Johannes Lolo Buys TLP Assignment 03 2011

by

TABLE OF CONTENTS

................................................................ ............................................................ TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ 1 1. 2. .................................................................................................... ................................................................ INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 2 APPROACH TAKEN BY ESKOM IN ROLLING OUT THE IEC 61850 ............................. 2
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 OPTION 1: MIX OLD INVESTMENT WITH NEW TECHNOLOGY AT A SUBSTATION ........................... 3

REDESIGN THE WHOLE SYSTEM AND REPLACE ALL EQUIPMENT WITH IEC 61850 COMPLIANT EQUIPMENT. ................................................................................................................................................ 3

IMPLEMENT THE IEC 61850 TO A NEW SUBSTATION BEFORE ROLLING OUT TO THE OTHER SUBSTATIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 3

CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS ..................................................................................... 4

3.

ENGINEERING IMPLEMENTATING IEC 61850 USING SYSTEM ENGINEERING TOOLS....................... 5

3.1 3.2 3.3

THE V SYSTEMS ENGINEERING MODEL ................................................................................... 5 V MODEL FOR IMPLEMENTING IEC 61850................................................................................... 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATION ..................................................................................... 10

ELEMENTS THAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE MARKETING PLAN ...................... 11

4.1 4.2 4.3

THE STAKEHOLDERS OR CUSTOMER ......................................................................................... 11 MARKET MIX OR FRAMEWORK................................................................................................. 11 CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 13

..................................................................................................... ................................................................ BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 14

List of figures Figure 1: Substation automation with IEC 61850 .........................................................................................................3 Figure 2: System engineering integrating various disciplines ......................................................................................5 Figure 3: The V Model of a system engineering process ..........................................................................................7 Figure 4: Evolution of Automation, Communication Networks and Systems in Substations....................................... 12

1. INTRODUCTION The IEC 61850 standard provides methods of developing best engineering practices for substation protection, integration, control, monitoring, metering, and testing [2]. It standardizes data names for logical devices containing logical nodes for automatic control, metering and measurement, supervisory control, generic functions, interfacing/archiving, protection, sensors, instrument transformers, switchgear, power transformers and other equipment. IEC 61850 also creates a comprehensive set of services for logical devices and nodes, implements them within standard protocols and hardware, and defines a process bus [1]. The standard IEC 61850 Communication Networks and Systems is the first and only global standard that considers all the communication needs within a substation. It defines strict rules for realising interoperability between functions and devices used for protection, monitoring, control and automation in substations independent of the supplier. Interoperability means the capability of two or more intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) from one or several vendors to exchange information and to use it in performing their functions and for correct co-operation. This feature together with the possibility of free allocation of functions paves the way for a vast range of possible solutions for Protection and Substation Automation (SA) systems [3]. 2. APPRO ACH TAKEN BY ESKOM IN ROLLING OUT THE IEC 61850 The Electric Utilities migration paradox demonstrates the general trend whereby the new technology provides great advantages and benefits while the current investments has not fully completed their operational life [4]. Many of technological installations that fail are due to lack of information and required expertise to manage and commission them. For major projects which are likely to be expensive and on which failure can also be a major setback, it is prudent to build a prototype model first and test it. The prototype will assist the utility in understanding their requirements and gaining knowledge and expertise that are required, early before the full roll out is carried out. The following three options can be considered by the utilities to implement large scale technologies such as the IEC 61850, and these are: To mix old investment with new technology at a substation. To redesign the whole system and replace all equipment with IEC 61850 compliant equipment. To implement the IEC 61850 to a new substation before rolling out to the other substations.

The first two options examine the rolling out of IEC 61850 by replacing old equipment with new ones. The first option focuses on carrying out the replacements and retrofits from a substation component level and then move up to the substation level. This would have to be done on all substations before the system level development is started. This can be associated with the bottom-up type of a structured approach. The second option is also a bottom up approach which starts and focuses on the entire substation as a subsystem and moves up to the entire network- the system. Figure 1 below shows the substation level implementation of the IEC 61850 compliant devices mixed with other legacy devices. The third option distinguishes itself from the two options above in that it does not require any substation component to be replaced at the beginning. It calls for a completely new substation to be designed and commissioned to comply with the requirement of IEC 61850 protocols. The third approach will include either of the two approaches, depending on the utilities decision, but it can start by ensuring that the entire network system is designed and made ready for any upgrade taking place at the substation or component level. The high level discussions on these options are provided in the subsections that follow.

Figure 1: Substation automation with IEC 61850

2.1 OPTION 1: MIX OLD INVESTMENT WITH NEW TECHNO LOGY AT A SUBSTATION One of the options that are available to the Utility is to mix old investment with new technology [4]. That is, to start replacing equipment in the substations with those that are based on IEC 61850. For an example, the utility could start with replacement of the IEDs such as protection relays, the metering equipment and existing controllers, thereafter start with the replacement of circuit breakers with fast responsive types required for IEC 61850 operating times , then introduce the bay controller and lastly the communication media such as optic fibre cabling. This would mean modernization or upgrading of existing investment in substations by employing intermediate gateways for IEDs, RTU and SCADA Systems, which will provide inter-operability between their new IEC 61850 based systems as well as old proprietary or other IEC standard based systems. Such a migration option always throws up an intermediate gateway or protocol converter into the Utilities solution. It also requires a retrofit of some IEDs to existing structures and networks [4]. 2.2 REDESIGN THE WHOLE SYSTEM AND REPLACE ALL EQUIPMENT WITH IEC 61850 COMPLI ANT EQUIPMENT. The other option is to wait for the opportunity when the substations are refurbished and upgraded and use the opportunity to redesign the whole system and replace all equipment with IEC 61850 compliant equipment. This approach will ensure that at that particular substation, all equipment installed will be based on the IEC 61850 standard and without mixing technologies at a substation level. However, there will still be a need for intermediate gateways or protocol converters for integration into the entire Eskom system. 2.3 IMPLEMENT THE IEC 61850 TO A NEW SUBSTATION BEFORE ROLLING OUT TO THE OTHER SUBSTATIONS The third option is that which has been employed by Eskom, which implements the IEC 61850 on a new substation before rolling out to the other substations. The implementation of the IEC 61850 at Zues substation first is best. First, because the substation is new and there are no retrofit issues and all the

equipment can be easily specified to be IEC 61850 compliant. This approach is cost effective and eliminates any need to replace or retrofit devices and designs. On the contrary, if the roll out were to start from any of the substations that are currently operational, it would mean that the existing devices which are not compliant to IEC 61850 be replaced and the circuit breakers whose speed may not meet the requirements for the IEC 61850 operation be replaced, and while these equipment are being replaced, the plant will have to be taken off operation, curtailing supply to other off take points or compromising the network stability. Second, the substation is also designed to strengthen the transmission backbone with versatile, reasonably economical, reliable and easily expandable bus arrangements referred to as breaker and half arrangement. The name is from the fact that three circuit breakers are required for every two feeders. Automation of this type arrangement requires that the control and protection devices be able to communicate effectively during fault conditions and normal operations. Various IED and circuit breakers from different vendors, complying with IEC 61850 can be installed. This will provide a good test facility for testing all operational requirements and possible fault conditions and locations, while observing the response times and data acquisition. Third, in terms of training, the substation is new and there are opportunities for training. Training will start from installation of the various IEDs supplied by different vendors, the type of medium used-such as the optic fibre cables that are being used, the high speed platforms such as Ethernet as required for this type of installation, all the rules that form the IEC 61850 protocol and additional rules that may be specific to Eskoms requirements. During this process, it may be beneficial to also call in the expertise and experience from the utilities that have already tried and tested the implementation of this standardised protocol. Eskoms staff will benefit from these expertise and experience and they can use them for the roll out to other substations. On the contrary, if the implementation was done on the existing substation, there will be no sufficient time for training and testing all features and innovations because of the urgency to return the plant to services. The cost of such an undertaking would be very high. Since this protocol is relatively new, its requirements are subject to interpretation so implementation quality will vary and may not interoperate perfectly with existing protocols. The industry hopes the commonality of implementations will improve over the next few years. But without a systematic and thorough search process, there is no proactive way to find implementation flaws that may cause system downtime, substation outages or reduced safety. The ad-hoc discovery of such vulnerabilities is impractical because there is a significant diversity of configurations in which an IEC 61850 implementation may be operating, so there are many more hiding places for robustness issues [5]. 2.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS The Electric Utilities migration paradox exemplifies the general trend whereby the new technology provides great advantages and benefits while the current investments has not fully completed their operational life. Since this protocol is relatively new, its requirements are subject to interpretation so implementation quality will vary and may not interoperate perfectly with existing protocols. Therefore it is necessary that utilities look at their own needs and strategies to decide on the migration approach. The route taken by Eskom is the most appropriate for implementing IEC 61850 to ensure that it addresses all the operational issues before moving on to other stations. Also the choice of a new substation was vital since the burden of power cuts, refurbishment and retrofits are eliminated.

3. IMPLEMENTATING IEC 61850 USING SYSTEM ENGINEERING TOOLS Successful projects involve the customer, users, operators, and other stakeholders in the project development. Systems engineering is a systematic process that includes reviews and decision points intended to provide visibility into the process and encourage stakeholder involvement. The systems engineering process includes stakeholders through all stages of the project, from initial needs definition through system verification and acceptance [6]. System engineering is at the core of all activities required for a project as depicted in below Figure 2. It is important to note from the picture, that system engineering ensures sufficient overlap between the various disciplines to ensure that the whole projects get executed.

Figure 2: System engineering integrating various disciplines

The Systems Engineering Process (SEP) is a comprehensive, iterative and recursive problem solving process, applied sequentially top-down by integrated teams. It transforms needs and requirements into a set of system product and process descriptions [7]. To implement IEC 61850 throughout Eskom I will follow the SEP utilizing the V-model for all activities and Gantt diagram to assigns resources and time budgets to the individual tasks forming the overall project schedule. 3.1 THE V SYSTEMS ENGINEERING MO DEL Many different process models have been developed over the years that specify a series of steps that make up the systems engineering approach. Among these models, the V model, shown in Figure 3, is emerging as the de facto standard way to represent systems engineering for any type of projects [7]. The V model has a number of benefits and these are [9]: a) Systems development projects usually have a test approach, or test strategy document, which defines how testing will be performed throughout the lifecycle of the project.

b) The V model explicitly suggests that testing (quality assurance) should be considered early on in the life of a project. Testing and fixing can be done at any stage in the lifecycle. However, the cost of finding and fixing faults increases dramatically as development progresses. c) It introduces the idea of specifying test requirements and expected outcomes prior to performing the actual tests. d) The V model provides a focus for defining the testing that must take place within each stage. e) Finally, the V model provides a basis for defining who is responsible for performing the testing at each stage. Here are some typical responsibilities: acceptance testing performed by users system testing performed by system testers integration testing performed by program team leaders Unit testing performed by engineers. The V model is therefore an excellent basis for the partitioning of testing, highlighting the fact that all the participants in the development of a system have a responsibility for quality assurance and testing.

3.2 V MODEL FOR IMPLEMENTING IEC 61850 The V model that is followed in this section is shown in Figure 3 below. The first step of the Systems Engineering Process is to analyse the process inputs [8]. Requirements analysis is used to develop functional and performance requirements; that is, customer requirements are translated into a set of requirements that define what the system must do and how well it must perform [9].

Figure 3: The V Model of a system engineering process

3.2.1

USER REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION

The systems engineer must ensure that the requirements are understandable, unambiguous, comprehensive, complete, and concise. Requirements analysis must clarify and define functional requirements and design constraints [9]. Considering that IEC 61850 has already been implemented and one of the Eskom Transmission substations, other municipalities in South Africa and number of utilities across the globe, a refined and appropriate list of requirement can be easily put together. However it is important to note that the requirements are likely to differ from utilities since there could be specific statutory or operational requirements that need to be addressed. Collaborative efforts such as engineering forums and continuous stakeholder meeting are necessary to refine the requirements. Designers, analyst and technologists must be able to understand and translate these requirements to models and specification.

3.2.2

FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATION

Functions are analysed by decomposing higher level functions identified through requirements analysis into lower-level functions. The performance requirements associated with the higher level are allocated to lower functions. The result is a description of the product or item in terms of what it does logically and in terms of the performance required. Functional analysis and allocation allows for a better understanding of what the system has to do, in what ways it can do it, and to some extent, the priorities and conflicts associated with lower-level functions [7]. It provides information essential to optimizing physical solutions. Key tools in functional analysis and allocation are Substation Single line diagrams, Functional Flow Block Diagrams, Time Line Analysis, and the Requirements Allocation Sheet. A functional specification can be put together by looking at the Vision for Substation Automation as provided below [5]: a) Protection engineers: Ability to change settings remotely in anticipation of changing conditions b) Operations engineers: Additional information available for contingency analysis and identification of potential problems; management during emergency conditions, emergency recovery, and post-emergency analysis. c) Data administrators: Avoid time-consuming and error-prone tracking of chains of data links each time a change is made in the field. d) SCADA/EMS systems: Additional data are available to be monitored if operators and/or SCADA/EMS applications need them. e) Contingency analysis (security analysis): Additional data from multiple sources for redundancy, thus increasing the reliability of the results. f) Intelligent alarm processing: With the additional data, intelligent alarm processing can filter out the less important alarms from the more important ones and can also analyse these data to determine the true issue causing the alarm. g) Emergency response: Control commands, whether issued locally or remotely, can respond rapidly to emergency situations in a coordinated manner, not only within a substation, but also between substations and between utilities.

3.2.3

DESIGN SPECIFICATION

Design specification is the process of defining the product or item in terms of the physical elements which together make up and define the item [7]. The result is often referred to as the design layout. Each part must meet at least one functional requirement, and any part may support many functions. The design layout is the basic structure for generating the specifications and baselines. This should also include additional rules that are outside the standard IEC 61850 protocol and the type of media, network and gateways that will be chosen. If new devices and substation equipment are to be included, their detailed specification should also be covers by the design specifications.

3.2.4

SYSTEM DESIGN

Other developers produce a "System Design" from the "System Specification". This takes the features required and maps them to various components, and defines the relationships between these components. The whole design should result in a detailed system design that will achieve what is required by the "System Specification". A complete set of substation drawings should be produced. These drawings should also show all the cabling, routes, operational technology architecture, devices and locations, equipment and equipment layouts, datasheets and manuals. It should be possible to start building a high level prototype model from the output of this step.

3.2.5

COMPONENT DESIGN

Each component or unit has a "Component Design", which describes in detail exactly how it will perform its piece of processing.

3.2.6

COMPONENT CONSTRUCTION

Finally each component is built, and then is ready for the test process.

3.2.7

VERIFICATION

For each application of the system engineering process, the solution will be compared to the requirements. This part of the process is called the verification loop, or more commonly, Verification. Each requirement at each level of development must be verifiable. Baseline documentation developed during the systems engineering process must establish the method of verification for each requirement.

3.2.8

TYPES OF TESTING

The level of test is the primary focus of a system and derives from the way a system is designed and built up. Conventional "V-Model", maps the types of test to each stage of development [7]. Since IEC 61850 integrates functionalities from various devices and equipment, a modular type of unit type of testing will have to be followed before the entire system is tested.

3.2.9

UNIT TEST

Starting from the bottom the first test level is unit testing. It involves checking that each feature specified in the "Component Design" has been implemented in the unit [7]. Each IEC 61850 compliant device and equipment installed will have to be tested individually by the vendors and the test certificates will serve as proof. In this case a substation may be viewed in terms of a sub-system and the integrating issues will have to be addressed here before going global to the entire Eskom network.

3.2.10 INTERFACE TEST

As the components are constructed and tested they are then linked together to check if they work with each other. It is a fact that two components that have passed all their tests, when connected to each other produce one new component full of faults. These tests can be done by technologists, operators and technicians at the substation. An interface to the national control will also have to be tested to ensure that the substation can be integrated into the network. Interface Testing is not focussed on what the components are doing but on how they communicate with each other, as specified in the "System Design". The "System Design" defines relationships between components, and this involves stating:

3.2.11 SYSTEM TEST

Once the entire system has been built then it has to be tested against the "System Specification" to check if it delivers the features required [7]. All engineers, designers, Operators, technologist and technicians will have to be involved here. Each functional expert must ensure that all their specified functions are tested. In essence the System Test is not about checking the individual parts of the design, but about checking the system as a whole. In effect it is one giant component. In addition to functional requirements these may include the following types of testing for the non-functional requirements such as: Performance - Are the performance criteria met?

Volume - Can large volumes of information be handled? Stress - Can peak volumes of information be handled? Security Is the IEC 61850 secure enough not to be attacked by cyber criminals Documentation - Is the documentation usable for the system? Robustness - Does the system remain stable under adverse circumstances?

3.2.12 ACCEPTANCE TEST

Acceptance Testing checks the system against the "User Requirements". The common acceptance tests are factory acceptance test (FAT) and site acceptance tests (SAT). Since the complete implantation of IEC 61850 can be done on site at the substations, SAT is more appropriate and should be done with engineering and operational staff from the plant being commissioned. It is similar to systems testing in that the whole system is checked. Acceptance Testing checks that the system delivers what was requested [5], [7]. The customer and not the developer should always do acceptance testing. The customer knows what is required from the system to achieve value in the business and is the only person qualified to make that judgement. The forms of the tests may follow those in system testing, but at all times they are informed by the business needs [9]. If the same resources are utilised to roll out the IEC 61850 throughout Eskom, the next iteration which is the next substation will resume after the last activity of the V model of the substation being completed. This will continue until the last substation has been completed. However another challenge will be to choose which substation is next when following this process. The increasing maintenance costs of old equipment, with time and the learning curve associated with the transition phase to a new technology should help to take a decision. It should be noted also that rolling out a major substation automation programme requires that the utility that is implementing it, identify their current, mid-term and long-term substation migration strategies together with substation communication and engineering requirements for local and remote communications. If such strategies are examined carefully it should be fairly easy to prioritise substations in line for IEC 61850 roll out. 3.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATION The Systems Engineering Process (SEP) is a comprehensive, iterative and recursive problem solving process, applied sequentially top-down by integrated teams. It transforms needs and requirements into a set of system product and process descriptions. Various processes have been proposed in literature on how to implement system engineering successfully. A system Engineer has to evaluate the project and its intended benefits to choose an appropriate process. To implement IEC 61850 the V model has been chosen on the basis of its benefits and the manner in which it encourage interdisciplinary participation until the whole system is completed.

10

ELEMENTS THAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE MARKETING PLAN

It is vital to identify the stakeholders or customers to be able to develop an appropriate marketing plan. To develop a precise marketing plan, a market mix of activities or framework has to be identified. This framework or activities will assist us to achieve our desired level of acceptance and use of the IEC 61850 standard and its intended benefits.

4.1 THE STAKEHOLDERS OR CUSTOMER

Implementation of IEC 61850 in Eskom will affect various areas and personnel and these are listed below: Maintenance staff Planners, engineers, and asset management personnel Operators and operational planners Protection engineers Investors and the government Directors or Leadership

The marketing framework must consider the diversity of expectations from these customers. However, the list can be reduced and simplified by classifying these customers according to what they need to know or the common benefits that will address their areas of work. A simple list of targeted customers can be identified as follows: Operational and maintenance staff Designers and planners Leadership and investors

4.2 MARKET MIX OR FRAMEWORK

The elements of commonly used market framework is based on the 4 Ps, that is Product, Price, Place, Promotion, which define the areas of activity in the marketing mix [10]. Like many organization which have modified and in some instances changed these elements of the marketing mix, it would be appropriate for us to modify these elements to reach our market as identified above. Therefore my proposed marketing mix would be as follows:

4.2.1

PRODUCT OR SERVICE

This element should also include guarantees and services support from vendors and other service providers. While it should be acknowledged that devices standard features will be compliant with and at level specified for IEC 61850, at the same time it is also important to ensure that the product is of higher quality and that there is satisfactory support when needed. It important when talking about the technology related product such as IEC 61850, to also show how it evolves, and where it is going. An illustration of how substation automation is evolving is depicted in Figure 4 below.

11

Figure 4: Evolution of Automation, Communication Networks and Systems in Substations

4.2.2

VALUE

Since price determines value and engineers, designers and investors are more focused on value than just a price, value is the most encompassing element. I would use a value engineering approach and tools to justify that there is value in implementing IEC 61850.

4.2.3

PEOPLE

The implementation of IEC 61850 in Eskom will interfere with peoples daily work. It will bring a change in the work environment and such a change will have to be managed carefully if the required support for the product is to be realized. Therefore the people element should be included in the marketing mix.

4.2.4

PROMOTION

This is very important to consider how we will ensure that all our intended marketing message reach the identified stakeholders. A common way for raising product awareness is through advertising and promotion burners.

12

Apart from the traditional ways of promoting IC 61850 as a product in Eskom, product champions will have to be identified in all areas. These would be utilized in a similar way as the sales staff or product managers. These champions will have to be the first to get training on the IEC 61850. These will be the persons who should be at the front office for all stakeholders and they should be able to answer any question related to the implementation of IEC 61850. Considering that the IEC 61850 is not a product in its self but rather a standard that will also cover various devices and equipment, the product champions will be selected according to the products and areas of specialization covered by the range of applications covered by IEC 61850 protocol and the associated infrastructure.

4.2.5

BENEFITS

The company staff will be more interested in the benefits of the IEC 61850 when compared to the systems that are currently being utilized. It is not easy to convince the staff to replace the technology that they may have been familiar and confident in, to start using something new without knowing how it will improve their daily operations. Automation leads to powerful new capabilities for users, which in turn leads to the need for more automation. Some examples of the benefits of substation automation to different users are described briefly here: Substation automation offers implementation benefits [3], [4], [5]: a) Reduced quantities of equipment: Through the use of shared technology for data sourcing, control, protection, station metering, processing, and communicationall for the benefit of multiple utility departments and other clients. b) Replacement of discrete station wiring with flexible communication networks: To accommodate continual system change and migration. c) Networks implemented with fibre-optic cable: Mutually isolates pieces of connected equipment to limit collateral equipment damage under adverse electrical conditions such as faults and closeproximity lightning strikes. d) Integration of digital information and functionality: In disparate devices that currently operate in separate realms such as fault recorders, protective relays, sequence of event recorders, fault locators, network transducers, regulators, or controllers. e) New digital equipment capabilities: Such as distance-to-fault locators and sag detectors can easily be integrated with the other station equipment to provide new functionality and more comprehensive system information.

4.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS

It is vital to identify the stakeholders or customers and then develop an appropriate marketing plan. To develop a precise marketing plan, a market mix of activities or framework has to be identified. This framework or activities will assist us to achieve our desired level of acceptance and use of the product. Various marketing mix of activities have been proposed based on the commonly known 4Ps model. Other organizations have opted to add or modify the 4ps framework to suit their understanding and organizational needs. Similarly for marketing IEC 61850 in Eskom the framework has been modified to cover the need for it successful implementation. The activities considered for IEC 61850 marketing mix are: product or service, value, people, promotion and benefits. An emphasis has to be place in benefits and value as they are more appealing to engineers, user and sponsors.

13

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1]

Practical considerations in applying IEC 61850 for Protection and Substation Automation Systems, Ivan De Mesmaeker*, Peter Rietmann, Klaus-Peter Brand, Petra Reinhardt, Cigre 29th November 2005 Case Study: Design and Implementation of, IEC 61850 From Multiple Vendors at CFE La Venta II,Victor Manuel Flores and Daniel Espinosa, Comisin Federal de Electricidad Julian Alzate and Dave Dolezilek, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc Guidelines for Implementing Substation Automation Using IEC61850, the International Power System Information, Modeling Standard, Epri Technical report Kalki Communication Technologies Private Limited IEC 61850 Communications Networks and Systems in Substations,-MU Dynamics-Protocol
brief

[2]

[3] [4] [5] [6]

Overview of the System Engineering Process, Ed Ryen, PE, Maintenance ITS, March 2008 [7] SYSTEMS ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS, SUPPLEMENTARY TEXT PREPARED BY THE DEFENSE ACQUISITION UNIVERSITY PRESS FORT BELVOIR, VIRGINIA 22060-5565, January 2001 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING presentation by Professor John Sheer 18 August 2011 the V model relevant to Professional Scheme Paper 2.1, developing systems Basic aims of marketing, TLP handout Internet Scan-Marketing approaches

[8] [9] [10] [11]

14