ENG 018: INTRODUCTION TO What is a Lexeme?

LINGUISTICS  meaningful unit behind a word. The

word form is the physical
VIDEO LECTURE + F2F LECTURE manifestation of the lexeme.
 Includes all inflected forms of words.
What is Morphology?
 Like the phoneme, it is a kind of
 Greek “morph” meaning ‘shape from’ abstraction or class of forms and is
and “-ology” meaning ‘the study of indicated by small capitals.
something’. EXAMPLE:
 The scientific study of forms and Lexeme- Take
structure of words in a language. Word Forms- takes, taking, took, taken
 Words are formed from sounds.
 A sub-discipline of linguistics was Lexeme- pretty
named for the first time in 1859 by the Word Forms- prettier, prettiest
German linguist August Schleicher, REPRESENTATION OF A LEXEME
who used the term to study the form of
words. 1. Simple
 Morphology is about the combination  Comes in monosyllabic form, words
of meaningful words that produce a with one syllable only. (eye, book, snail)
combination that is acceptable in a 2. Complex Word
specific language.  2 or more syllables or words affixes to
them. (eyeless, fruitful)
Word 3. By a word group
 The smallest independent unit of  Just one word, come in a compound
language word. (black eye- compound word)
(greenhouse)
WORD FORM 4. By an idiom
 A very special linguistic structure,
Word Form composed of two or more words but
 Refers to the physical unit, the written taken as one meaningful unit. (to be all
or spoken form. eyes = ‘to wait eagerly)
 Physical realization of independent
language unit. Criteria that make a unit a ‘WORD’
Citation Form
1. Orthographic
 Refers to the semantic entity, which is
normally an entry in the dictionary.  a word is what occurs between spaces
in writing. Spaces in a sentence.
ABSTRACT FORMS OF LINGUISTIC UNITS 2. Semantic
 a word that has a coherent meaning; it
(-eme) expresses a unified concept. Thus, in
1. Phoneme compounds, the total meaning is
different from the sum of the meanings
 Abstract sound or speech sound. of the two words.
EXAMPLE:
2. Morpheme Paperback – (which is a book rather than a
back) to a paperback
 Abstract meaningful unit.
Hothouse- (which is still a house but not
3. Lexeme always hot) to any hot house, etc.

 An abstract form of the realized word 3 Major Components of Language

which is an independent linguistic unit.  Sounds
 Element of Content
 Words and its meaning
3. Phonological
 A word occurs between potential
pauses in speaking.
 A word spoken in isolation has one and
only one primary stress (with some
 exceptions, such as compound context, rather than as isolated pieces of
adjectives) linguistic matter. *
EXAMPLE:
1. Library EXAMPLE:
2. Napkin 1. Unladylike- un (not)- lady- like (3
3. Sofa morphemes)
4. Paper 2. Dogs- dog, -s (2 morphemes)
5. Container 3. Technique- (1 morpheme)
6. Operator 4. Musician- music-ian (2 morphemes)
5. Plungers- Plunge,-er, -s (3 morphemes)
4. Morphological 6. Ate- eat, (past) (2 morphemes) *given
a. A word has an internal cohesion and is and its meaning*
indivisible by other units.
b. A word may be modified only externally They acknowledge that:
by the addition of suffixes and prefixes
 Meaning may be directly linked to
EXAMPLE: suprasegmental phonological units,
such as tone or stress.
Back door not allowed and internal, only an
 The meaning of a morpheme with a
external addition: a dirty back door - *a back
given vary, depending on its immediate
dirty door (the meaning had changed)
environment.

CLASSIFICATION OF MORPHEMES ON THE

5. Grammatical
BASIS OF WORD FORMATION
a. Words fall into particular classes.
b. Parts of Speech TYPE STRUCTURE BOUND FREE
 Substance/Content/Open Class ROOT - Simple, made YES/NO YES/NO
Words up of a single
morphemes
- Noun, verb, adjective, adverb,
- a basis for
conjunction. compounding
 Function/ Closed Class Words and affixation
- Pronouns, prepositions, articles, AFFIX simple YES NO
modals, helping verbs, -Prefix
interjections. -Infix
6. Syntactic -Suffix
-Suprafix
a. A word has external distribution or
-Simulfix
mobility; it is moved as a unit, not -Circumfix
in parts (e.g. as subject or object)
EXAMPLE:
My father is a trader. (noun) AFFIXES
(You) Father me. (it becomes a
 Prefix
verb)
 Is an element placed at the beginning
of a word to adjust or qualify its
meaning, for example de-, non-, and
MORPHEME re-.
 A smallest meaningful unit in the  Depopulate, Nonfiction, nonhuman,
grammar of a language. nontoxic, Recreate
 It is an abstract unit of meaning.  Il (not) + legal= illegal (grammatical)
 Un (not) + legal= unlegal (not
MORPH grammatical)
 Suffix
 A morph is a word segment that  Is an element placed at the end of a
represents one morpheme. word to form a derivative, such as -
 It is a formal unit with a physical action, -fy, -ing, frequently on that
shape. converts the stem into another part of
speech.
*Current approaches to morphology conceive of  Infix
morphemes as rules involving the linguistic  Is placed within a word.
  For example, cupful, spoonful, and Inaction
passerby can be pluralized as cupsful,
spoonsful, and passersby, using "s" as  In (prefix) + act (root) + ion (suffix)= 3
an infix. morphemes, 3 morphs
 Suprafix Unfriendliness
 Is a kind of affix in which
suprasegmental is superimposed on  Friend + un + ly + ness = 4
one or more syllables of the root or morphemes, 4 morphs
stem, signaling a particular - Any morpheme that comes after a
morphosyntactic operation. root word (which is not a root word)
 EXAMPLE: is also a suffix.
Produce (noun)
Fruitfulness
The produce was sold in the
market.  Fruit + ful + ness= 3 morphemes and
Produce (verb) 3 morphs
We produce the material regularly.
 Simulfix Historical
 Is a change or replacement of vowels
or consonants (usually vowels) which  History + ical = 2 morphemes, 2
changes the meaning of a word. morphs
 Eat in past tense becomes ate MISMATCH in Morphs and Morphemes
 Tooth becomes teeth when plural S
 In some cases, the number of
 Circumfix morphemes are not equal to the
 One meaningful unit that is divided and number of morphs.
distributed at the beginning of a word
Eaten
and in the end.
 Ka---an is a normalizer and surrounds  Eat + en = 2 morphs
a root.  Eat + ate (past form) + en = 3
 EXAMPLE: (Pangasinan, Philippines) morphemes
Ambagel: root ‘crazy’ adj.
Ka—an: circumfix ‘NOM’ Teeth
Kaambagelan: word ‘craziness’
 1 morph
 Teeth and tooth (plural form) = 2
morphemes, also an example of a
Morphology involves a morpheme (idea) simulfix.
-il (not) is a morpheme, but if you break this COMPOUND WORDS
suffix down, you will have /i/ and /l/ which are 2
distinct phonemes.  A lexeme that consists of more than
one stem.
Morph  Compounding occurs when two or
 Physical form of a morpheme more words or signs are joined to
 An element which puts together words make a longer word or sign.
- Affix  In compound words, all words are root
- Free Morphemes words.
- Physical form of a morpheme HOW ARE COMPOUND WORDS MADE?
Allomorph  Hyphenated (Editor-in-Chief)
 Group of meaningful representations of  They are written as one word
a morpheme. (highway)
 -s and -es are plural allomorphs  Broken by space (Book shelf)

Clueless Editor-in-Chief

 1 word  1 word with 3 components (roots)

 Clue (root word) + Less (Suffix)  Edit+ or + in + chief = 4 morphs, 4
 Has 2 morphemes and 2 morphs morphemes
Highway

 High + way = 2 morphs, 2

morphemes, 2 root words
WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
Book shelf
1. COMPOUNDING
 Book + shelf = 2 morphs, 2  Compound word is comprised with 2 or
morphemes, 2 root words more free morphemes and the
Impractical components are called root words and
the added words in there may be
 Practice + im + al = 3 morphs, 3 inflectional or derivational
morphemes, 1 word, 1 root morphemes.
Examples:
Time travellers a. Mailman= mail + man
b. Treehouse= tree + house
 Time + travel + er + s = 4 morphemes,
c. Mosquito net= mosquito + net
4 morphs, 1 word, 2 roots
d. Pick-up truck= Pick + up + truck
Bridal Shower e. Editor-in-chief= editor + in + chief
 A compound noun may be formed by
 Bride + al + shower = 3 morphemes, 3 adding:
morphs, 1 word, 2 roots  Noun-noun= cellphone
 Adjective-noun = highway
 Verb-noun= broken heart
Free Morphemes  Verb-particle= take, take off
2. BACKFORMATION
 Meaningful unit that can stand on its
 Reverse of affixation.
own
 Derived from other words which creates
Bound Morphemes a new word.
 False derivatives
 Meaningful unit but cannot stand on its Examples:
own (includes all affixes)  Verb to Noun:
a. Edit = editor
TYPES OF BOUND MORPHEMES
b. Act = actor
 Noun to Verb:
1. Inflectional Morphemes a. Bulldoze (Bulldozer)
 Suffixes that changes the word from b. Automate (Automation)
c. Escalate (Escalation)
singular to plural
d. Televise (Television)
 Changes the degree of the meaning of
e. Sightsee (Sightseeing)
the root word
3. BORROWING
 Can be positive, comparative to
 Instead of creating new word, we are
superlative
borrowing words from other language
 Example: pretty, prettier, prettiest
and differs it with spelling or
2. Derivational Morphemes
pronunciation.
 Changes the meaning and function of
 Photograph= from Anglo-Saxon (sun
the word
print)
 Example: happy and unhappy
 Iatrogenic= from Greek (iatros meaning
doctor)
 Boondocks= refers to countryside
(derived from the Tagalog word
bundok)
 Few things that might happen in a
borrowed word:
a. Change in spelling
b. Change in pronunciation
4. RHYMING COMPOUNDS (child talk)
 Rhyming compounds are formed
through hypocorism.
 Higgledly-piggledly, Tootsie-wootsie, Examples:
Piggie-wiggie  Amazement, cold-blooded, blushing,
 Hypocoristic language- happens in gnarled
diminution or shortening an existing  Plangonophile- a doll enthusiast
word in a language.  Blutter- to give a long, rambling speech
Examples: about uncertainty (blabber+utter)
 Haus for house, indie for independent,  Sarchasm- the gulf between the author
smol for small (small and cute) of sarcastic wit and the person who
5. REDUPLICATION (partial or full) doesn’t get it.
 There is a deliberate duplication or 10. NONCE WORDS
repetition of an expression whether if  Words that are invented for a specific
this repetition is partial or full. context and used only one time.
Examples: Examples:
 Nitty-gritty, hurly-burly, helter-skelter,  I have a pet cat who is a stray-cat-no-
shilly-shally, criss-cross, dilly-dally, more
hubble-bubble, willy-nilly, riff-raff, nit-wit, 11. ACRONYM
tit-tat, rag-tag, tick-tock, know-tow,  Radar, scuba, PAGASA, NASA, CELA-
hoity-toity, hocus-pocus, hobnob, chit- each letter emphasizes a meaning.
chat  Pronounced as a word.
6. AFFIXATION 12. INITIALISM
 Adding a morphemic unit before or  Pronounced as individual letters
after the root word.  WHO, DNA, PRC, and CHS are
7. BLENDING examples of initialism.
 Adding syllables coming from two Other Examples:
different words (blended expression)  NB
Examples: - Nota bene, literally note well. Used
 Mocktail (mock + cocktail) by scholars making notes on texts.
 Splog (spam + blog) (a large number of other scholar
 Email (electronic + mail) acronyms from Latin are used,
 Motorcade (motor + cavalcade) probably most invented in the
 Biopic (biography + picture) medieval period or Renaissance,
 Emoticon (emote + icon) not originally in Latin)
BLENDS  BRB
a. Coalescences - Be right back (from 1980s, 90s)
- Bash = bang + smash  FYI
- Clash= clack + clash - For your information (mid-20th
b. Telescoped forms (portmanteau century)
words)  LOL
- Motorcade= motor cavalcade - Laughing out loud (early 21st
- Travelogue= travel monologue century) – now pronounced as
8. CLIPPING either /lol/ or /el o el/; has spawned
 Cutting a syllable of an expression to compounds like Lolcats.
shorten the word.  ROFL
 Front clipping - Rolling on the floor laughing
- Airplane (plane), alligator (gator),  ROFLMAO
racoon (coon) - Rolling on floor laughing my ass off
 Back clipping
- Ad (advertisements), exam
(examination), lab (laboratory),
memo (memorandum), pub
(public), rep (representative)
 Front and back clipping
- Flu (influenza)
9. Neologisms
 New expressions that are created
(coining of a new word). A blended
word also belongs to neologism
because of its recency.
 IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS (IC)
ENG 018: INTRODUCTION TO
LINGUISTICS  Constituency is the relation
between a linguistic unit (i.e., a
SYNTAX constituent) and the larger unit that
SYNTAX it is a part of.
refers to the aspect of language which A constituent can be a morpheme, word,
governs the structure of sentences. phrase, or clause.
 For instance, all the words and
The Representation of Syntax phrases that make up a clause are
said to be constituents of that
“The boy kicked the ball.” clause.
Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)
1. A statement of the correct sequence was introduced by Leonard Bloomfield in
of the parts of speech (or Syntactic 1933.
Categories) Give me a kernel sentence.
Let’s produce a transform sentence.
Subject is followed by verb is followed by  A sentence can be analyzed into a
object. series of constituents, such as
subject + predicate, or NP + VP, etc.

The sentence patterns:  These units thus produced can, in

turn, be analyzed into further
1. S-IV
constituents (e.g. a noun phrase
2. S-LV-SC might consist of a determiner and a
3. S-TV-DO noun), and this constituent analysis
process can be continued until no
4. S-TV-IO-DO further subdivisions are possible.
5. S-TV-DO-OC Sam grows tomatoes as large as grapefruit.
The man will sing.
2. By a series of transformational rules 1. Selected participants will perform in
front of 10,000 live audience.

FOR EXAMPLE: 2. Poor Georgie hid under the bed.

3. Sweat the onion for a sweeter
flavor.