaws that shook the very building. He caught sight of
the others standing a few yards off.

"Strike me pink! Take 'im away. Take 'im away," he moaned in piteous
appeal, squirming painfully with his hand on his stomach.

The new man stared at him in petrified rage and astonishment. "What
the hell is the matter with you?" he asked. "You were asleep," he said,
severely, "and it's no use trying to pass it off by laughing."

"Oh, go away, go away." The stoker motioned with brawny hand and
averted face. He took a sideways glance out of one eye, and burst forth into
fresh paroxysms.

Smith and Carstairs retired somewhat precipitately into the yard, and
under the friendly shade of night, behind a big cable drum, they screamed in
unison.

The new man after vainly endeavouring to quell the stoker with a frown,
went back to the engine room again; as he opened the door the driver, who
was just mopping his eyes with a red cotton handkerchief, caught sight of
him and burst forth anew.
 Smitten with a sudden suspicion, the new man glanced hastily over his
clothing and passed his handkerchief over his face, but the ink was quite
dry and gave no evidence.

"Everybody in this place seems to be mad to-night," he said, and the

driver screamed louder.

With increased suspicion, the new man went off to the lavatory and
looked in the glass. What he said is not known, but later, when Smith and
Carstairs returned to the drawing office, they found him with a clean face.
He didn't look up when they entered, but continued to read in moody
silence. They sat down and read too, while the stoker and driver at the door
of the engine room conferred notes with much laughter.

Not very long after the stoker appeared at the glass door of the drawing
office. He knocked and came inside; his face was pale beneath its grime,
and his eyes were full of apprehension, which he endeavoured not to show.

"Low water in number five boiler, sir," he said.

All three were on their feet in an instant.

Probably eighty per cent. of boiler explosions are due to low water.
Smith's merry, boyish face grew pale and stern, as he moved quickly to the
door. "How the devil is that?" he asked.

"Dunno, sir. Check valve hung up, I think."

"Have you lost sight of it altogether?"

"Yes, sir." The gruff, hearty man was very meek.

They arrived at the boiler house, all four. Smith looked at the water
gauge glasses and blew them through.

"How long have you lost it?"

"Only just noticed it, sir."

 Smith stood for a moment, his hand on the check valve, his eyes far
away. The weight of responsibility comes early on these young men,
especially if they have a tendency to skylarking and letting things drift
occasionally; as a rule they look old beyond their years.

Only for a moment Smith hesitated.

"Damp your fires! Get some of those wet ashes and cover them over!
Let the stream drop and shut this one in as soon as it's back twenty pounds!"
He stood in front of the boiler and watched the stoker throw ashes on the
fires; he looked a different man; he was very steady and calm. This young
man with the vulgar name of Smith had some excellent British blood in his
veins, as who shall say in England here, that any navvy in the street has
not?

Carstairs stood behind him, his heart beating considerably faster; only
the day before he had been reading a detailed account of a disastrous boiler
explosion. He felt a tingling, pricking sensation in his blood; afterwards he
learnt to look for this tingling of the blood, it was one of his chief sources of
enjoyment.

The big stoker watched Smith very intently with a sort of child-like
dependent observation. He obeyed his instructions quietly but quickly, very
quickly. He was very silent, and very meek, but there was a tinge almost of
fever in his movements.

The new man watched them for a moment, then with every assumption
of languor he strolled off—and he did not come back till the boiler was shut
in and the pressure very low.

When, after about half an hour, everything seemed safe again, Smith
gave a sigh of relief as he and Carstairs returned to the engine room. "I don't
mind sparks, but I'm darned if I like steam," he said. He looked at Carstairs
with approval. "You didn't seem to be very much impressed."

Carstairs smiled, his slow, steady smile. "As a matter of fact, I felt like a
chap who's found a bomb and doesn't quite know whether it's exploded or
about to explode, or whether it really is a bomb."
 That night as Carstairs went home his ambitions began to soar very high
again.

CHAPTER VII

At the end of a month Darwen wrote a rather long letter, giving a

detailed description of the station and staff. "The plant is good," he wrote,
"all brand new and full of possibilities. The chief assistant is a delightful
thickhead, and the chief—words fail me to describe him. The possibilities
and probabilities of this job are immense."

Carstairs read it through twice carefully and thoughtfully; he penned a

brief reply. "No news here. New man an utter ass, blown out with conceit,
impossible to share digs with him." That was about all, it was almost
telegraphic.

At the works things went on much as usual. Thompson made more than
usual overtures of friendliness; he wished to impress on Carstairs that it was
through no feeling of personal bias that he had not recommended him for
the Southville job. Frequently when they were testing with high tension
currents he caught Thompson looking at him with a sort of wonder and
distinct approval.

One day when there was a fault on the mains, and Thompson had been
out all night in the rain testing and digging out cables and opening junction
boxes till he was tired and weary of all the world, he came into the works in
a fine spirit of irritation. "We'll have to burn the damn thing out," he said.
"Run up a machine on it."

By a specially complicated arrangement of the already complicated

switchboard, it was possible to run any machine on any feeder. The Shift
Engineer signalled for another machine, and Carstairs plugged her in on the
faulty circuit. The fuse held for about one minute, then it blew with a flash