2 1 OKT.

1982
rijkswatersiaat'deltadienst
milieu en inrichting
EASTERN — bibliotheek en documentatie —
SCHELDT postbus / j - 4330 ' middelburg
tel.:01180-11851
STORM
SURGE
BARRIER

Proceedings of the Delta Banier Symposium

Rotterdam, 13 - 15 October 1982

These proceedings have been compiled by the Organization of the Sym-

posium, in co-operation with the editorial staff of the magazine CEMENT,
editorial adress:
Magazine CEMENT
P.O. Box 3011
5203 DA 's-HERTOGENBOSCH
The Netherlands

cover design: Otto Treumann, Weesp

printing: Drukkerij Waalwijk b.v., Waalwijk (N-B)

No part of these proceedings may be reproduced in any form by print, photoprint,

microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the above-mentioned
publisher.
 Table of Contents

3 Introduction
by J. van Dixhoorn
6 30 Years of deveiopment of the design criteria for flood protectlon and water-
control works
by prof.J.F.Agema
14 The joint evaluation of design construction of large scale concrete coastal
structures
by J.C.SIagter
20 500,000 Cubic metres of prefabricated, prestressed concrete
by A.A.H, van Dam
28 Special equipment as a result of integrated design and construction
by J.M.Schetters
40 The Eastern Scheldt barrier in the family of ever growing use of prestressed
concrete for offshore applications
by Ben C.Gerwick Jr
'Design of concrete structures'
44 Probability design method
by J.K.Vrijling
50 Durability and corrosion
by H. van Schaik
'Design of gate structures'
56 Gates
by E.Ypey
64 Operating machinery for the gates in the barrier
by J.F.Remery
'Construction aspects'
69 Methods and tools used in construction
by G.Offringa
78 Labour and social aspects of the barrier construction
by J.Brants
'Opera tions'
83 Assembly
by Tj.Visser
89 Transport and placing of 18,000 tons piers
by R. de Leeuw
'Research on concrete'
98 Durabiüty testing
by T.Monnier
106 Investigation of the mechanical properties of fresh and hardened concrete
used in the Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier
by Prof.H.W.Reinhardt, P. van den Berg, K.M.Postma and D.W. de Haan
'Surveying'
115 Dimensional deviations and tolerances in the assembling of the construction
elements
by F.F.M, de Graaf
120 Surveying systems
by R.Jellema
124 Colophon
J. van Dixhoorn Introduction
Director-General of Rijkswaterstaat

A large part of the Netherlands lies Immediately after restraining the

below the mean sea level; it is pro- situation had been stabilized, the
tected by dikes and dunes. In the Delta Plan was drawn up: a plan in
twentieth century impressive civil which the tidal waters in the south-
engineering works have been carried western part of the Netherlands were
out to Increase the safety of the low intended to be cut off from the sea
lands against storm floods. Flood by dams. Only the Western Scheldt,
disasters are part of HolJand's history which forms the access to the har-
and have occurred as often as three bour of Antwerp, and the Rotterdam
times in a century. In former ages the Waterway, which forms the access to
defence consisted of building up the harbour of Rotterdam, would re-
dikes. Only this century, great plans main open. These estuaries should be
have been executed to shorten the protected by higher dikes.
coast-line. This began with the
closing off of the Zuiderzee in 1932, The Delta Plan was approved by the
because of severe flooding in 1916, Dutch Parliament in 1958. It not only
1 and more recentiy, the Delta Plan, in- offered a better protection against
The Netherlands in Europe spired by the disastrous flood of the sea, but it also provided advan-
February 1953 (figure 2 and 3). tages for fresh-water management
and it would connect the isles in the
The Delta in the south-western part of south-western with the mainland.
the Netherlands is formed by the The period in whlch the 1953 disaster
rivers Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt; by occurred, was favourable for the
its very nature such an area is flat undertaking of great improvements.
and low. In the past the Delta was The reconstruction after the Second
flooded several times with con- World War came to an end; owing to
siderable loss of human lives and the increase of the population and
economie damage. the expanding industrialization ques-
The most recent, and one of the most tions concerning our environment
catastrophic disasters happened on were raised. Questions not only on
February 1, 1953, when 150,000 hec- how to protect the country against
tares were flooded and more than the storm surges from the North Sea,
1800 people lost their lives. It was but also questions on how to use the
clear that a disaster on such a scale water of the Rhine and the water of
must be prevented in the future and the archipelago in the south-west.
for ever. The Deita Plan, conceived in the flrst
place to provide safety for the Dutch
people, brought more than protection
alone. In the 'fifties and 'sixties' the
Si tuat ion f lood 1953; flooded area are main secondary benefits of the Delta
shaded Plan besides protection, were seen in
the field of water management. The
total plan seemed challenging
enough and logically the execution
started with the defence of the most
vulnerable spots of the country
around Rotterdam and with the
closure on the smallest scale. Thus
the Delta Plan was started in 1958
Delta Plan with the completion of a movable
flood barrier in the river Hollandsehe The original time seheduie was close- the nurseries of the marine life in the
IJssel, near Rotterdam (figure 4). In ly followed and the deyelopment of North Sea. Re-evaluation of the
this solution the eircumstanees for new methods for bottom protection, Eastern Scheldt closure seemed
navigation and the shipbuïldlng in- for dike construction and for olosing necessary, A long period of political
dustry behlnd the barrier remained operations seerned to indicate that dlsputes, demonstrations by action
practlcally unaltered. For these the biggest estuary, the Eastern groups and sclentlfle confrontations
periods during which th© barrier is Scheldt should be closed in 1978 by passed before the Government an-
closeci, navigation can pass through an impervious dam. Behind that dam nounced a new study, regarding the
a lock next to the barrier. At the a brackish lake turning gradually into closure of the Eastern Scheldt.
same time work was starled on the a fresh water lake woulö benefit Rijkswaterstaat, as a part of the
closure of the smaller estuaries in agricuiture in the surroundlng areas. Ministry of Transport and Public
the south-wcstem Delta area. An Im- People became more Intereated in the Works, was ordered to take the study
portant construction within the environment includtng the preserva- in hand, Ön base of this feasibility
Deltaplan is forrned by the big tion of the landscape and the more or study the Government took the deel-
dischargingsluioes complex in the less natural areas, sion in June 1976, to bulld a storm
Haringvliet which was finished in the surge barrier across the mouth of the
midsixties (figure 5). The Eastem Scheidt bastn- wlth a Eaatern Scheidt. The barrier oan be
relatively great tldal ranges large tldai closed when storm ftoods are
flats and shoals became more and predicted. Under normai conditiona
more interesting not only for the the barrier wil! be open, so that for
oyster and museel fisheriBs, but aiso the most of the time the basin wili re-
for the biologists who founct in it an main under the influence of the ttde
area where very interesting and uni- of the North Sea.
que ecologlcal procee$e$ take place. In principle, the construction of the
Movable flood barrier in the Holland' It proved to be an estuary with a barrier is comparable with the flood
sche IJ$$el great biomass production and one of barrier in the Holiandsehe Ussei near

• • ! . ' . •
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thé. design and ©xecutïor» of the Usually a project is designed by

: _ chargingstuices comptex in the BSofin-aurge banier. Rijkswaterstaat and subsequently of-
Haringvliet For a eomprohansive and ambitious fered for tender. Superviston during
plan-, l.ike the Eastern Scheldt project, the construcüon phaseremainsthe
theetlöft of al! cfvll eng sneer ing resportsibïlity of Rijkswaterstaat,
disciplines is needed. Therefore, trom Because of the cornplexity and the
Hiti- (segïnnirtg, the Rijkswaterstaat time neected for the main closures in
(PubiicfWorks Department), contrac- the Delta Plan, a different method is
(orsjiconsultanta and research- used.
institetes such as the Delft In an early stage a consortium of
Hydr-aölics Laboratory and the Delft Dufch contracfors named 'Dosbouw'
3oH Möchartics Laboratory, have was tnvited to fake part in negotia-
Rotterdam, Only the consiclerations beet^vyorking closely together, tiorss accor'ding to general criteria
that brought about this solutlon are concerning their abilïty, the costs of
partly different: the main goal o1 both 'Bijtewaterstaat divisiofis are iheir equipment, the overheads, etc.
barriers is protection agaïnst floods, chlelly involved in the building of the As a resuft an overall project contract
a secondary goal is maintaïning slorni surge barrier: has been drawn up which defines the
navigation and the shipbuildïng in- 'Öèitadienst' (Delta Divislon), coör- criteria for the sub-contracts; these
dustry for the Hoilandsche Usset bar- dinator and gerteral designer for are being detaiied at a later stage.
rier and the environment for the aff^rujeots in the Delta area; As the project takes severai years of
Eastem Scheldt barder, - 'ptrj&etie Bruggen' (Bridges Divi- construction, new techniques are
whtch designs ali steel deveioped In cooperation with the
The Delta Barrier Symposium wili contractor. The form ol contract
give detailled Information on the con- • 'Üi-rëcüe Sluizen en Stuwen' (Locks makes it possible that both contrac-
dittons and resutts of the . anö-Weirs Dlvision}-, wiiich designs tor and Government profil by these
Rijkswaterstaat study, as well as on all concrete structures. new deveiopmentS-
Prof.J.F.Agema
Delft University of Technology 30 Years of development of the design
criteria for flood protection and
water-control works

1. Introduction tions. These areas are cal led polders,

More than 50% of the Netherlands is which possess a considerable degree
lying below storm surge level. This of technical and administrative in-
means that the protection of this dependance. The rivers Rhine, Meuse
densely populated area of and Scheldt all run into the North
'polder'land, by dunes, dikes and Sea in the south west part of the
other 'hydrauiic structures' is of para- country. The estuaria! region of these
mount importance. For more than rivers is known as the Delta area.
1000 years the dike design was heavi- A branch of the river Rhine, called
ly based on experiences in practice. Yssel, runs out into the former Zuyder
After the storm surge disaster in Sea, now Yssel Lake.
1953, which hit the south west of the
country, a major improvement was 3. History of protection
achieved by introducing the boundary Geology
conditions and derived loads as To understand the historical develop-
stochastic phenomena. A better ment of the protection by dikes in the
design of the geometry became Netherlands, it is essential to know
posslble. the aspect of the gradual rise of the
The Netherlands without dikes
A complete probabilistic design taking sealevel with respect to the land and
1233 Area situated above stormsurge • level
into account load, geometry and also the deposits of soil by the North
in the North ( A O O + 5m ) strength is not yet possible, due to Sea and the rivers.
lack of knowledge mainly related to From geological studies it has learn-
1 ultimate limit states of strength. ed that the sealevel has been rising
Dikes protect a major part of the After a brief discussion of geography, for several thousands of years. There
Netherlands history of protection, storm surges have been times of accelerated rise
and their effects and polders, the and times of slow development and
above mentioned design aspects will occasionally the trend has been
be considered. reversed. About 5000 BC the ievel of
the sea was 16-18 m below the pre-
2. Geography sent level. Before that time the North
Geographically the Netherlands Sea was land.
belong to the alluvial coastal region During one of the geological periods
of the North Sea. More than half the the coastal barrier (dunes) along the
country, viz. the western and north- North Sea was formed. Between this
western part, is alluvial deposits. barrier and the higher pieistocene
These areas lie mainly below storm area in the eastern part of the coun-
surge level and are protected from try, sand and silt were deposited. The
the hydrauiic effects (high rivers Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt ad-
waterlevels, waves and currents) of ded river silt, building and shaping
the North Sea by dunes and dikes the land by means of regular inunda-
(figure 1). tions. As a result the geological pro-
About 60% of the total population fite of the western Netherlands
lives in these parts. The eastern part shows sand, silt en peat layers
of the country is of pleistocene origin (figure 2).
and dates back to one of the glacial
periods. The low-lying part consists During storm surges the North Sea
of series of large and small areas penetrated low areas by means of the
that are kept dry both naturally by estuaries and through breaks in the
drainage sluices at low tide and ar- dune barrier. This involved erosion of
tificially by means of pumping sta- land and coming into existence of
 DeVllet DeGouwe De Linschoten VaartscheRIjn
Den Haa Zuid plas Polder Utrecht

10 . .
15m..

H-
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 km
Peat Silt and clay = i Sand

Geological profile of the western Netherlanós new inlets. Two of the major effects
were the forming of the Zuyder Sea in
the center and more to the north of
WaddenSea and Zuyder Sea divided by the banier dam ('Afsluitdijk') the country the transformation from
land into sea, which became the
Wadden Sea (figure 3).

Early settlements
Long before the Christian era peopie
must have lived in the unprotected
lower parts of the Netheriands. Main-
ly in the first centuries peopie
learned to protect themselves and
their stock against stormtides in
natural higher parts of the land and
artificial mounds of clay (terps) on
which their homes and barns were
built. Many of such early settlements
became a nucteus of existing villages
and towns.
Considering the simple tools
available at that time for the digging
and transportation of soil and the
construction of the terps, one is im-
pressed by the tremendous task
these early settlers carried out.
Several of these 'terps' were namely
more voluminous than the famous
pyramides of Cheops.
An important step was made towards
improving the living conditions and
safety by building dikes.

Protect ion by dikes

In the ninth century the first dikes
were built. Thls developed in such a
way that in the thirteenth century
one can speak of a more organized
way of dikebuilding. An area pro-
tected against high waterlevels by
surrounding dikes is called a 'polder'.
Dikebuilding at that time was organiz-
o
•t
PROJECTED TOWNSHIP
QRIDSE
ed and realized by the peopie who
DIKE had faced the elements of nature.
SLUICE Ivlth Oi*ldgo)
• • PUMPING STATION At first the aim of dikebuilding was
— RIVER OR CANAL
E31 SEA laait wator)
defensive; peopie protected the land
• \ LAKE lfr«5h watar) where they lived. In a later phase the
<ö
construction of dikes was used in an
ZUIDERZEE POLDERS £
offensrve way viz. recfaiming land
&NEIGHBOURIW3 RECLAMATIONS • " from the sea. In this way, from the
 marked by storm surge disasters. The which acts mainly during the high
oldest known occurred in the year floods from the river Rhine.
1287 and hit the whole country; in the The strengthenings of the existing
north 50,000 people drowned. About seadefences of the Netherlands is
380,000 ha of land was inundated dur- nearly completed. Together with the
ing a storm surge in 1825, mainly Deltaworks the low lying 'polderland'
around the (forrrter) Zuyder Sea. of the Netherlands has reached
Also in 1916 a serious storm caused already a relative high degree of safe-
damage to large areas around this ty against storm surges.
sea. This gave the impulse of To understand the system of dikes in
shortening the length of dikes with relation to polders in the next
300 km by constructing a 32 km long paragraph, the two ways of creating
barrierdam, which closed-off the polders are discribed.
Zuyder Sea from the North Sea. This
dam, with discharge sluices and 5. Polders
navigation locks at two locations Polders are reclaimed low lands pro-
(Den Oever and Kornwerderzand), was tected by dikes against high
4a completed in 1932 (figure 4). waterlevels and waves.
Dikebuilding: the both dam sections Two types of polders can be defined:
are approaching The most recent disaster took place a. impoldering of marshlands in tidal
at the first day of February 1953 waters, with a height of mean high
when a north westerly storm struck water;
the south western part of the b. reclaiming (parts of) the bottom of
Netherlands (Delta area). The storm lakes with a depth of several
surge fevef reached 3 to 3.5 m above meters below mean sea level.
normal high water and exceeded
storm surge levels about 0.5 m at impoldering of marshlands (figure 5a)
some places. The dikes could not In areas where hydraulic conditions
withstand these levels, so that at of tidal waters are appropriate (small
several hundreds of places the dikes currents, quiet wave climate etc.)
were damaged and broken, over a sand and sill wUI rieposit. This pro-
tota! length of 190 km. cess accelerates in the phase that
Through nearly 90 breaches 150,000 the level of deposits is rising and
ha of polderland inundated. This grasses are starting to grow. Finally
caused the death of 1800 people and the level of deposits equals the mean
100,000 persons had to be evacuated. high water mark and marshlands are
Moreover a lot of live-stock drowned formed.
and thousands of buildings were These marshlands are located along
damaged or destroyed, the coast, at the end of estuaries,
'_<*. • •!• m^X J i « * .*
This disaster gave a new impulse to bays etc. and sometimes as islands.
improve the whole seadefence After surrounding an area of marsh-
4b system of the Netherlands. The land by a dike and so protecting
On the place where the 'Afsluitdijk' resulting Delta plan included the the land against highwater and storm
strengthening of existing dikes and surges, a polder is created. Draining
was closed in 1932, a monument has
dunes and shortening the length of water is discharged by gravity
been built
protection in the Delta area by through sluices in the dike. In course
middle of the thirteenth century in closing-off estuaries and a tidal river. of time the soil of the polder settles
total about 550,000 ha of land was The Rotterdam Waterway through due to decreasing the watertable as a
reclaimed. However, during the een- which the rivers Rhine and Meuse consequence of draining. This means
turies much of the previous reclaimed flow into the North Sea, and the that the level of the polderland and
land was loosed by attack of the sea Western Scheldt, both important fair- -dikes may settle in the order of 1 to
ways for the harbours of Rotterdam/ 1.5 m.
mainly due to storm surges which
Europoort respectively Antwerp,
many times caused destruction of the
should remain open. A process of impoldering one after
dikes.
The original planned barrier dam of another developed in such a way that
An other phenomena was the oc-
the Eastern Scheldt has been large areas of tidal waters and in
curence of landslides along tidal
changed into a storm surge barrier, many cases whole estuaries or bays
channels, whereby dikes disappeared;
now under construction. The other were gained from the sea. An exam-
then during high (storm) tides the sea
estuaries (Haringvliet, Brouwers- ple is the former Middel Sea (figure
took also this land. Nevertheless
havense Gat, Grevelingen and 3). As a consequence dikes of polders
every time there was the spirit of the
Veerse Gat) and the tidal river behind new reclaimed land (polder)
people to push back the sea. So most
Hollandse IJssel are separated from became 'dry' dikes (inner dikes)
of the lost land was reclaimed again,
the North Sea mainly by barrierdams. creating a system of safety. This was
despite the ever occuring storm
In the north of the mentioned river a important because before the 13th
surges.
storm surge barrier has been built. A and 14th century dike technology was
significant part of the Haringvliet bar- not developed and maintenance was
4. Storm surges and their effects rier consists of a discharge sluice,
The hisfory of the Netherlands is of poor quality.
 - storm surtjo ISVBI —^
mean high water level (£J Impoldenng of marshlands
i low water lavei „„ ^ Marshland
Impoldering of marshlands and u M Existing dike

reclamation of lakes

New canaKbasih) ® Reclamalion of lakes New panal(basrn)

Lake leyel

New pojder_
Maximum bottom tevel - 6m
During storm surges, frequently dike
breaches occurred, causing inunda- © Reclamation of parts of the ijssel lake
tion of polders. However, in the men- dike Uormer Zuiderzee) Exisiting dike
tioned period it was a bad custom to Lake level
remove dry dikes. This is the reason
that at several locations in the coun- Lake New polder Existing polder
try targe polder areas exlst without Maximum nollom level -Sm
inner dikes. From the year 1452 it
was forbidden to remove inner dikes. New dike New dike
Together with the dikes which before
this year were not removed, now low
lying areas in the country are com- TKTzw-; -im-z*r~i~*% ---7*: •:,;, v v ^ ^ s s r ' •,:, ,VÏ :_ ••";.';-:™fyr:>;
parted by a system of inner dikes. New polder Lake

Reclaiming land from lakes (fig. 5b)

Several lakes in the west of the m below A.O.D., wherein is located In more recent times also a dike with
Netherlands have become polders in the international airport Amsterdam- a wave energy absorbing outer berm
the following way. Schiphol. Another one is the Prins was developed (figure 6) and sand
First on the land arotind the lake a Alexanderpolder (depth: A.O.D. - 6 m), was applied as cone material.
canal with a dike on each side was with new residential areas of the city The height and strength of dikes and
constructed and 'pumping1 stations of Rotterdam. structures had to be related to a cer-
were built. Then the water in the lake In the Yssel Lake, formed after clos- tain storm surge level and wave ac-
was pumped into this canal, acting ing off the Zuyder Sea by a banier- tion, specially a value of the wave
as a basin, and finaily discharged via dam (1932), four polders (depth: to 4.5 run-up. This run-up Is increasing with
a system of canals to the sea. The m below A.O.D. have been reclaimed steepness of the outer slope. Occur-
dikes are also acting as inner dikes. viz. Wieringermeer, Noordoostpolder, red storm surge levels were
This way of reclamation started in Eastem- and Western Flevoland. In sometimes marked in stones of
1542, when 'pumping' became possi- the last mentioned polder, a new city buildings. For more than a century
ble with paddie wheels driven by 'Almere' (250,000 inhabitants) is under waterlevels are continiously recorded.
windmills. Later (1787) also steam construction. Wave characteristics and wave run-up
engines were applied. These 'pump- In these cases the polders are real- were only observed by eye so that
ing' stations are also used to drain ized by building a dike with some reüable data were not available. Only
the polder. An example of this type of pumping stations on the Yssel Lake the swag marks on the slope of
reclamation is the Haarlemmermeer bottom around the to be reclaimed dikes, after a storm gave an indica-
(18,000 ha) with a bottom depth of 4.5 parts of the lake (figure 5c). The tion of the ievel of wave run up. Later
enclosed area of water is simply these swag marks were level led.
pumped into the remaining part of Taking into account the (stlll)
the lake and discharged through waterlevel a rough value of wave run-
sluices in the barrier dam. This dam up could be derived. With this data it
is protecting the polders against was possible to improve the design
storm surges of the Nort Sea. The to a certain extend. In general it can
polder dikes have to resist all the be said that the design was based on
time the water of the Yssel Lake; they the highest observed storm surge
can also acts as a secondary protec- level and an estimate of wave
tion against storm surges in case the characteristics (height and period)
barrier dam fails. and wave run-up.

6. Design of dikes, period Experiences

1000 — 1953/'58 The experience during centuries was
The design of dikes and hydraulic that again and again higher storm
structures as drainage sluices etc. in surge levels and extremer wave ac-
this period was mainly based on ex- tion occurred than those which were
perience in practice. Dikes were imaged. Overflow and/or overtopping
generally constructed with clay and of dikes, caused in most cases in-
Outer berm of a dike protected by showed a trapezoidal cross section stability of the steep innerslopes,
polygone concrete blocks with the steep slope at the inner side. which in many cases induced a
Inundation February 1953

breach and consequently led to inun-

dation (figure 7). Depending on the
storage capacity of the polder(s)
(depth and area) and the composition
of the soil under and in the vicinity of
the dike, deep and wide tidal chan-
nels can develop in these breaches.
This mode of failure occurred also in
the dikes around the Zuyder Sea du-
ring the storm surge of 1916. Amongst
others this was the reason that in
1920 in the Netherlands soil
mechanical investigations started in
order to improve dike safety.
Also due to other modes of failure,
for example erosion of the outer
slope, collapse of drainage sluices,
coupures in dikes etc. breaches
followed by inundations occurred. up were also investigated in the The strengthening should be related
The increase of storm surge levels frame work of the Zuyder Sea to a storm surge level which will en-
was not onty due to nature but also enclosure. It has been proved that sure an acceptable and economically
impoldering of relatively large tidal these results were inaccurate. sound protection for the future. So
areas that decreased the storage the first task was to determine
capacity, originated by higher water Probability of storm surge levels design water levels along the coast.
levels. The possibility that higher storm An economie approach and a simple
As a consequence and moreover due surge levels may occur than has been reasoning based on safety considera-
to erosion of the wave-reducing observed or recorded, was considered tions have been performed.
foreland of dikes, caused by tidal cur- during the design of the Zuyder Sea
rents and wave action, wave attack barrier dam, However, this has not Economie approacb
and -run-up became more severe. The resulted in a new design philosophy. Prof.dr,D. van Dantzig (1956) has
more severe wave attack This philosophy was introduced by treated the question of the optimal
necessitated an improvement of the the Dutch hydraulic engineer strength of the dikes protecting cen-
grass protection of the outer slope of Wemelsfelder, who published in 1949 tral Holland as an economie decision
dikes. Seaweed, rows of wooden piles an article about probability of ex- problem. For symplification a polder
and in more recent years boulders, ceedance of storm surge levels along surrounded by a dike has been con-
rockstone, concrete blocks etc. were the coast of the Netherlands. He sidered. It is assumed that the cost K
applied. presented probability exceedance (D.fl.) of constructing the dike is part-
lines, using a lineair scale for the ly a function of the crest height H (m)
First calculations of storm surge water levels and a logarithmic scale of the dike:
levels and investigations of wave run- tor frequencies of occurrance. K = CQ + C^H wherein
up From this time in principle it was Co = initial cost of the dike (D.fl.)
The first calculations of the influence possible to establish a design water C, = cost per unit height of the dike
on waterlevels, in case of decreasing level which has a beforehand deter- (D.fl. m-1)
the storage capacity of tidal waters, mined acceptable probability of ex- both over the total length.
have been done for the barrierdam of ceedance.
the Zuyder Sea. The phycisist Prof. This means that by rising the crest
Lorentz developed a mathematical 7. Design philosophy from 1953/1958 height of the dike the cost (K) is in-
tidal model and calculated water Recommandations of the Deltacom- creasing. On the other hand the pro-
levels and currents before, during and mittee, who advised the government bability (pj of inundation of the polder
after closing off the Zuyder Sea. The about the measures to be taken after is decreasing so p = Pf(H>H) =
results were as later was experienced the disaster of 1953, proposed a new F (H) whereas F(H) is a
quite accurate. The calculated design design phitosophy for the sea- mathematical expression for ex-
storm surge level was based on the defences. This committee reached ceedance curve of storm surge levels.
storm surge of 1894, which at that the conclusion that for the entire Inundation is causing death of lives
time caused the highest water levels. coast of the country inadequate pro- and damage or loss of goods (S). On-
This design level was about 1 m tection was provided by the existing ly the latter has been taken into ac-
higher than in 1894, which untll now defences and that strengthening of count. So the total cost that has to
is not exceeded. However nearly the the main sea defence structures was be taken into account is the sum of
same level was reached in 1953 and necessary. The measures laid down construction (K) and the present
1954. in the Deltaplan have been described value (We) of the expectation of the
Design waves and related wave run- briefly in paragraph 3. damage caused by inundation. In

10
Table 1 Table 2

m maximum character duration frequency o exceedance

number per year storm surge levels of safety T
(years) material vital remarks
5-1 low
interest, interest,
1 -0,1 normal
accepted accepted
0,1 - 0,01 high
0,01 • 0,001 very high threat 10% threat 1 %
0,001 • 0,0001 extreme Lifetime 50 2.10"3 2.10"4
Country 1000 10" 5 10-6

and people 1000 10"" 1 0 - 5 solid design

case of a dike with a very low crest of hydraulic
the amount of money related to the structures
construction cost (K) is ümlted but A frequency of exceedance of 10" 4 seems to be acceptable which cor-
will reach a high value. In con- responds with a water level of A.O.D. + 5 m at Hook of Holland.
trast a high crested dike shows a
limited value of We due to its low pro-
bability of exceedance P but relative- The design frequency of exceedance Expertly designed and well maintain-
ly high construction costs, ed, a failure will only take place when
It can be shown that the sum K + Wg is defined as N = -y wherein
the design water level is exceeded by
must have a minimum, in other words N = number of exceedance per year a couple of dm. This means that the
there is an optima! dike height T = planning period (duration in design water level can be fixed lower,
(^optimum) which can be derived from years that a potential storm say N = 10~ 4 .
d(K + We) = Q surge threat can occur) As a result of the safety considera-
dH m = the acceptable number of storm tions the frequencies of exceedance
As risk (R) is defined as the surges that lead to inundation are listed in table 2.
mathematical expected value of during T
damage caused by inundation (S) this Maximum storm surge ievels were Design waterlevel advised by the
results in: R = p.S (D.fl. year-1). classified as in table 1. Deltacommittee
The risk can also be considered as The Deltacommittee, taking into ac-
the insurance premium which should count the various approaches, came
be paid each year in case one had an to the conclusion that the economie
insurance cover against inundation. First the safety for a lifetime has optimum design water level for cen-
The present value of the insurance been considered. A lifetime of 50 tral Holland, is about A.O.D. + 5 m
premium paid during the lifetime of years has been stated as the duration (station Hook of Holland). The cor-
the dike is equal to: wherein a certain protection against responding probability of exceedance
severe damage or a complete is 10" 4 .
N
/r» fi \ disaster caused by a storm surge is This level is 1 m lower than the
We -- 7
" n = 1 (1 + ;•)"
( a f L )
considered. If an object has to be economie optimum design failure
i =: interest base in percent safe against 'normal' storm surges water level (probability x 10),
N =: lifetime in years m = 10% shouid be chosen which calculated by Prof. Van Dantzig. In
n =; number of years relation to this it should be remarked
The minimum of the cost can be
means N - = 2.10~°. Are also that the Deltacommittee is consider-
50
calculated by differentation of the lifes and livelihood threatened a ing the design water level in such a
total cost function. Subsequently the limitation to 1% (high storm surge way that an exceedance of this level
optimal dike height is found by sol- levels) or even less must be con- extent, leads not to a failure so the
ving: committee required that at the design
sidered, = 2.10-4. water level complete safety against
d{K + We) _
breaches must be guaranteed.
Next attention was paid to the safety Depending on the economie impor-
for the country and the people. Here tance of protected polder areas
the duration of the planning period is along the coast north and south of
Prof. Van Dantzig calculated with a much longer than 50 years and has central Holland, reduced design
rather low estimate for damage or been arbitrarily fixed on 1000 years. water levels are advised. For example
losses of goods an optimum dike Taking into account the safety of the in the Deltaregion these levels are
height related to a storm surge level lifes of hundreds of people and the corresponding with a probability of
{station Hook of Holland) of A.O.D. livelihood of millions it is not 2.5 x 10 4.
+ 6 m. This water level has a pro- unreasonable to decrease the ac- Up till now only the storm surge (stlll)
bability exceedance of 8.10~6 or near- cepted threat with a factor 10, which water level has been considered.
ly 10-?. means 0.1% (very high storm surge Other phenomena related to storm
surge tides such as seiches and gust
levels) orW = - ^ = 10" 6 . bumbs have been taken into account
Safety considerations
Mr. Wemelsfelder (1949) performed In case only objects of materiai separately. Finally wave action and
safety approaches to arrive at an ac- interest play a part wave run-up have significant in-
ceptable frequency of exceedance of
N =
10- 2 = 10"5. fluence on the design ot hydraulic
a storm surge level. 1000 structures.

11
 It should be remarked that material
assessment properties as well as geometry of the
of safety structute may influence loads and
4 stresses.
representative safety strength
load coëfficiënt of structure From the basic variables, respectively
the strength and load are determined
by means of a theoretical model.
representative strength A theoretical relation used for deriv-
boundary parameters ing load from boundary conditions of
conditions nature (water levels, waves etc) is
also called a transfer function. Uncer-
tainties in these models ought to be
Figure 8 The representative load is derived quantified by empaving theoretical
from (representative) boundary condi- solutions with results of a sufficient
tions as water levels, waves, during number of model tests. Moreover, the
storms etc, which are based on ex- probability density function of the
isting knowledge. Generally they are relation between the actual and the
arbitrary chosen. theoretical predicted behaviour of the
The permissible load (normally lower structure has to be determined.
8. Possibililies of probabilistic design than the failure load) and the If for one mechanism the probability
The design of the seadefence in the seadefence, in other words the density function of the load (r"R(r)) and
Netherlands till 1953 was based on strength of this structure and its of the strength (fs(s)) is determined,
the highest recorded storm surge parts, which is determined by in- the last step is to estabiish the pro-
waterlevel and observed wave run-up vestigations, are compared with the bability of failure of the considered
and -attack. Height, geometry and respresentative load (figure 8). if this part of the structure, by solving the
strength were mainly a matter of load approved to be higher than the convolution integral (Freudenthal,
practice and simple calcuiations. strength of the structure, the safety 1966).
During centuries it approved that the is considered to be insufficient. P, = ff fsis). fR(r) ds.dr
occuring storm conditions were more fs{s) = probability density function of
severe, seadefence crests to low and The probabilistic method in principle the load (p.d.f. load);
strengths to weak. These aspects takes into account all causes of an fR(r) = probability density function of
caused numbers of inundations with possible inundation. These are the strength (p.d.f. strength).
the bitterest consequences, This way analysed in their relations to each
of designing based on recorded other and from the corresponding As the probability density functions
waterlevels and run-ups only is refer- separate probabilities of occurrance, are independent stochastics,
red to as 'deterministic design'. the total probability of failure the joint probability is
calculated. Distinguished are all fR(r). fs(s). This is represented by a
After the storm surge disaster in imaginable causes of inundation as mountain with equal contours refer-
1953, according to an advise of the human faifure, sabotage, acts of God, red to a horizontal plain. Also is in-
Deltacommittee, the design water etc. dicated the unsafe space between
level is based on extrapolation of the In order to get insight of the mention- the vertical plains containing Unes
frequency curve of occurred storm ed causes of inundation a faulttree of z = 0 and S. It can be seen that the
surge levels, and a selected frequen- a complete seadefence of a polder is probability P, is equal to the content
cy of exceedance. As previously a good tooi. of the mountain in the unsafe space.
described waves are taken into ac- This probabiiity of failure is to be at-
count as a stochastic phenomena For a probabilistic calculation of a tached to the element in the faulttree
and wave amounts has the same pro- structure it is necessary to calculate that symbolizes the considered
bability of exceedance as the design the probability of failure for each failure mechanism. In this way the
water level. ultimate limit state. failure probability of all mechanisms
The geometry and strength of the First the fundamental parameters is calculated and after considering all
seadefence is now determined on which are involved on a mechanism technical aspects in their relation one
physical (hydraulic) models and more are gathered. These basic variables to another, the total probability of
sophisticated calcuiations. However concern two main categories: ioad failure can be determined.
practical experience plays an impor- and strength. In the category strength As far as now is assumed, theoretical
tant part. material properties and geometry are models are available to derive the
The currently used design method involved. The type of probability load (or potentia! threat) from the
contains probabilistic aspects as far distributlon of these parameters as nature boundary conditions and from
as the boundary conditions are con- well as the expected value and the basic variables of material pro-
sidered. related Standard deviations have to perties the strength. From a cer-
be specified. taln number of problems related to
A next and final step in improving the The category loads are containing hydraulic structures these theoretical
design of seadefences is the com- basic variables which are to be con- models are not available. This can be
plete probabilistic design method. ceived as boundary conditions (wave loosed by applying a physical model
Before describing this method it is action, water levels, etc). Also the of the structure for a number of
useful to consider the deterministic stochastic character has to be taken discovered combinations of boundary
design first. into account. conditions.

12
Integration of the joint p.d.f. of boun- Table 3
dary conditions in the area in which
severe damage occurs, gives an Im- Exposed to waves Yes No
pression of the probability of failure.
In repeating series of model tests by Orientatlon NW SE
changing the value of one of the Slope 1 :6 1 :8 1: n
basic variables of strength, the p.d.f.
of stength is determind. Storm surge level (A.O.D.) ( + 5.50 m •f 5.50 m + 5.50 m
Wave run-up <2% =0,7 Tp\ZgHstga 9.90 m 7.42 m 0.50 m
9. State of the art of probabillstic Seiches S 0.24 m 0.24 m 0.24 m
design Custbump .j3 0.03 m 0.04 m 0.18 m
In principle it is possible to arrive at
a value of the probability of failure of Design water level (A.O.D.) +15.67 m +13.20 m + 6.42 m
a dike on an other structure, using Change of chart datum 0.15 m 0.15 m 0.15 m
the probabilistic method. Pro- Settlement of dike 0.10 m 0.10 m 0.10 m
babilistic calculations of the height Settlement of subsoil 0.50 m 0.50 m 0.50 m
of the dike taking amongst others in-
to account the combination of occur- Dike height (A.O.D.) +16.42 m +13.95 m + 7.17 m
rance of storm surge levels and wave
run-up, can lead already to a more ac- Table 4
curate dimensioning.
This has been done by W.T.Bakker Exposed to waves Yes No
and J.K.Vrijling (1980) considerlng,
under several assumptions a dike Orientation NW SE
along the coast of Schouwen in the Slope 1 :6 1 :8 1: n
vicinity of the storm surge barrier in
the Eastern Scheldt. They compared a. probabilistic
the results of the probabilistic Height without uncertainties 12.21 10.50 5.95
calculations with those derived from of dike of dike height
the phylosophy of the Delta Commit- in m b1. phylosophy
tee. above Delta Committee 15.67 13.20 6.42
Table 3 presents the calculation ac- A.O.D. without uncertainties
cording the phylosophy of the Delta of dike height
Committee, taking into account al! b2. idem, taking into
account uncertainties 15.90 13.43 6.65
phenomena. It is a demonstration; on-
ly the results of the comparison are of dike height
given in table 4. (probabilistic)
5
Table 3 contains the dike heights Probabiüty of failure 5.8 x 1 0 " 8 2.2 x 1 0 - 7 4.1 x 10-
calculated by probabilistic method related to b2
without taking into account uncer-
tainties of dike height. Further the in determining the dikeheight a more Investigations and studies are under-
results derived from the phylosophy balanced and defined safety will be way to gather the knowledge step by
of the Delta Committee both with and achieved. Also more economical step in order to arrive in the future in
without uncertainties of dike height designs will result. a stage that calculations of the pro-
(b1 and b2) are presented (table 4). Considering the possibilities which bability of failure of a seadefence
Wave run-up is a function of the the probabilistic design offers in system is possible.
slope; namely the steeper the slope calculations the probability of failure Regarding the storm surge barrier in
the higher the dike. of the structure as a whole, there are the Eastern Scheidt, consisting of
The values of probability of failure problems to solve. From all ultimate several materials as soil, gravel,
related to b2 show that by flattening limit states which play a part, only rockstone, concrete and steel, ex-
the dike from 1 : 6 to 1 : 8 the change the u.l.s. overflow and overtopping Isting knowledge and intensive
of overtopping or failure is increased can be calculated in a probabilistic studies with investigations have
by a factor 4. way. All other u.l.s. do not offer this made it possible to apply, with cer-
The dike facing SE is not exposed to possibility. Moreover the interactions taln limitations, a probabilistic
waves. So the potential threat is only between various limit states are calculation.
the still storm surge level. The pro- unknown.
bability of failure of this dike is 1000 For each u.l.s. are relations to define, Literature
times likelier than the dikes exposed which give the connection between W.T.Bakker, J.K.Vrijling, Probabilistic
to waves. the parameters strength and load and design of seadefences; Conf. Coastal
It Is clear that under simplifying another per strength and load Engin. Sydney 1980
assumptions designs of dike height parameter the probability density D. van Dantzig, Economie Decision
according to the advise of the Delta functions are to be determined. Also Probiems for Flood Prevention;
Committee, specially consldering the faulttree must be completed, not Econometrica 24, 276-287, New Haven
dikes exposed to waves and those oniy regarding the dike sections but 1956
which are located on the leeside, also structures Itke drainage sluices, P.J.Wemelsfelder, Wetmatigheden in
show significant differences in safe- pumpstations etc. which are forming het optreden van stormvloeden; De In-
ty. Applying the probabilistic method together the seadefence. genieur nr. 9, 's-Gravenhage 1949.

13
J.C.SIagter
Chief Director, Rijkswaterstaat The joint evaluation of design and
construction of large scale
concrete coastal structures

1. Introduction beating back the attacker. After the

Anywhere in the world one observes flood disaster of 1953 The Delta Plan
concentrations of populations was developed and put into opera-
wherever important sea shipping tion. It will have to provide the
lanes and major inland shipping definitive protection of the
routes meet. The Netherlands is a Netherlands against the sea.
country exactly in that position. The
Netherlands, the delta area of three 2. The Delta Plan
rivers of which the Rhine is the most The original Delta Plan was aimed at
important one, is situated on the improving the safety of the in-
North Sea coast. This is the positive habitants. This is understandable in
influence of its location by the sea. the light of the 1953 disaster. The
Harbours and portinstallations, in- plan envisaged a raising of the dikes,
dustry, transport, trade and employ- and in particular, a shortening of the
ment develop in such an area. protective dikes by closing off the
This creates an international at- mouths of the estuaries in the south-
mosphere. Delta areas are formed west. The total shortening of the sea
by materiai carried along by rivers. defences was 700 km. The plan whlch 1
Usually they are low-lying areas built was adopted by Parliament in 1958, The Netherlands
up of sand and clay. Living in such should have been completed by 1978.
areas therefore gives rise to pro- At the end of the 'sixties' when the
blems, too. Buildings must be erected implementation of the Delta Plan was
on poor subsoil. Thus expensive foun- in full swing, a discussion — albeit
dations have to be provided resulting rather reluctantly at first — was
in additional building costs. However, started on the assumptions on which
at the other end of the scale, the con- the project was based. Many people
straint of having to build in these dif- expressed the fear that the im-
ficult circumstances has provided plementation of the project would
Dutch civil engineers with very expen- adversely affect the environment, if
sive knowledge and experience. the estuaries, rich in wild-life, were to
There was a further problem to be be closed off.
solved. Under the influence of v/ester- This is a discussion which takes
ly storms the originally rather shallow place anywhere in the world where in-
water level of the North Sea is raised frastructural works bring about major
by several meters whenever this oc- changes in the environment concern- Original Delta project
curs. This piling up of the water ed.
together with tidal floods could inun- Subsequent to fierce political strife,
date sixty per cent of the land if there the Delta Plan was reconsidered in
were no protective dikes. 1972 that is to say, that part of it
These, then are the negative in- which had yet to be constructed, i.e.
fluences of living in Delta areas close the closing-off of the Eastern Scheldt
to the sea. It is therefore understand- estuary. In 1974, Rijkswaterstaat
able that the struggle against the was commissioned with the study
sea has been going on for centuries concerning the feasibility of building
past. It has marked the Dutch. Skill in a storm surge barrier in the tidal
hydraulic engineering was a necessl- channels of the Eastern Scheldt
ty. Our country had experienced ma- estuary. This barrier would be open in
jor floods in the course of history. normal circumstances in order to
Land has been lost to the sea. How- grant free access to the tidal currents
ever, we have always succeeded in to the estuary behind the river mouth. Modified Delta project

14
A barrier which, however, would have structures built of concrete. Hence
to be closed during a storm in order the feasibility of a f lood barrier with a
to stem the floods. There would be an reduced tidal profile was made the
interplay between environment and subject of a study. At the present-day
safety, a balance between the two. tidal profile of approximately 80,000
Rijkswaterstaat, assisted by Dutch m2, the head is a maximum of about
laboratories, contracting firms and 4 m. A reduction in the tidal profile to
consultant engineers provided a 40,000 m2 implies a reduction in the
positive answer, after 18 months, to tidal head of only 5%; a further I50OO 400O0

the questions raised. A storm surge reduction to 15,000 m2 brings about a E FLOW CROSS- SECTIOH (m 2 ) -

barrier could be built in the mouth of reduction in tidal head of 30%. It was
the Eastern Scheldt, completed by demonstrated that a storm surge bar- 4
1985 within the maximum earmarked rier with a tidal profile of 15,000 m2 Realationship between tidal range
budget i.e. three thousand million remained just within the ailowable and flow cross sectlon
guilders. In 1976 the political decision maximum budget.
was taken to go ahead with the con- When the study was begun it became
struction of the storm surge barrier. clear that all knowledge and ex-
In the light of the affirmative reply perience In the field of hydraulic
'yes, indeed, we are able to impie- engineering had to be combined.
ment this difficult project' the ac- Holland United arose. A number of
cumulated hydraulic engineering major Dutch contracting firms jointly
knowledge of the engineers from the set up the design office STUCOS in
groups quoted above proved to be of order to asslst Rijkswaterstaat.
vitai importance. It took a great deal Laboratories everywhere assisted and
of confidence and perseverance to where necessary reinforced their
even start thinking about this most ranks with foreign specialists. Con-
advanced project. Both these sulting Engineers' Offices furnished
qualities proved absolutely their best people. Many designs were
necessary. produced. Caissons were given a
To build a storm surge barrier in the great deal of attention. In the many
mouth of the Eastern Scheldt is enor- years during which work on the Delta
mously difficult. The tidal volume Plan had been ongoing, much ex-
amounts to over one thousand million perience was obtained with caissons.
tn3. The channels are almost 40 m
deep, the bottom consists of loosely Foilowing evaluation of these Gated caisson on a rubble base
packed, and sometimes polluted, designs from the 'brainstorming'
sand. The site constitutes, partly period, three designs were selected:
because of these problems, a a. caissons on shallow foundations;
fascinating challenge giving an im- b. caissons founded on pi les;
petus to hydraulic engineering in c. piers founded on open caissons.
Delta regions. The design envisaging piers founded
on open caissons came out as a
3. Storm surge barrier in the Eastern favourite. Foilowing the parllamentary
Scheldt decision of 1976 much work went into
The Eastern Scheldt storm surge bar- perfecting this design. In this op-
rier cannot be built in situ within a tlmization attention had to be given
temporary ring dike as was done to the hydraulic boundary conditions
earlier in the construction of the 'Ha- in particuiar, the foundation aspects,
ringvliet' siuices since otherwise the the sill construction and the risks in-
ecological circumstances might herent in construction.
change during the constructicn. The a. Hydraulic boundary conditions
barrier must be built in the river at The foregoing article has already Gated caissons on a pile foundation
the site of the three tidal channels. dealt with the hydraulic boundary
Of the 9 km wide river mouth the conditions at length.
total width of the channels thus also b. Foundations
of the barrier, is almost 3 km. In be- The design comprlsing 'piers on open
tween there are sand banks on whlch caissons' is characterized by the ll2P.9E.MSIj
a dam will be buiit. To maintain the great depth at which these founda-
present-day environment in the tions are installed in de harder
Eastern Scheldt implies the maintain- Pieistocene sand strata, the location
ing of the present tides in the river. It and condition of which were in-
was clear, however, from the outset vestigated with the aid of a large
that maintaining the present tides number of exploratory borings and
would not be feasible from an tests.
economie v/ewpoint. For, movable Exploration of the bottom led to
steel gates are about five times as modification of the proposed levels
expensive per surface unit than fixed of the foundations. A greater Piers on open caissons

15
understanding of the way in which tion to the depth to which the
the foundations are likely to behave caisson is embedded, the area of its
has been obtained by carrying out a base has a considerable affect on
great many tests on scaled models stability which increases as the area
and numerous calculations. More par- of the base increases.
ticularly, additional information has With a larger base, requirements
been gained concerning the stabiiity regarding the strength of the subsoil
of the structure and on the changes can also be relaxed slightly which is
it will undergo when it is exposed to especially important for less deepiy . fH(f*8 CONCBETt

storms of the anticipated ferocity. A embedded caissons in less densily j StfiUCÏUflAL CONCflETE

detailed analysis has revealed that packed upper strata. 1 COHCBETt Pt*CEC UWMB WATER

there are two kinds of ways in which On the basis of these considerations
the barrier is likely to be affected: the
the diameter of the open caissons 9
open caissons may undergo was increased from 16 m to 18 m. Evolution of the design of the founda-
horizontal displacement and they The original design of a caisson foun- tion
may overturn. The deeper these dation system embedded at a
caissons are installed into the sea relatively great depth in Pleistocene the mercy of the weather, so that par-
bed the more likely they will be to strata had evolved into a system ticularly in the winter months pro-
overturn rather than to be dispiaced. comprising caissons with a larger gress is ükely to be irregular and dif-
The soil around and underneath the base area and installed at lesser ficult to plan.
caisson foundations has to have the depth.
necessary qualities to enable it to c. Sill 4. Optimization of the caisson/pier in
resist overturning or displacement. The function of the sill i.e. the accordance with (monollthic) pier
Since the soil under the caisson is substructure in which the foundation design
structurally better than the soil next caissons are lodged, is to protect the As a result of the evaluation of the
to it, the caisson derlves most of its sandy sea bed in the vicinity of the caisson/pier design an entirely new
stabiiity from its base. However, the caissons from erosion by currents. design of the storm surge barrier
deeper the caisson is installed in the It also counteracts the undesirable eventualiy emerged; the risks in con-
ground, which increases the risk of flow of water under the barrier. struction determined the direction in
overturning, the greater the pressure The underflow will tend to concen- which optimization of the scheme
on the base. To compensate for this, trate under the closed gates when was sought.
the caisson has to reiy more and there is a danger of an abnormaliy An important improvement was
more on the lateral support provided high tide. In order to distribute the achieved by deciding not to assemble
by the relatively weeker soil strata. underflow over a greater distance, the the piers and caissons in situ in the
Contrary to what might be supposed, first design provided for a watertight openings but to construct complete
it emerges that the risks do not pro- layer of stonefilled asphait between calsson-cum-pier units, each con-
gressiveiy decrease as the caisson is the caissons and against the caisson stituting a prefabricated whole or
instalied deeper in the ground. walls, the purpose of which was to monolithic pier, on a safe construction
From an embedded depth of about reduce the steepness of the hydraulic site protected from the weather. In-
10-12 m onwards, the positive effect gradiënt. stalling the piers in their final posi-
of lateral support is cancelled by the When it came to detailing the struc- tions by means of this method is still
negative effect of the larger risk of ture, however, it was found difficult a sensltive operation requiring good
overturning. to ensure permanent water-sealing weather but it takes only two to three
contact between the asphait layer days. Finishing everything off then
For depths of less than 10-12 m, on and the caisson wall. In fact, the occupies a period of one to two
the other hand, the caisson has a caissons may shift or tilt in a storm, weeks and is much less vulnerable to
greater tendency to shift horizontally creating a gap a few centimetres adverse weather conditions.
than to overturn. In the light of these wide and a risk of scouring of the The piers are transported from the
facts the maximum height of the material underneath. For this reason construction site to their ultimate
caissons — originaily envisaged as the design has been so modified that destination at the mouth of the
26 m — was reduced to 16 m. In addi- the sealing layer is not applied be- Eastern Scheldt by means of a
tween the caissons but extends over special lifting vessel. Each pier is
3EFORMATION the top of them and up to the piers lowered into a trench prevlously
themselves. dredged in the sea bed in which a
d. Construction risks layer of supporting material has been
The risks are bound up with the final put down.
closure of the openings in the main The technique therefore differs from
flow channels an important part of the method originaily envisaged of
which is the construction of the positloning open caissons by
open caissons and piers within sinking them into the ground by
the protection of a cofferdam. The means of suction excavation. When
£20
, , SCATTER
work involves a gang of men at a in position, the base of the pier is
mean depth of - 25 m in the completely covered with coarse-
8 pumped-out area who will take about grained fill material of high grade
Embedded depth of less than 10 - 12 three months to construct one com- which Is strengthened further by com-
m increases the tendency of the cais- plete caisson/pier combination. paction.
son to shift rather than overturn Much of the work at this stage is at In the absence of a cofferdam which

16
is not needed in this modified
scheme the load on these units is
about 75% less than that envisaged
in the original design for 'piers on
open caissons'. As a result, the
risks during construction are less and
the work is much safer, because now 10
men do not have to work in a cof f er- Longitudinal profile of flow channels
dam at 25 m below water level.
On account of their great size the
piers will be prefabricated in dry con- ËASTtONSCHELDT SIDE
struction docks.
The storm surge barrier is formed by
66 heavy piers of prestressed con-
crete with a distance of 45 m be-
tween them.
Between the piers there are movable
steel lifting gates. In most instances,
in normal conditions, the gates will
be up in order to maintain the tidal
currents in the Eastern Scheldt; only
when a storm is predicied the gates 11
will be lowered. As opposed to other Cross section of the barrier
flood barriers in the Netherlands, on- OEUL SECTIOM OF D«M

ly one set of gates is applied in view

of the fact that if one of the gates aimed at limiting work at the site to a
might be stuck and would not move, minimum, comparable with the in-
the stability of the barrier is not en- stallation of concrete oil platforms in
dangered and moreover the water the North Sea. Prefabrication is ap-
level in the Eastern Scheldt remains plied on a large scale in the construc-
within acceptable limits. tion of the storm surge barrier; also,
The foundation underneath the piers extensive use is made of newly
is formed by a prefabricated founda- designed working vessels in the plac-
tion mattress filled with sand and ing of the parts,
gravel as filtering agents. In the implementation, a number of
phases can be distinguished: © ©DD •
DQOD
One of the most important functions Prefabrication of the 66 concrete DDDD DQDD
of the foundation mattress is the piers (dry weight 18,000 t max.} in a DDDD
keeping In place of the surrounding building doek. The building doek (sur- Gaan CIQDD
Eastern Scheldt bottom sand under face approx. 1,000,000 m2) is subdivi- nnao DDDD
DQD D
the influence of the static and ded into four building compartments. DDOO
dynamic hydraulic forces, caused by If all the piers were to be built in one DDDD
the difference in water level on either very large building doek, this would 12
side of the barrier. imply that the last pier would have to Subdivision of construction doek into
The reduction in the flow profile be finished before the doek could be four compartments
(down to 15,000 m2) is effected by filled with water. Such a procedure is
heavy concrete sill beams between too time-consuming.
the piers. Once the piers in a compartment
Lastly there is a sill of rocky material have been completed, the compart-
which serves to protect the founda- ment is flooded and an opening is
tion mattress and so, indirectty the dredged in the encircllng dike. The
bottom soil by preventing erosion, piers are then going to be removed
caused by currents and waves, from one by one from the compartment by
occurring. The sill is built up from a purpose-built lifting vessel and
layers of rocky material of varying transported to their final destination
weight; the top layer is formed by in one of the channels to be closed.
basalt blocks weighing between 6 to The lifting vessel 'Ostrea'
10 t. (Latin for oyster) is a U-shaped pon-
toon, measurlng 90 m by 50 m, equip-
The development of the design is ped with two lifting installations with
largely infiuenced by the construction a combined capacity of 10,000 t.
conditions at the site. The mouth of In the meantime the foundation level
the Eastern Scheldt may almost be in the channels to be closed is
regarded to be the 'open sea', that is brought to the correct height, on the
to say, having tidal movements and one hand by filling up, on the other
frequently subject to bad working hand by dredging (below the banks).
conditions. Implementation is clearly Since the subsoil consists of rather Compact ing barge

17
14 15 16
Mattress-laying vessei Pier-lifting vessei Lifting vessei

loosely packed sand, there is the In the operation the lifting vessei is The political will was present to
danger of iiquefaction resulting from coupled to a 'mooring pontoon' which spend thousands of millions on the
cylindrical wave loads. In order to has been anchored at the correct project.
achieve the required bearing location several hours earlier. In this
capacity, the sandy soil will have to way time is gained for the positioning 5. Influence of the project on
be compacted by vibration. Vibrafion of the Ostrea carrylng the pier, and hydrauiic engineering
compaction is being performed by a more time is available for placing the When projects situated outside the
purpose-built compaction vessei latter. In view of the severe tolerance usual field of knowledge are being
'Mytilus' (Latin for mussel) equipped constraints, piacing must be effected implemented, that knowledge will
with four poker vibrators which can very accurateiy at the turn of the tide. develop. It is not a matter of scale
compact the soil down to a depth of Once the sill has been built up enlargement but of a jump ahead. It
15 m (maximum). round the piers, the space between possibly needs the assistance of a
After compaction, the soil, consisting pier base and foundation mattress is combination of existing knowledge
of small sand grains, must be kept in fllled with a mixture of cement and and experience, research, and a good
place and protected from the scour- sand. deal of daring to start such an ad-
ing action of the current. Grains of vaneed project. The construction of
sand smaller than 1/2 mm are rapidly After the piers have been placed, the storm surge barrier certainly con-
carried away whereas the velocity In their respective positions are stitutes a jump ahead in hydrauiic
the channels increases at the rate at measured very accurateiy. The results engineering. This progress is based
which construction progresses. Pro- of these measurements are used to on both technology and management.
tection is afforded by a filter con- prefabricate and install subsequent a. It has become clear as early as
struction build-up, beginning with fine parts at the correct lenght: the con- the study phase that the design
gravel and ending with dumping crete sill beams (in order to reduce and implementation phases wouid
stones of 101 each. The (owest part the flow profile to 15,000 m2) tead to a favourabie result only if
of this filter which at the same time weighing approx. 2,500 t; the concrete all available knowledge in the fieid
forms the pier foundation, is wrapped upper beams, weighing approx. 1,200 of hydrauiic engineering in the
in mattress fabric, is prefabricated in t, the steel gates weighing between Netherlands were combined. Hun-
a factory situated in the building 400 and 800 t, and the concrete box dreds of staff would be involved in
doek; the filter is thereafter wound glrders for traffic weighing approx. the project: Staff of the respective
round a drum and subsequently un- 1,250 t. The assembling of these departments of Rijkswaterstaat,
wound at the correct location in the elements is planned to begin in 1983 many laboratories, Delft University
tidal channels: it is 35 cm thick, 200 and will be effected by a floating of Technology, a large number of
m long, 43 m wlde and weights 5,500 crane. In order to limit the weight to contracting firms, Consulting
t. For this operation, too, a vessei be lifted by the crane, the sill beams engineers and industrial enter-
was purpose-built, the 'Cardium' (dry weight 2,500 t) are floated to the prises. The total manpower varying
(Latin for cockle). The Cardium con- site so that the 'apparent weight' will between 500 and 1,000 persons,
sists of a pontoon measuring 90 m by be reduced to 1,500 t. was grouped in a project organiza-
60 m, equipped with a very wide suc- Enormously difficult technical and tion of a matrix-type structure.
tion mouth in front, measuring 45 m, organizational problems had to be One of the most important lessons
and with a large drum (diameter 16 m) solved and certainly there will be a learned was that the top manage-
at the rear round which the founda- confrontation with all sorts of pro- ment had to delegate a great
tion mattress is wound. In the gap blems yet in the coming years. There many decision-making respon-
this vessei brings the foundation has also been a delay of nearly one sibilities to lower levels.
level to the correct height in front year owing to some mishaps. The selection of staff, planning,
and simultaneously places the However, we'll pull through. The final and budget control must be given
prefabricated filter construction in result we hope to achieve will con- as much care as technology. It is
the rear. stitute good harmony between the vital to adhere to the time
safety of the population living schedules agreed upon. It is possi-
upstream of the flood barrier and the ble to make do with a very brief
Lastly, the pier is placed on the foun-
unique environment of the estuary. study period but this calls for a
dation mattress by the lifting vessei.

18
 very broad-based research pro- In the execution of the concrete remaining the general basis,
gram. This again is costly. Deci- structures, a very high-quality type however. This manner of inviting
sions must be taken within the of concrete was required for tenders is not new to the
project organization. Therefore a reasons of durability and loading. Netherlands, but the large-scale
difference must be made between New developments are to be noted character of the projects provides
decision-makers and advlsers. This in the fieid of prestressing while one more confirmation of the cor-
matter calls for a great deal of at- progress in concrete technology rectness of the system applied.
tention from top management. A can be reported, too. This, too, is of major relevance.
very positive experience, partly d. The building of large-scale works It asserts that co-operation during
based on projects jointly carried in the sea such as the storm surge the design state, and separation of
out in the past, is that a concen- barrier is only possible by the parties during the implementa-
tration of design activities with the assembling the components of tion phase is very well possible.
principal (Rijkswaterstaat) and such a structure on the site. The f. All developments that took place
the contractor 'Dosbouw' (a con- time of assembling will have to be in the Eastern Scheldt during the
sortium of Dutch contractors) brief. It calls for the prefabrication past ten years arose because of
ylelds remarkable performances. of the largest possible size of growing concern for the environ-
The respective roles of principal elements and the use of purpose- ment. It is safely to state that this
and contractor are not en- built vessels for placing. This ap- result is of world-wide
dangered, on the contrary: This is plies not only to concrete- and significance.
a concentration of strength. steel constructions but also to the
ó. The knowledge in the fieid of fine filter constructions. At the
hydraulics and soil mechanics in design stage a study must be per-
the Netherlands has considerably formed of all occurring dimen-
advanced by work on the storm sional deviations. Any mistakes or
surge barrier. Among the impor- belittling causes almost insoluble
tant elements we find: the pro- problems at the execution stage.
babilistic approach of the boun- The design philosophy acquires a
dary conditions and the influence new dimension, as it were. Placing
of cylindrical wave loads. the elements in a brief period of
Research into fiiters built up from time presupposes good knowledge
granular materials equaily con- of local conditions. Data concern-
stitutes an important feature. This ing the prevailing weather, waves,
knowledge is relevant for all types and currents must be known
of constructions in hydraulic beforehand. Determining the exact
engineering and offshore iocation of the working vessels is
technology. The close relationship of great relevance. Here, too, new
between hydraulic designers and developments are to be noted.
speciaJists of the shipbuildirtg e. As stated above, the contractors'
laboratory is certainly worth men- consortium Dosbouw co-operated
tioning. The large-scale use of very intensively with the respective
specially designed vessels divisions of Rijkswaterstaat in
rendered this necessary. New designing the storm surge barrier.
developments in soil mechanics For the implementation, however,
and hydraulic research are there should be a contract drawn
Itkewise noteworthy. up between principal and contrac-
c. The designed concrete- and steel tor. Because of the enormous
structures are exposed to major scope of the work in hand this
forces and must be not only rugged cannot be settled in one move. Im-
but also durable. An additional plementation of the construction
problem is the necessity of having has been arranged between the
to move, i.e. to close, part of the two parties as follows:
structure at the very moment at A framework contract was drawn
which a storm is rising. In the up for the entire work. This con-
design sphere, progress has been tract which has been the subject
made in mechanics. The im- of intensive negotiations, settles
plementation of the calculations Genera! Affairs. It indicates which
to be carried out was possible on- components are to be built by the
ly by using computer caiculations Dosbouw consortium, how the
of schematized models. As equipment is to be used and paid
regards details, a subdivision into for and how the method of deter-
finer elements was applied in the mining prices is elaborated. It fur-
computations. In the steel con- thermore states the fixed percen-
struction of the gates, particularly tages for overheads and profits
noteworthy aspects are the vibra- and settles price disputes. Con-
tion investigation and the develop- tracts were passed in their hun-
ment of the movement-performing dreds for various components of
machinery. the work, the Framework Contract

19
A,A, van Dam
Director Dosbouw

Holland is geographscalty situated in the piers only the roof elements of Production and quality
a delta area, bofdered by a hinterland the caissons sectlon, should be The advantages as far as production
Shaf stretches far into Europe. That referred to as prefabfteated con- and quatity are concerned, are:
this fact may have determined the crete units. The piers themselves — the influence of shrinkage can be
economie development of the country are prefabricated components of Mrnited and there is better control
in general, as well as the speciflc the storm surge barrier. A finished of temperature conditions;
technical expertise of Dutch civil product Is supplied, as in the case — the effects of unequal subsidence
enginsers in parficutar ia, fo a large of a ship, and no-one wouid think can be counteraeted;
extend quite an acceptabie point of of referring to a ship as being — production in a plant aüows for
view. prefabficated. more favourable conditions and of-
It is preferabte to appiy the term fers the possibility of taking ad-
In wartime many sacrifices are made 'prefabricated' only fn tfiose cases vantage of serial building;
in order to manufacture weapons where, althougb construction in — heat and vacuüm treatment can be
considered necassary for the preser- situ may be feasible, the ap- applied;
vation of all that one values most proprjate structure is not erected — better quality controt as well as a
highly. This is equally irue of the con- in the definttive locatlon for greater degree of accuracy can be
stant war against our everlasting reasons other than a physical im- achieved;
enemy, the sea. We are now, possibillty todo so. •— (ess storago space is neeóeö on
however, in a positron fo lake advan- When there is a choice, technical the building site.
tage of the sea as long as it con- considerations, related to produc-
trfbutes to these values we do not tion and quality, often ptay a role. 1
wish to lose. Dutch civil engineers 3. Finally, time and/or rnoney may be Large and smal! prefabricated
are an integral part of this ecological decisive factors. caissons, Ouwerk&rk 1953
system, and we consider ourselves
very fortunate that the world is our
oyster, It is not only a duty but also a ••• •• •\;" i
:M •'.

great privilege to share our ex-

periences,
-. ^
•«••'. •. Vv^
The pros and corts of prefaèrication
Although arguments in favour of us-
ing the prefabrication method for
constructions are wellknown it might
be uaefull to highlight a few impor-
tant factors which have played a part
in recently completed constructions.
1. One of the most straightforward :
•. ' • ' • • * • ' % • • . : • • .

and crucial criteria is, the prac-

tical and pnysical impossibility of
building a concrete structure in
any other way. A few examplas of
this are the Andoc/Dunlin plat-
form, submersed tunnels and the
piers of the Eastern Scheldt storm-
surge barrier. In this context the
term 'prefabrication' could even be
misleading. We are talking about
construottons which have been
built with professional skill and
can be rnoved in its entïrety. Of

20
The time factor — joints and connections are often prefabricated constructions in the
The construction time is limited to very complex; Netherlands are:
the time needed to assemble the — the use of equipment to transport Bridges
components. Moreover, these the components both horizontally Zeeland bridge 1965
elements can be produced in dif- and vertically is expensive. Quays/jetties
ferent places simultaneously. The actual savings effected by the Eems Harbour Rotterdam 1965-75
prefabrication of building com- Caissons
Cost aspects ponents are seldom of any decisive Brouwersdam caissons 1972
— Higher productivity; importance. However, this changes Sluices/dams
— concentration of labour resulting as soon as there is a wider market Haringvliet • nabla girders 1965
in reduction of travelling time. for the products. For example, pi les, Tunnels
bridge girders, pipes, etc. meet wlth Drecht tunnel (widest components)
Apart from these wellknown advan- this criterion. 1978
tages, some disadvantages can be Offshore constructions
mentioned: Examples of prefabrication Lighting-pylon, Europort 1973
— fitting problems; Some significant examples of Dunlin platform 1976

2 3a

3b
4b 4a

Zeeland bridge 1965

3a
Elements of the nabla girder
3b
Haringvliet sluices under construc-
tion
4b
Widest elements used for Drecht-
tunnel (on the left side)
4a
Longest fioating elements for Hem-
tunnel

' • 'tl;
P ' •* ,xd,ï

21
5a
Segments of lighting-pyion

Sb
Lighting-pylon Europort on location

Duniin platform 1976

The Eastern Scheldt storm surge bar- posed tremendous problems, Take,
rier for instance, the gradual adjustment
Unlike the Haringvliet sluices, the to the contours of the sea bed, the
whole of the storm surge barrier need to enlarge the size of vital com-
could not be constructed in situ in a ponents, such as the foundation mat-
construction doek. To do so would tresses, and, last but not least, the
have violated the underlying principle exponential extrapolation of plant
which was to preserve and maintain and equipment.
the natura! environment as far as Above all, it would have proved
possibie. almost impossible to control opera-
The gate openings in the barrier had tions in the circumstances prevailing
to be designed in such a way that the in the Eastern Scheldt.
cross-section features of the existing
tidal flow channels were maintained.
Optimalisation of the plans has led to Prefab concrete components used in
gate openings in the barrier with a the construction of the storm surge
clear width of approximately 40 barrier
metres. These are relatively smal! in The 500,000 m3 of concrete are used
proportion to the width of the chan- in the following way:
nels, particularly from an aesthetic 440,000 m 3 for the piers, 66 in
point of view. number;
It has now been established that if 4,000 m3 for the abutments, 6 in
the clear width of the gate openings number;
Study of building the storm surge had been made any larger, the con- 35,000 m3 for the road bridge box
barrier in a construction doek struction of the barrier would have girders, 69 in number;

22
8
Storm surge barrier components

Foundation rings f of the abutment

construction

Table 1
max. weight in air weight submerged

1. piers 18,000 tons 9,500 tons

2. road bridge box girders 1,200/1,600 tons
3. capping units 250 tons
4. steel gates 600 tons
5. si II beams 2,800 tons 1,500 tons
6. upper beams 1,200 tons
7. abutment rings 230 tons

30,000 m3 for the upper beams, 63 in Construction oi the piers Within the overall planning the timing
number; Construction of the piers immediately curve of the installing operations
9,000 m3 for the capping units, 132 in gives rise to the question of how, at iooks like figure 10. It is necessary
number; what rate, and where, the piers that the installing operations should
63,000 m3 for the siII beams, 63 in should be built. The second part of not be delayed by a shortage of com-
number. the question has to be answered first ponents. In such circumstances the
This covers all concrete components. as the rate at which the piers are to rule is therefore that production
They wil! be placed in position in the be suppiied depends entirely on the should be somewhat in excess of the
foliowing order (table 1). rate at which they can be installed. customer's needs, but without unac-

In the production planning account

must be taken of the fact that the
construction of the road bridge box
girders, the sill beams and upper
beams can be completed only after
the corresponding piers have been in-
stalled and actual measurements
taken.
Initially, the road bridge box girders
are made in two sections and after-
wards an appropriate middle section
is fitted between them. The bodies of
the sill beams are constructed first
and both end parts are added later.
In the 440,000 m3 of concrete 45 kg of
prestressing steel as well as 65 kg of
support and reinforcing steel are
used per m3.
Orlglnal starting point
produktlon program
10
Overall relation between production
and placing of the piers

23
11
Construction doek divided in foor
compartments

ceptable stock piling, particularly if

this were followed by higher expen-
diture.
The timing of the installing opera-
tions therefore determined the pro-
duction curve. The number of
elements being constructed
simultaneously at any given time was
dependent on the production period
needed to construct one unit. To
specify this production time an
analysis of the production process as
well as the plant involved was re-
quired. In consultation with the
designer pier construction has been
divided into various phases. The
physical processss applied can be in-
fluenced within certain parameters. then the acreage required for the con- Because of social implications other
Once we have determined struction doek and the construction locations were also investigated.
a. how many piers are to be yard can be calculated. They all involved either time-
censtructed simultaneously; The construction doek occupies 35 consuming draining operations or
b. in which order the piers are to be ha. less favourable planning aspects. So
supplied as well as what special The construction yard covers 12 ha. we returned to the idea of using the
provisions are dictated by the Schaar construction doek on the Geul
movements of the transport The use of a construction doek is not dam section, isolated though it is.
vessel; strlctly necessary, but it does pose When phasing production in accor-
c. how many piers should be kept in the least possible problems as far as dance with the timing of the install-
store; transport of the completed piers is ing operations, the various external
d. how much space is needed for concerned, This well-known construc- and internal factors which may have
equipment, plant and other means tion doek method, in which part of some bearing on the duration of the
of production, such as building the pier weight can be eliminated by process have to be taken in account.
huts, roads, etc, water displacement, was favoured Constructing concrete elements of
from the moment the present design this size and nature near the coast
was adopted. Moreover, a number of and under Dutch weather conditions
12 circular dikes had already been built does not, in itself, present any pro-
Construction yard; one compartment prior to the pending construction of blems for the contractors. The con-
flooded the storm surge barrier. struction period is of such duration

24
13
Construction system of the s/7/
beams

that, on the basis of meteorological

statistics, allowances can be made
for inclement weather conditions.
The installation of the piers is,
however, quite a different matter. At-
taching the hoisting gear and lifting
the pier, preparing it for transport and
actually moving it, mooring and posi-
tioning the pier precisely in the cor-
rect location, is a long and com-
plicated operation. Only with the aid
of computer simulation programmes
we are able to approach real condi-
tions as closely as possible.
Uncertainty, however, is caused by
the long term unpredictability of ex-
treme sea- and weather conditions.
On the other hand it must be admit-
ted that the repetitive nature of the
operation will, undoubtedly, be an
element in our favour.

Construction of the other com- encloslng dlke

ponents
Construction of the other com-
ponents, such as the road bridge box
girders, capping units, sill beams and
upper beams, presents no specific
problems. As mentioned before, the
definitive size of the road box girders,
sill beams and upper beams can be
determined only after the correspon-
ding piers have been installed and
correct measurements taken.
Both the production process of the
other components and the required
production site have also been map-
ped out within the frame work of the
overall planning. One of the four com-
partments of the construction doek
has been reserved for the sill beams,
the biggest and heaviest elements, so
that f ui I advantage can be taken of
their apparant weight reductiön
through submersion.

Some of the partners of Dosbouw

have at their disposal a construction
site suitable equipped for the produc-
tion of concrete units. !t is favourable
situated and it is not much further
away from the storm surge barrier
than the Schaar construction doek.
Dosbouw will use this site for the
construction of the somewhat lighter,
but still rather bulky elements. The
components will be installed with the
aid of a 2,000 tons floating sheerlegs.

14
Eastem Scheldt construction yard at
Kats near the barrier

25
15
Transport and placing equipment for Static iDBd curve : 1600 tons
sill beams Salvage capaclty aooo tons
i.e, 1200 tons tnm*II n blocks
800 tons over bow rollers

Length : S3 03 m
Breadth extreme : 28.25 m

Lifting and transporting them, will -final plan), parallel research, design and construction methods, no
Hkely present no special problems. tests, calculations; previous experiences existed which
3. specification of construction could be drawn upon. Many new and
Operations involving the installation methods; unknown factors had to be taken into
of components at high level are 4. specifications of building schedule account. Obviously, in circumstances
strongly affected by the movements and costs. such as these it is more then ever
of the pontoon, and this has reper- If the whole programme of re- essential that researchers, designers
cussions on the operating ratio. The quirements can be met within the and contractors work as team. That
low-lying sill beams demand a very specified conditions of time and the project is the result of a co-
precise installation plan, as the pro- money, the design is considered ac- operative effort can be seen in many
cess has to be carried out under dif- ceptable in a technical-commercial respects.
ficult current conditions and within sense. If this cannot be achieved the
very narrow tolerances. whole cycle will have to be re- Some interfaces, in both figurative
appraised, and even If the outcome is and literal sense, are:
Integration of design process and satisfactory the question still re- a. the supporting ribs: the foundation
study of construction methods mains as to whether the optimum bed cannot be made sufficiently
The design process can be divided solution has been arrived at. flat to allow the base slab of the
broadly into: In the case of the storm-surge barrier piers to fit tightly onto the founda-
1. specification of requirements; we had to go through this cycle tion bed and to be fully supported
2. design (sketch plan - draft plan several ttmes because, as regards by it. The bottom slab, therefore,

Small tolerances between huge 17

elements Integration of the design process

26
18
Synthesis of design and executlon

has two strengthening ribs on

which the p/er is supported during
the construction period of the bar-
rier.
b. the lifting yokes: it is a fact prac-
tically unlimited weights can be
lifted. The biggest problem turning
up time and again is posed by the
intermediate construction between
the hoisting equipment and the
(concrete) object to be lifted. Fitting problems ponents or phases are subjects out-
c. the sill beams recesses: the ques- When a construction consists of a side the framework of this article.
tion is which are the minimum in- number of components and when the Discrepancies in measurements of
side measurements required that, required precision is not unnecessari- the successive concrete components
at the same time, are adequate ly high, work can be carried out effec- do not present the biggest problem.
enough to present no problems tively and quickly, which means a However, where the installation of
when the beams are instailed. saving of time and money. the piers or the improvement of the
Not only does a high degree of preci- subsoil are concerned, this is a dif-
This, obviously, does not present an sion intrinsically require more time ferent matter.
comprehensive picture of all inter- and money, but it also carries with it
faces, on the contrary, these are not the risk of rejection because only
even the most important ones, but very small tolerances are permissible.
they stand out so clearly that it is evi- If rejection leads to a lengthening of
dent to highlight them. the critical path operating costs can
often grow into a multiple of the
In order to prevent any misunderstan- costs involved in correcting the re-
ding it should be pointed out that, in jected item.
spite of a closeiy integrated co- Should one of the primary re-
operation between designer and con- quirements be affected, e.g. the
tractors, the responsibility for the movement of the steel gates, the
design is and remains with the designer will, undoubtedly, lay down
designer, whereas its proper execu- certain limits.
tion is and remains the responsibiüty The extent of these limits and how
of the contractors. they are allocated to the various com-

•i;j!::'iÏ! : *' A '"' ; i "'""'' - : -"'W

46m Unknown workers and ••.•-•-
weil-tounded problerrïa

27
J.M. Schetters
Chairman Board of Directors, Special equipment as a result of
Dosbouw integrated design and construction

1. Introduction
1.1. The special equipment, as
developed and built for the construc-
tion of the Eastem Scheldt storm
surge barrier has to be seen in the
perspective of the development in
civil engineering, not only during the
last decades, but during centuries
past.
Deveiopments in civil engineering
have aiways resuKed from an interac-
tion between the need for better or
more daring structures, and the
capability of building equipment to
realizs such designs.
Although in ancient history spec-
tacular constructions were realized 15th century dredger — Zeeland
like the pyramids, aqueducts, 4
cathedrals, etc, at the time it was Modern offshore construction crane
chiefly a result of human ingenuity
coupled with a surplus of cheap man-
power. It was not till the 19th century of the 19th century, with the con-
that concrete and steel as construc- struction of the two important access
tion materials, and mechanical inven- channels to Amsterdam and Rotter-
tions, extended the possibilities in dam. From that time on, design of
civil engineering, and with that, the ports, port entrances, land reclama-
limits to which designs could go. tion and -protection went hand in
hand with the development of new
1.2. Equipment used in hydraulic and more powerful equipment.
engineering (fig. 1-3)
A major example in this development Hopper dredger 1.3. Equipment for offshore construc-
is the dredging industry. As early as tion (fig. 4)
the 15th century the Dutch started Quite another civil engineering area
developing techniques to protect and where the development of design and
reclaim land and to keep their ports equipment is strongly integrated is
accessible to increasing traffic. The the offshore oi! industry.
19th century, however, with the arrival Cutter suction dredger It is only 60 years ago that on the
of steel ships and mechanical power
led to the development of various
dredging equipment like bucket- and
hopper dredgers which made larger
port projects possible.
Not only in Holland, but also in
England and the USA, dredging
techniques were developed further. In
the USA, where often hard soil had to
be removed, the cutter-suction
dredger was developed.
The basis for a world-wide Dutch
dredging industry was laid at the end

28
Stone dumping barge at Rotterdam
harbour entrance

:r * Ü. "i

Cable railway for dike construction

7
Laying modem, prefabricated erosion
protection mattress (Dos I)
8
Erosion protection with asphalt (Jan
Heijmans)

shore of lake Maracaibo oil com- The equipment developed caused by the disastrous flooding in
panies were competing in looking for simultaneously, and it is hard to say 1953. Both gave a strong impetus to
oil at only meters of distance from when the design is ahead of the further development of designs, con-
each other. The difference being that equipment, or when new equipment struction methods and, consequently,
the one worked on land and the other spurs on new design. Underwater equipment for hydraulic and coastal
in water, although this was only a techniques and electronics take part engineering.
few feet deep. in this development as well. Examples are, interalia, the ever more
However, this gave rise to the off- powerful dredging equipment, and the
shore oil industry as it is known now, 1.4. Recent development in Holland stone dumping barges for the
and of which the end of the develop- (tig. 5-8) breakwater at Europoort Rotterdam.
ment has yet to be seen. Ever more In Holland the post-war period was The Delta Works were marked by the
daring designs are realized, such as marked by the port extension at sophisticated use of caissons and a
drilling and production platforms, Amsterdam and Rotterdam and the cabte railway for dumping stones.
pipelines, etc, in ever deeper waters. acceleration of the Delta Works, Erosion protection, once traditionally

29
Delta Works area with two major, but
basically different, barriers <£>

Central work|ng
area on shallowVart *

made of woven twig mattresses sunk

by ballasting with stones, was replac-
ed by laying large size prefabricated
block mattresses and underwater
asphalt layers. For the building of the
5 km long Zeeland Bridge across the
Eastern Scheldt a special 500 tons
floating crane was built tot install the
prefabricated parts. the tidal channels. Prefabrication closing the Eastern Scheldt and
therefore became the leading idea. transferring the forces exerted by a
1.5. Eastern Scheldt project (fig. 9) As it worked out, the result was a superstorm to the foundation.
It was at this time, in the early 70's, fleet of unique equipment. Lack of Three major items are involved in
that it was decided to construct the space does not permit to explain all what is called 'the installation of the
Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier. of these items, nor to go into much concrete piers':
It had always been intended to build detail. Emphasis will therefore be a. the Ostrea: for transport and in-
a dike and make it the last and given to equipment used in two major stallation of the piers;
glorious part of the Delta Works, in operations: the placing of the 18,000 b. the Macoma: as a dredging pon-
which experience obtained would tons prefabricated concrete piers and toon for cleaning up and a moor-
show the Dutch art in holding back the preparation of the foundation in ing pontoon for the Ostrea and
the sea, however, the scène changed water 30 m deep, prior to installing Dos I;
at once. these piers. c. the Dos I: for laying the block mat-
tress and so as to give the founda-
In stead of a dike, a structure unique 2. Technical descrlption of special tion the required flatness before
in concept and size would have to be equipment the piers are placed.
built within strict limits of time and 2.1. Transport and instaltatlon of the
money and in one of the most expos- concrete piers (fig. 10-14)
ed areas along the Dutch coast. The concrete piers are to be con-
Forced by these conditions, govern- sidered as the backbone of the storm
ment and contractors had to fal! back surge barrier, supporting the 10
on the tradition of centuries; to think superstructure, guiding the gates for Li ft ing vessel Ostrea
great, be innovative, and have
capable designers, contractors, con-
sultants and wharves at hand.
In 1976 a start was made on
simultaneously working out the
design of the storm surge barrier, its
construction methods and equipment.

As compared to another major work

of the Delta Works: the sluices of the
Haringvliet, the point of departure
was completely different. There, the
sluices were built in situ in a construc-
tion doek on the shallow part of the
estuary, with later on the closure of
the tidai channels by dikes. At the
storm surge barrier it had to be the
other way round: the shallow part
was built-up as a dike and the sluice
structure had to be installed right in

30
11
Ostrea/Macoma combination for in-
stalling the piers and dredging sand
deposits

12
Mooring and dredging pontoon
Macoma

The lifting vessel Ostrea, is the most

spectacular item of the fieet of
special equipment and can be con-
sidered as its flag-ship. It has a lif-
ting capacity of 10,000 tons, suffi-
cient to lift the heaviest pier (18,000
tons) in a partly submerged condition.
Even in the offshore industry cranes
with such lifting capacity do not yet
exist!
With its U-shaped pontoon of 87.25 x
47.00 m, the Ostrea wraps itself
around the pier and lifting tackles
from the portals perform the actual
lift. In loaded condition the combina-
tion of Ostrea and the pier has a
draught of 12 m. The Ostrea has its
own propulsion; 4 Schottels (pro-
pellers moving in the horizontal
plane) with in total 9000 HP, suffl-
cient to manoeuvre itself in the
drydock and around the piers. For the
transport from the construction doek
to the site, it will be assisted by
several powerful tugs. Like other
floating equipments, the basic design
was made by 'Bureau voor Scheep-
vaart' at Bloemendaal.

Block mattresses

13
Macoma/Dos I combination for laying
block mattresses and dredging sand
deposits

31
14 Arriving at its final location, the means of a special connecting device
Block mattress factory Ostrea will meet and tte-up against and the combined unit can then
A: Winchsystem for moving block mat- the Macoma. This vessel is con- either be operated from the Ostrea, or
tress siderably smaller but is at least as from the Macoma. The Macoma
B: Coils for block mattress wires complex because its dual function as serves as well as a mooring pontoon
C: Room lor connecting blocks with wires a mooring and dredging pontoon. to the Dos I, for laying the block mat-
(assembling room) tresses.
D: Winchsystem for turning transport
cylirtder As a dredging pontoon it has to The Dos I is a converted erosion mat-
E: Storage (of blocks) remove sand deposited si nee the lay- tress laying barge as shown in an
F: Inspection room ing of the foundation mattress, the earlier figure. lts function is to lay
Q: Roller-conveyor last layer only a few hours before prefabricated block mattresses of
H: Craln for handling front- and end parts placing the pier. The Macoma is fit- variabie thickness in the contact area
J: Transport cylinder ted out with a 30 m wide dustpan between pier and foundation. By vary-
dredger for that purpose. ing the thickness of the mattress, the
15 As a mooring pontoon the Macoma supposedly always somewhat ir-
Sequence of soil improvement and has a powerful 8-anchor line system. regular surface of the foundation will
foundation mattresses The Ostrea ties up at the Macoma by be flattened and an even surface for

Oeep-compacllon
Soil Improvement

78m

Upper mattress Wldlh 31m Block mattress Wldth 2» S65m

Thickness 0.36m Thickneas 0.15-0.60m

Pier foundation

Lovver mattress Wldth 42m

Thickness 0.36 m
Weight t5500tons

L = 200 m

32
16 JUUUL
Deep compacti'ng barge Mytilus

placing the piers wilI be obtained.

The factory for the prefabrication of
these mattresses is the same in-
stallation where former erosion mat-
tresses were made, but it was
drastically modified.
For the transport of the block mat-
tresses one of the existing floating
cylinders is used, which was
modified as well.

2,2. Preparation ol the foundation

2.2.1. Introduction (fig. 15)
The foundation on whlch the concrete
I" :T- .» ' J» .•!*?
piers are to be placed is rather com-
plicated although this does not ap-
pear from a cross section of the bar-
rier. For a proper understanding, a
short explanation is necessary. First
of all the original bottom of the
Eastern Scheldt, although mainly changes in pore water pressure. foundation mattress. Also the trail-
conslsting of sancf, has interalia a The mattress therefore is of a ing suction hopper barges had to
relatively low bearing capacity. The filter construction gradualfy built be adjusted, so as to use their
quality of the soil therefore has to be up from coarse sand, to fine suction pipes as discharge pipes.
improved. Furthermore some parts of gravel, to coarse gravel. The con- In both cases considerable ex-
the sandy bottom contain too much crete pier is placed on this layer of perience was obtained in dredging
lime and have to be replaced by coarse gravel. In order to give the and discharging sand at great
'clean' sand before improving the top layer of coarse gravel under depths (38 m).
sandy bottom anyway. Thirdly, the the pier more 'body', it was decid- 2. To improve the bearing capacity
profile of the cross-section is too ir- ed to install a smaller, but simular and density of the soil a deep
regular: close to the shore a trench mattress under the pier, filled with compactton method was used and
has to be dredged to a depth below 3 layers of coarse gravel. a special barge, the 'Mytilus' was
the installation depth of the concrete The concrete piers are spaced at built to handle 4 deep-vibration
piers, whereas in the middle the tidal distances of 45 m and the lower mat- needies simultaneously. The vibra-
channels are too deep, and sand has tresses measures 200 x 42 m. The tion method consists of inserting
to be added to achieve the founda- opening in between of 3 m has to be a vibrating tube into the bottom,
tion level of the piers. Because of the sealed with marine gravel, through the tube having a vibrator at its
currents, this sand has to be pro- which the sand of the Eastern top and a resonator at the end.
tected against erosion by being Scheldt bottom will not pass. To pro- The vibrator generates vertical
covered with a layer of gravel. Dredg- tect this seal against corrosion, the vibrations which are transmitted to
ing the trench or raising the height of sea gravel is covered by a layer of the soil by the resonator. As a
the bottom is done simultaneously coarse gravel 30-60 mm and a layer of result the sand grains are set in
with changing the bad parts of the small stones 40-250 mm. motion and this leads to compac-
sandy soil. tion of the soil. The Mytilus is
2.2.2. Resulting special equipment designed to penetrate and com-
Later on, the bottom has to be very (fig. 16-20) pact fayers of max. 15 m thickness
evenly dredged by a special process To construct the foundation, as ex- to a depth of 35 m. If necessary,
(dustpan dredging) to its exact re- plained above, several pieces of the needies can be extended, and
quired depth, according to the height equipment are used of which the a depth of 42 m can be reached.
of the pier, and the sand should be most important had to be especially 3. After compaction, the bottom has
covered at the same time by a foun- built. to be dredged to an exact ievel at
dation mattress which has a doublé 1. For the dredging and filling opera- one haul over a width of 46 m and
function: tions use was made of an existing a length of 200 m; simultaneously
a. to protect the sand bottom from dredger, and existing hopper a filter foundation mattress has to
erosion and to maintain the even barges. The dredger, of the cutter be laid. For this complicated task
surface obtained by dredging; suction type, was modified and a special barge was developed:
b. to form a cover which would keep provided with a 10 m wlde the Cardium.
the sand particles of the original 'dustpan' suction mouth. Ex- The Cardium has multiple functions
Eastern Scheldt bottom in place perience with this dredger was us- and is the most complicated item
even if they would be subjected, ed while designing the super floating in the Eastern Scheldt. If the
during a superstorm, to the rapid dustpan dredger for laying the Ostrea is considered to be the flag-

33
17
Mattress laying barge Cardium
18
Isometric view of Cardium and com-
ponents

ship, the Cardium should be con-

sidered the master piece.The func-
tions of the Cardium are:
a. Dredging the Eastern Scheldt bot-
torn at an exact elevation, over a
width of 46 m in one haul of 200
m, with criterias for flatness not
set before in the dredging in-
dustry. The material to be dredged
is the compacted sand and its pro-
tection layer of marine gravel or
coarse gravel (30-60 mm) or sand
deposits accumulated since the
trench had been dredged. A variety
of materials therefore to be ex-
pected at the same time but at dif-
ferent places over the width of the
dustpan dredger.
b. Laying the 42 m wide, 200 m long,
foundation mattress, This has to
be done simultaneously with
dredging the last 1,50 m sand so
as to prevent the tidal current from
disturbing the evenly dredged sur-
face.
Basically it is this combined
operation of dredging and laying
the mattress, which determines
whether or not the concrete piers
can be installed within the given
tolerances.
For laying the mattress, the back
end of the Cardium is fitted out to
receive the floating cylinder, load-
ed with the mattress, and unroll it
in a controlled operation. As a
matter of fact, at the rear end, the
Cardium is a complete different
ship compared to the front end.
c. On the top of the lower mattress,
the smaller gravel-filled top INSPECTION VEHICLE
matress has to be laid. As far as "ASTËRIAS"

mattress laying is concerned, this

is nearly an identical operation. laying the lower mattress, has to ing bottom. The Cardium is
However, the dredging part has by be turned by approx. 30°. Actually, therefore equipped with a
then a complete different function: the dredging part of the Cardium 'compaction-beam' of 18 x 4 m.
to remove by vertical suction all consists of two dredgers combi- e. In order to inspect whether sand
sand deposits on the lower mat- ned in one! remained on the lower mattress
tress. For vertical suction, the d, The mattresses once laid have to after cleaning up by vertical suc-
dustpan dredger, as used when be compacted against the underly- tion, an underwater vehicle is in-

34
19
Foundation filter mattress factory
20
Converted barge Jan Heijmans
21
Stone depositing barge

stalled on the Cardium, which

slides over the lower mattress be-
tween the ladder and the top mat-
tress which is being laid.
4. To prefabricate the foundation
mattress, a complete factory had
to be built; a very unusual installa-
tion in the civil engineering in-
dustry. Knowing that the problems
wouid be ninnerous, a strong
engineering team was set up from
the start, consisting of members
of Rijkswaterstaat, Dosbouw,
Tebodin as consultant, and sup-
pliers of key-parts of the factory,
selected at a very early stage. In
front of the factory a floating
cylinder can be moored to store
the mattress and transport it after
fabrication to the Cardium.
5. To seal the joint between two mat-
tresses, the existing asphalt laying
barge Jan Heijmans was con-
verted into a gravel depositing
barge. Gravei and stones of
selected sizes can be deposited
very accurately by means of a lad-
der and special distribution
devices. Prior to this, sand
deposits can be removed by jet-
ting. The Jan Heijmans works in
close cooperation with the Car-
dium.

2.3. Underwater sill and

superstructure (ftg. 21-22)
2.3.1. The piers will be embedded in
an underwater sill of selected quarry
stones graduaily becoming larger and
larger. The toplayer at the Eastern
Scheldt side consists of stones of
6-10 tons, so as to make this sill
resistant to currents even when a
gate fails to go down. To place these
stones close to the then relatively
iight and vulnerable concrete piers, a
special stone depositing barge has
been developed.
2.3.2. To install the prefabricated
beams between and on the piers and

35
22 to install the gates, a 2000 tons at the other side with a central well
2000 tons floating crane Taklift IV floating crane was built. Although from which a 70 ton diving bed can
tailor-made for this work, it can be be lowered, designed to work down to
and is used for other jobs as well. a depth of 200 m.

2,4. Investlgation and inspection From the bell, soundings and density
equipment (tig. 23-24) measurements can be made under at-
The equipment mentioned earlier has mospheric conditions, which is of
to be very reliable, so that one can re- great advantage. For borlngs, the div-
ly on it performing its task properly. ing bell has to be open at the under-
Nevertheless, to make sure that the side and a hydrostatic counter
results aimed at are indeed achieved, pressure is needed; divers have to
several special investigation and in- work in the bell in saturated diving
spection devices had to be built. conditions, and the Johan V is
2.4.1. First of all it was necessary to therefore equipped with a
perform soil investigations before decompression-chamber. Operating
and after improving the sandy bot- costs and time for soil investigations
torn. This led to the design of a were strongly reduced by the use of
geophysical survey pontoon Johan V, the diving bell.
equipped at one side with a conven- 2.4.2. Besides, the soil improvement,
tional drillmg and sounding rig, and the laid mattresses, their joints, and

23
Geophisical survey pontoon Johan V

36
24
Remote operated bottom crawler Por-
tunus with mother-ship Wijker Rib

the installed piers have to be check-

ed for possible damage.
A remote operated bottom crawler
(ROB), the 'Portunus', has for that
purpose been developed and built. It
is assisted by the 'Wijker Rib', a con-
verted surveying-ship. The Portunus
is equipped with a variety of sensors SUPPORT VESSEL WIJKER RIB
like sand detectors, camera's (photo
and T.V.) and side looking- and
obstacle avoiding sonars. It is the
result of a worldwide investigation of
availabie systems.

2.5. Electronics
Modern equipment is unthinkabfe
without electronics. Starting from a
very sophisticated system for posi-
tioning, electronics at the Eastern SEABËD CRAWLER "PORTUMUS"
Scheidt works are named 'survey'. LENOTH
WIPTH
,6OOm
4 Dom
But this name is erratic because it'in- WEIGHTtDRYl 6STONNES
V/BIGHTiSUSMERGEDï SOiONNES
cludes much more:
— the latest developments on con-
tinuous automatic positloning with
an accuracy of 5 cm at 2 km from
the coast; prefabricated storm surge barrier. Is 4. Conclusion
— newly developed sounding techni- this price too high? It can be stated without exaggeration
ques for positioning under water, Earlier studies always indicated that that the storm surge barrier is one of
bottom flatness measurements, work on the site, that is to say in the the best examples of any projects
and sand detection of layers of tidal channels of the Eastern Scheldt, with special equipment as a result
less than a few cm thickness; would be costly, apart from being from integrating design and construc-
— the use of rate-gyros and ac- dangerous. Time does not permit to tion. However, as explained in the in-
celereometers make a complete evaluation between troduction, it is not the first and eer-
— computer systems on board for the prefabrication idea and building tainly will not be the last. As long as
real time reading, checking, pro- the storm surge barrier in situ. In that technology is developing, design and
cessing, presentation, registration, case a doublé final design would equipment will go hand in hand, the
storage and selection of informa- have to be made. Based on the earlier one sometimes leading the other.
tion from hundreds of sensors. conceptual studies, however, one can Sometimes the equipment appears to
safely state that the seemingly ex- become too specialized in order to be
In addition to what is calied survey, a cessive amount, paid for equipment used elsewhere and one has to con-
semi automatic hauüng system Is in- that might be useless after its job sider the potential use of the special
stalled on the Cardium. This system has been completed, is justified. know-how and the experience gained.
will permit the Cardium, on tts anchor However, the question of resale and This is generally calied the 'spin-off
lines, to be hauled nearly re-use of this equipment remains and, undoubtedly, the Eastern
automaticaliy over a distance of 200 open. Avoiding lengthly discussions Scheldt works will certainly have
m within an accuracy of pius or between the government as principal such spin-offs.
minus 50 cm, while dredging and lay- and the contractor, it was decided
ing a mattress at the same time. Ac- that the very special and costly new Finally it is worthwhile to pay atten-
cording to insiders, the problems to equipment would be government own- tlon to the human effort behind the
be solved were of a higher dlmension ed. Therefore no major obstruction Eastern Scheldt works. It is only by a
as compared to the most existed to having the equipment nearly total dedication of government
sophisticated DP-system used in the availabie at the right time. and companysemployees, that
deep sea offshore industry. In case design, working methods and equip-
this system were to fail, a somewhat At the end of the work, the contractor ment could evolve simultaneously.
simpllfied back-up system will be has the opportunity to buy the equip- Early preparatlon, world-wide
availabie. ment; if not, it will be sold to third research for techniques, experience
parties. Whatever the outcome may and trials, innovation without
3. Commercial aspects be: it will be an advantageous solu- disregarding the exlsting 'state of the
In total approx. 400 million Dutch tion for the Eastern Scheldt project, art', were their tools. And one may be
gullders were invested in special because prefabrication has already confident that this will result in a
equipment for building the paid itself. solidly built storm surge barrier.

37
25
Combined activities at Eastern
Scheldt storm surge banier

38
Stone
depositing
barge

39
Ben C.Gerwick, Jr.
Professor of Civil Engineering, The Eastern Scheldt barrier in the
University of Caüfornia, Berkely
family of ever-growing use of
prestressed concrete for offshore
applications

Concrete in the sea growth that has been dominated by

The Eastern Scheldt storm surge bar- the great structures in the North Sea;
rier marks the culmination of a long the Andoc, the Sea Tanks, the Con-
history of the use of concrete in the deeps, and the Doris offshore oil drill-
sea. From the pozzolanic concrete of ing, production, and storage plat-
the Roman bridge piers and port con- forms.
struction to the Eddystone Activity and development continued
lighthouse, almost two millenia were elsewhere during this decade,
required. Sn the last two centuries, a augmenting the reservoir of ex-
revolutionary growth has taken place perience in coastai and offshore con-
in construction on the sea and con- struction. A large offshore coal
crete has played a leading role in loading terminal was constructed in
meeting the challenge. Major Queensland, Australia, proving the
milestones in this era have been the practicability of founding caissons in
concrete antisubmarine net support an area of weak seafloor soils, by the
structures and the concrete ships of conceptually simple but technically
World War I, the concrete lighthouses and practically difficult task of foun-
1a in the Baltic, and the breakwater ar- dation improvement. In this particular
Ekofisk offshore oil storage caisson mor units such as Tetrapod and case, the soft clay overlying
Dolosse. It remained, however, for the sediments were dredged and replac-
advent of prestressing to enable a ra- ed by a crushed rock base on which
tional and effective design of major the caissons were then founded.
structures, so that endurance could In Japan, a great national project of
be assured against fatigue under the similar scope to that of the Delta
mlllions of cycles of wave action that Plan was initiated during the decade
the structure wil) experience during of the 1970's. This was the unifica-
its service life. tion of Honshu and Shikoku by
The Ekofisk Oil Storage Caisson means of three great bridges cross-
ushered in a decade of explosive ing the Island Sea. Major research

1b
Andoc, a platform under tow to a
deep building site

40
 lift -
was carried out on large scale under- many countries, based largely on the
water concreting and specialized pioneering developments and techni-
equipment was built to meet the ques originated in Denmark and The
demands of this unprecedented con- Netherlands.
struction. It is both fitting and significant that
In the North Sea, the Statfjord A and the successfull contractor for one of
B platforms have been installed and the modern world's greatest bridges,
the Statfjord C platform construction the Saudi Arabia-Bahrain bridges and
is underway. The use of prestressed causeways, is a consortium led by
concrete has been extended to ar- Dutch enterprises, demonstrating the
ticulated singie point moorings: a fur- successful export of Dutch marine
ther extension of the application of concrete technology to a remote and
prestressed concrete to highly environmentally difficult part of the
dynamic structures. world.
Meanwhile, a highly significant Amidst this great activity, the Eastern
pioneering venture has succeeded in Scheldt storm surge barrier stands
constructing the Tarsiut caisson- out as a quantum leap forward in the
2a retained island in the Beaufort Sea. technology for utilization of concrete
Offshore coai loading terminal; Prestressed lightweight concrete in the sea. The scale of the project,
Queensland, Australia caissons have been seated on an the interactive considerations of en-
underwater embankment of dredged vironmental and the functional objec-
sand and gravel. The island must tives in the conceptual development,
resist not only the open sea waves the design life of 200 years, the con-
but the Arctic sea ice which builds straints imposed during construction
rubble piles of ice to a height of 12 by the exposure to currents and
metres. It is notable that Dutch waves, the complexities of having to
engineers have been heavily involved found the structure in loosely con-
in many aspects of this project. solidated sands and silts, and the
close tolerances imposed by
Concrete caissons have now been in- operating requirements: all these
stalled for offshore breakwafers and combine to make this a truly
platforms at Tomokomai, Japan; Bur- memorable undertaking. They have
nie, Tasmania, Australia; offshore in demanded nothing less than a full
Brazil, Canada, South Africa, 'systems-approach' to the entire pro-
Algeria, France, Libya, and the ject, one which has pushed forward
Mideast, and in the Gulf of Mexico. the state of art for large scale marine
A floating concrete container doek is projects.
under construction at Valdez, Alaska; The Eastern Scheldt project could not
a 62,000 ton displacement floating have been attempted, however,
LNG terminal has been in service without the full background of prior
now for five years in the Java Sea of developments in materials, structural,
2b Indonesia, a floating prestressed con- geotechnical, hydraulic, mechanical,
Concrete piers on caisson bases sup- crete phosphate processing plant and construction engineering and
port huge shiploader gantry was built in Singapore and is now technology. The heritage upon which
operating off the West Coast of Mex- this project drew includes not only
ico, and floating bridges are under prior concrete sea structures but
construction in the State of long-span bridges, and nuclear power
Washington, USA. plant vessels and containments. It
especiaily includes the research that
Underwater tunnels of prestressed has been undertaken in many
concrete have been constructed in laboratories around the world;

3a
Beryl, a platform under construction
3b
Statfjord, a platform under tow to site

41
Arco Arjuna, LPG floatlng terminal,
Java Sea

research in which Delft University has barge Mytilus, the underwater trimm-
figured prominently. It includes such ing and protective mattress laying
aspects as shear and multi-axiat vessel Cardium and the caisson-
prestress, in prestressed concrete, setting vessel Ostrea are not only
advanced anylytical and computa- major technological achievements in
tional techniques, dynamic soil- themselves but essential components
structure and wave-structure interac- in an overall construction program.
tion, and underwater consolidation of While the Eastern Scheldt storm
soils. surge barrier represents a culmina-
This project has also drawn heavily tion of a long history of development,
upon the long experience gained in it can also be considered as the pro-
The Netherlands in dredging, em- genitor of great projects for the
bankments, and anti-scour protection future.
and on the other great projects of the Some of these are even now in the
Delta Plan. planning stage. Offshore Eastern
Canada, studies are being carried out
Materials Technology for concrete caissons massive
A notable aspect of this project is the enough to withstand the impact of
very extensive research carried out in huge icebergs. A major consideration
relation to the materials utilized and has been that of local concentrated
their application. This was entirely impact loads from the ice, (punching
appropriate to the very large quan- shear), for which extensive use is be-
tities of concrete and steel involved, ing made of research carried out at
each 5 times that of the largest North Delft.
Sea platform so far constructed. It Further north and to the west, the
was also appropriate to the severe arctic is becoming a focus for exten-
environmental conditions and the sive development in order to produce
long term service performance re- the apparent large oil reserves there.
quired. The environment is unprecedently
Of particular interest to the prestress- harsh for man yet at the same time,
ing fraternity is the detailed evalua- highly sensitive to man's impact.
tion that was made of the various Similarly to the case of the Eastern
available prestressing systems, which Scheldt Barrier, the objectives of
led to the selection of four different resource development and en-
systems, each judged most suitable vironmental protection must be meld-
to its particular application. ed. Prestressed concrete structures
in a variety of forms, both fixed and
Construction Methods fioating, appear to have a major role
The extremely exposed conditions at to play in the Bering, Beaufort, and
the site have demanded the selection Chokchi Seas. Also as in the Eastern
of construction procedures which can Scheldt, structure-foundation interac-
be carried out expeditiously and ac- tion looms as a critical consideration.
curately during the available periods
of minima currents and waves, FuJI The recent USA sponsored studies
recognition has been given to con- for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
structability as a major factor in the were based on large concrete hulls. It
selection of appropriate methods and is interesting to note that Dutch con-
equipment. sultants were engaged to make the
While this is in keeping with the constructability analyses for these
trend already developed on previous hulls and for the cold water pipes
offshore concrete structures, the which are to be suspended beneath
Eastern Scheldt project has gone far them. Although the project is in a
beyond past practice in conceiving, holding stage now due to economie
Exxon fioating concrete spar for designing, and building specialized considerations, these reports and cur-
Arctic equipment. The deep compaction rent review studies wil! undoubtedly

42
form a sound basis for other large- 3. The role of micro-cracking in cor- red already on this great project and
scale ocean developments. roslon and, If confirmed, means of vulII continue on future projects.
The Storebaelt (Great Belt) Bridge in minimizing micro-cracking Society demands to be informed and
Denmark was under design concur- 4. Composlte construction using involved. Therefore we must com-
rently wlth the Eastern Scheldt bar- steel or other fibres. Sandwich municate more widely and more ef-
rier and very similar conceptual construction of steel plate and fectlvely with Society. You, the
techniques were selected. Although concrete, using, for example, weld- organizers of this symposium are do-
that project also has been indefinitely ed studs for shear connectors. ing this magnificently, but we need to
delayed, should it be revived, the ex- 5. Prestressed concrete under cyclic intensify and extend this to the peo-
perience gained here wid be in- shear while exposed to cryogenic ple in our own countries, so as to
valuable to the constructors. temperatures, in order to further rebuild their confidence that we can
qualify concrete for maritime and will build with safety for them
Extensive studies continue for the transport of LNG. and their environment.
development of prestressed concrete 6. Fatigue of steel in cracked con-
vessels for storage and transport of crete in the marine environment. This great storm surge barrier
LNG. The intensive research at Delft, 7. Developing means for effective climaxes the eplc struggle of the
augmented by successful experience monitoring of in-service perfor- Netherlands against the North Sea
in dry-land installations, by marine- mance of prestressed concrete and marks the completion of the
oriented research at our University of and its components. Improvement Delta Plan. 'The proud waves have in-
California, and by studies for off- of methodology for reduction of deed been stayed and the sea girded
shore LNG terminals in California, data, interpretation, evaluation with a rigid zone.' In a larger sense,
the Arabian Gulf, and the Canadian and dissemination of results. this great achievement will take its
Arctic Islands, are all serving to move 8. Large scate tests of prestressed place in history as a symbol of man's
thls concept towards ultimate realiza- concrete Shell elements under con- continuing struggle against the seas
tion. centrated loadings. This could ex- everywhere, not just a struggle for
What lies beyond? Precast concrete tend the work prevtously done at survival but a bold reach outward to
tidal barriers for power generation in Delft to address the use of headed challenge the seas and realize their
Southwestern England, Eastern stirrups, and prestressed stirrups promise for the benifit of mankind.
Canada, and the USSR? Precast con- in thlck-walled shells.
crete tunnel segments for a trench-
type crossing of the Engllsh Chan- International Activlty
nel? Submerged floating tunnels The explosive development of con-
across deep fjords and channels in crete in the seas has been fostered
Norway, Greece, and Italy? Prestress- to a great extent by the world-wide
ed concrete floating semi- acquisltion of information and data,
submersible production plants for and its dissemination through such
crude oil production in deep water organizations as FIP. Indeed FIP's
and for LNG liquefaction? Bridge early recognition of the potential role
piers in deep water, subjected to high for prestressed concrete in the
currents and waves and possibly Oceans led to its promulgatlon of the
even ice? Floating power plants, in- first Recommended Practice and to
dustrial facilities, and waste disposal its support of concrete platforms for
plants, moored offshore our large the North Sea. lts commisions con-
clties, in order to minimize hazards, tinue active In many areas having
minimize poltution, and utilize the both direct and indirect implications
abundant cooling water? for maritime utilization. It is indeed
These and other dreams abound, be- gratifying to recognize the leadership
ing carried closer to reality by the ad- roles played by Dutch engineers in
vances in prestressed concrete in the FIP Commissions on Concrete
marine applications. Sea Structures and on Steels for
Prestressing as well as important
Research Needs contributions in other commissions.
If theVomise of the future FIP also serves to disseminate infor-
widespread development of the seas mation on such great projects as this
through the use of concrete is to be Eastern Scheldt Barrier to the rest of
fulfilled, then research must be not the world, both the deveioped coun-
oniy continued but be intensified. tries and the developing nations. This
Among the many areas with high is an important and constructive role.
need or potential are the followlng: However, it seems perhaps not to be
1. Investigation of failure modes enough. As the world and its peoples
under accident or overlctad. Ways become increasingly Inter-related and
to improve ductility and energy ab- dependent on each other, govern-
sorption so as to prevent sudden ments and organizations and in-
failure and progressive collapse. dividuals increasingly question our
2. Triaxial prestress as a means of engineering decisions and demand to
enhancing ultimate strain and partlcipate In the formulation of pro-
stress capacities. grams and concepts. This has occur-

43
J.K.Vrijiing
Delta Division, Rijkswaterstaat Design of concrete structures
Probability design method

f
1. Introduction
ftSTRONOMICAL
Probabilistic methods were introduo TIDE
WINDFIELDS

ed in the design of the storm surge

barrier for two reasons. After the 4
storm flood disaster of February 1st, NORTH SEA

1953, The Netherlands Delta Commit- WIND-

WAVE-
tee stipulated that primary sea- k
SETUP
GENERATION
DEEP WATER
retaintng structures had to provide
full protection against storm surge
levels with an excess frequency of 2.5
t_
r- 11 \
., L...__J ._

x 10~4 time per year. In the case of BASIN LEVEL STORM LOC AL
SHOALS
conventional defences, such as AFTERCLOSING SURGE LEVEL WINDFIELDS
dikes, an extreme water level may be EASTERN SCHELDT
used as a design criterion, because
overtopping is considered to be the 1r
most important threat to dikes. In the WAVES LOCAL WAVE
BARBIER
prellmlnary design stage of the E. SCHELDT GENERATION
Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier a L. ..
design storm surge level was chosen
in accordance with the report of the 1 calculations safety factors were
Delta Committee, This surge level A schematic diagram of the physical derived to guide the daily design ac-
was combined with a maximum ex- relations used for the derivation of tivities that were conducted along
trapolated single wave and a low the three dimensional probability semi-probabilistic lines {level I).
estimate of the inside water level to function of the storm surge level, To assess the safety of the barrier as
determine the hydraulic load (deter- wave energy and basin ievei a sea defence system, a risk analysis
minlstic approach). In fact this ap- is performed using the fault tree
proach is unsuitable for a storm technique. In this analysis attention
surge barrier. The structure consists derived by integrating the multidimen- is given not only to the probability of
of concrete piers, steel gates, a sill, a sional probability density function of failure of the structural components
bed protection and a foundation. wave spectra, storm surge levels and bul also to the consequences of mis-
These components have to be design- basin levels using the transfer func- management.
ed on the basis of load combinations, tion of the structure. For quasi pro-
which will provide the most babilistic design calculations the 2. The hydraulic boundary conditions
dangerous threat to the structural threat or load with a probability of ex- The probabilistic load calculation,
stability. ceeding of 2.5 x 10~4 per annum was that was deemed necessary to bridge
Secondly, the various components of chosen as a criterion following the the gap between the Delta design
the barrier were designed according advfse of the Delta Committee. criterion for dikes and the questions
to prlnciples and rules prevailing in To ensure consistent safety arising from the design of a com-
the fields of concrete, steel, coastal throughout the structure, pro- piicated barrier requires knowledge of
engineering and soilmechanics. As babilistic analyses taking into ac- the three-dimensional probability den-
the rules and principles differ con- count the stochastic character of the sity function of storm surge level,
siderably between the abovemention- loads and the structural resistance basin level and wave energy. Basical-
ed disciplines, a consistent approach are performed for the main com- ly there are two ways of extrapolating
to the structural safety of the barrier ponents. Using the advanced first- the measured data of these
was not guaranteed. order second moment approach {level parameters and their correlations into
II) the main sections of the concrete the regions of low probability of oc-
The first probiem is solved with a pro- components, the steel gate, the sill, currence where measured data are
babilistic approach classified as level and the foundation are designed to not availabie:
III, by JCSS standards. The probabili- fullfill the failure criterion of 10- 7 per 1. a purely statistical extrapolation;
ty density function of the load is annum. From these probabilistic 2. a statistical extrapolation sup-

44
 plemented by mathematical developed based on the fact that a fluenced by the processes of break-
models based on physical laws storm surge is formed by a random ing, bottom dissipation and refraction
and checked with measured data. combination of wind set up and by depth and current. The remaining
A combination of these methods has astronomical tide. From this model wave energy reaching the barrier
been used in finding the probabllity the conditional probability density depends on the storm surge level. In
density function of the storm surge function of the basin level (condi- addltlon, waves are generated by
level and the conditional probability tional on storm surge level) could be local windfields, showing a loose
density functions of wave energy and derived for different closing relation to the general storm intensi-
basin level, from which the three- strategies (figure 2). The basin level ty. The model, which incorporates all
dimensional probability function is was found to be virtually statistically these effects is tested in a hlndcast
derived. A schematic diagram for the independent of the wave energy. It of several storms. Being in good
development of this three- appeared from wave data that a loose agreement, the model is used in ex-
dimensional function has been given correlation exists between the storm trapolatlng the conditional twodlmen-
in figure 1. surge level and the energy of the sional probability density of storm
The probability density function of wave spectrum. Lack of data, surge level and wave energy (figure
the storm surge level is based on 68 however, prevented a reliable ex- 3).
years of historical data; extremes are trapolation of this two-dimensional
predicted by statistical extrapolation. probability function by purely The required three-dimensional pro-
The knowledge of the physical laws statistical methods. Therefore a bability density function of storm
governing this phenomenon has been mathematical model has been surge level, wave energy and basin
used to see whether predicted ex- developed. It Is based on the level is derived as the product of the
tremed could be reached. hypothesis that the typical doublé probability density functions referred
The conditional probability density peaked form of the wave spectrum is to above. It has been used as an in-
function of the basin level depends at caused by the fact that the wave put in the calculations of the pro-
least partly on the closing strategy energy originates from two sources. bability distribution of the
governing the barrier during storm Waves, entering the estuary from hydrodynamlc load on the storm
surges. A simple model was deep water via the shoals are in- surge barrier.

3. The probabilistic load determlnation

The basic parameters in the determination of the hydraulic load at the storm
surge barrier are:
— maximum storm surge level at sea zm;
— wave energy spectrum S^;
— basin level at the Eastern Scheldt b.
The joint probability density function of these parameters /2m, b , fjzm . D > si)),
derived in the previous paragraph has been used as an input for the calculation
of the probability distribution of the hydrauiic load on the storm surge barrier.
To transfer the hydraulic parameters into the hydraulic loads, the static loads,
and the wave loads, acting on the structure have to be written as functions of
The tv/o dimensional probability den- the respective parameters:
sity function of maximum storm Static loadS = 6 (zm, b, geometry) (1)
surge level and low water level at Wave load spectrum Sw = H (zm, S n , geometry) (2)
closing In the case of the static load this function can be easily determined from the
hydrostatic pressure distribution on both sides of the barrier and a potential
flow pattern in the sill around the base of the piers.
8.50 Z m (m| For the calculation of the wave loads a llnear wave theory was adopted. The
wave load is found by integrating the wave pressure distribution for waves
7.50 partially reflected against a vertical wall over the height.
W(t) = ƒ p (x, z, t) óz
6.50 Itelght

where p (x, z, f) = oga + a2 + 2acosfrx ' sin (wt + <t>)

5.50
for 0 < x < d
4.50
andp(x, z, t) = og\a - (z - cO + a 2 + 2acos/(X ' sin
3.50 for d < x ^ d + a
in which
2.50 k = wave number
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 60
a = reflection coëfficiënt
u = angular frequency
tlme
* = t 1 -
$ = phase shift = arctg j t j - tg /cx
The relation between the storm surge
level and the significant wave height; The maximum of the wave load W(t) must be divided by the Incoming wave
in the figure the conditional probabili- amplitude to flnd the transfer valtie for the considered wave period. Repeating
ty density function of Hs for a number this procudure for a number of wave periods the transfer function is establish-
of storm surge levels has been given ed.

45
 Now assuming linearity, the transfer function O(f) is used in the frequency do-
main to transfer the wave spectrum in the wave load spectrum.

SJf) = O*(f)Sn(f)
As the wave load spectrum is narrow the individuai wave load maxima follow
a Rayleigh distribution, The traditional parameters W8 (significant wave load)
and Tw (mean wave load period) can be obtained by the well-known relations.
Wa = V ^
' w —- -
T

The assumption of linearity and the application of the spectral analysis have
been extensively investigated in the facilities of the Delft Hydraulic Laborato-
ry. Numerous tests with reguiar and irregular wave paüerns were performed to
prove the validity of the method described. Summarizing, we can conclude
that the model tests support the mathematical models. Consequently the mo-
del for the static load and the model for the wave load have been used in the
probabilistic calculation.
The result of the previous paragraph was the three-dimensional probability
density function of the boundary conditions.
This density function is transformed into the two-dimensional probability den-
sity function of static load and significant wave load, using
f*sJK,S) = f0 1 / ï i b i 8 „ ( * , * , ST,) dz
0
6Sr, 6b
Secondly, it is now possible to transfer f WgS (Wa,S) in a joint p.d.f. of the
static load and the wave load peaks IV, as follows:

'w.a(W.S> =

in which Pn represents a probability distribution which depends on the limit

state considered. In the following, three kinds of limit states are discussed.
1. In cases, where all wave load peaks are in principle important, the Rayleigh
distribution will be used
PM= Pr(W>W\Ws) = exp { - 2 {•$-)}
In case of the storm surge barrier this distribution has been used for the in-
creasing deformations of the subsoil.
2. If, however a model is considered in which a one-off exceeding of the load
leads to a collapse, than the probability distribution of the wave loads
which are exceeded at least once has to be used. Starting from N indepen-
dent wave load peaks within the duration of a sea state, according to the
Binomial distribution, the probability that none of the wave load peaks wil!
exceed a leve! W, equals { 1 - P, (W > W I Wa)} N
The probability Prz that W is exceeded at least once, equals
Pr2 = 1 - { 1 - Pr(W>W\ws)} N
In case of the storm surge barrier this probability distribution has been
used in the structural design of the pier, the beams, and the gate.
3. Finally, we can also look at another model, where collapse only occurs
when a load level is exceeded several times (e.g. in case of failure of an
element of the barrier due to fatigue). Based on the Binomial distribution
we find for the probability Prz that a load peak exceeds a given level W at
least m times, out of N.
h = m- 1 w/ /

To arrive at a probability distribution of a total load T for a specific limit state,

based on the joint p.d.f. of the wave load peaks and the static load, it has to
be known in which ratio the wave load and the static load contribute to this li-
mit state.
In general this can be defined as follows:

Now the probability of a specified total load Pr {T>T } being exceeded, can be
determined per limit state by Integrating the bi-dimensional probability density
function / w s (W, S) over the area for which

46
 pS +yW>T
Pr(T>T)= J fw, s(W, S) d Wds (tig, 4.)
pS +yW>T

The result of this integration is the probabllity of the total load T actlng on a
pier being exceeded. This probability distribution is well approximated by an
extreme value distribution (fig. 5).
In comparison to the deterministic approach, the probabilistic approach
S IkNI ,
resulted in a more realistic design load which was approximately 40% lower,
4 as shown In table 1.
Catculation of the probability of ex-
ceedance of the total load T

deterministic probabilistic
approach approach

storm surgel level AOD + 5.50 m

wave spectrum H = 10 m
%<S n z m )
f = 12 s
basin level AOD - 1.70 m
total horizontal force T = 173,000 kN Pr(T>117,000) = 2.5-10""

Table 1 and the difficulties encountered in

Probability of the exceedance line for the design called for a special
the total load on pier R 17 assessment of the appropriate safety
factors in the various fields of
4. Probabilistic design procedures the concept 'characteristic value' has engineering. The first guesses regar-
Probabilistic methods were introduc- been introduced in the structurat ding the values of the safety factors
ed in the design of the storm surge design. The safety margin had to be were made on the basis of ex-
barrier for two reasons. First, the specified in a format of partial safety perience and engineering judgement.
design rules for dikes formulated by factors according to the |SO standard This approach however did not lead
the Delta Committee had to be 2394, Although the Dutch building to a consistent approach as the
transformed into a set of a com- codes prescribe design safety factors building codes prescribed a higher
plicated structure. Secondly, a con- for concrete and steel, no formal safety factor for the concrete struc-
sistent approach to the structural gulde lines exist for foundation- and ture tfian the specialists advised for
safety of the barrier did not seem to coastal engineering. the foundation of the piers. Moreover
be guaranteed if the component such The lack of rutes mentioned above in coastal engineering the use of
as the foundation, the concrete pier,
the sill, and the gates, were designed
according to the rules and principles
prevailing in the various fields.

The first problem is soived by using

the result of the previous paragraph.
In compliance wlth the Delta Commit-
tee, the total load with a probability
of exceedance of 2.5.10~4 p.a. was

nrmffi
chosen as a design load.
The 'daily' design activitles were
guided by a quasi-probabilistic
design method. The basis of the
quasi probabilistic design method is
that the parameters used in the struc-
tural design are not specified con- Section A-A
stants, but stochastic variables,
whose exact magnitude is not known
with certainty at the design stage and
in case of the hydraulic parameters,
not even after construction. Because
the use of these stochastic elements Soilpressure in N/mm
is not practical for the norma! design
activities due to the lack of
statistical information and of com- The cross-section subjected to pro-
puter programs for mass-production, babilistic calculations

47
safety factors is unknown, which led Table 2 expectation Standard type of % of
to designs that fail under the 2.5.10-4 deviation p.d.f. total
p.a. design load. variance
To improve this state of affairs a
search was startecf for objective MD moment due to dead load
0.3500 E + 1 0.300 E + 0 normal 70.6
methods to ensure consistent safety and post-tensioning
throughout the whole barrier system. 'P yield strength tensioning 0.1835 E + 4 0.400 E + 2 normal 0.9
A simple approach that met the stan- steel
dards of objectivity was found in the E
> Young's modulus 0.2050 E + 6 0.500 E + 4 normal 0.0
modern first order second moment tensioning steel
probabilistic calculations (Level II). f, yield strength mild steel 0.5000 E + 3 0.500 E + 2 normal 0.1
Young's modulus mild
0.2100 E + 6 0.500 E + 4 normal 0.8
The availability of the theoretically steel
correct p.d.f. of the loading facilitated A error in dimensions 0.1000 E -f 1 0.500 E - 2 normal 10.7
the application of the Level II VG degree of post-tensioning 0.1060 E + 4 0.250 E + 2 normal 4.2
methods. The problem of the V error in tensioning steel
0.100 E + 1 0.100 E - 1 normal 1.6
specification of safety factors for the area
different parts of the structure was B error in concrete
0.1000 E + 1 0.200 E - 1 normal 0.4
now transformed into the more dimensions
>='P compression strenth of
general problem of formulating a 0.2000 E + 2 0.300 E + 1 log-normal 10.1
single failure criterion, valid for all concrete
parts; concrete pier, steel gate, as gwave load and static
0.1400 E + 4 0.105 E + 3 special 0.7
well as foundation, and sill. The load
failure criterion that had to be fulfill-
ed, was tentatively established at B=- ^ s 6.0
10- 7 per annum on the basis of the Pta,lL,r/= 8.7 E - 10
following simple reasoning. The
fatality statistics point out that the
average probability of death caused
by a fata! accident is 10- 4 p.a. On the Md = the moment caused by the in the design of the foundation. There
other hand, previous experience has dead weight of the pier and by post- the choice of the safety factors was
shown that a failure of the sea tensioning. based on probabilistic calculations
defence system may cost 103 Z<0 failure of the section. as reported elsewhere (3). Also the
casualties. So only if the probability design of the sill and the transitionai
of failure of the system is less than Now the strenght Mult and the loading structure (4) between the first pier and
or equal to 10- 7 per annum, a normal M w s + Mü have to be written as the shore were Intensively influenced
safety level can be guaranteed. functlons of the basic variables by probabilistic methods. In fact the
The failure criterion provided the star- whose p.d.f.'s are known. The loading application of safety factors was in-
ting point for the probabiiistic side of the problem has been treated troduced in coastal engineering as a
calculations according to the advanc- in the previous paragraph and the result of the studies performed in this
ed first-order second moment result, i.e. the p.d.f. of the total load field.
method, which were consequently is accepted here.
performed for all major parts of the The Mult-function is given by a Stan- 5. The fault tree analysis
barrier. An advantage of the method dard computer program, that checks The simple reasoning of the previous
used is that the contribution of each a post-tensioned concrete cross- paragraph that produced a failure
basic variable to the probability of section. The completed picture of the criterion of 10- 7 p.a. was applied to
failure of the studied component is basic variables with their respective each component. However, the cor-
neatly specified. Thus the design and p.d.f.'s is given in tabte 2. The result rect approach is to assess the safety
research efforts could be spent on of the calculation is a p-value of 6.0 of the totai barrier as a sea defence
the variables that contribute most to and a probability of failure of 8.7 E-10 system. From this point of view the
the probability of failure. which is clearly acceptable. From the failure of a single component still
In the field of concrete design, the contributions of the basic variables plays a part depending on its relative
cross-section of the pier base was to the total variance of Z it appears importance, but also the possibilities
subjected to probabilistic calcula- that Mü is most likely to cause ot mis-management, fire and ship-
tions performed in co-operation with failure. Md contains the extreme post- collisions play their part.
TNO/I BBC. tensioning force, so to say, the force
that nearly destroys the structure. To analyse the relative importance of
The probabilistic model of the cross This level of post-tensioning was the various components In the total
section is very simple and expressed chosen to prevent steel corrosion system, a faulttree was constructed.
in the form of a reliabtlity function Z which was seen as the most The most unwanted consequence, the
Z = MM - M w , s ~ MÓ dangerous threat to the structural in- inundation of parts of Zeeland is
tegrity of the stucture. The corrosion placed at the top of the fault tree.
Where: problem in fact determined by the And the allowable probability of this
Mult = the ultlmate moment of the concrete dimensions and the level of catastrophic event occurring is 10~7
section; post-tensioning. p.a. according to the simple
W,W , S = the moment caused by the More interesting use of the first order philosophy. Next, the chain of in-
wave load and static load; second moment methods was made termediate events that leads from the

48
Main fault tree

fallure of a specific component to the

extreme event is analysed. DISCHARGE VIA
Besides the failure of components -DAMSECTION
-LEAKAOE
within the meaning of the prevrous - P I PING
-WAVE OVER
paragraph, the malfunctioning of the TOPPINO

hydraulic system in lowering the

gates and mismanagement were also
incorporated in the fault tree (fig. 7).
The first assessment of the safety of
the barrier by means of the fault tree
yielded unsatisfactory results. The
probability of failure was far too high
due to the likellhood of malfunction-
ing of the hydraulic system to lower
the gates. As a result a second in-
dependent hydraulic system was in-
stailed as a back-up. Further the
possibility of serious consequences
of mismanagement of the barrier (i,e.
neglecting to close it) were minimis- FA1LUSE OFBÊDPR0TKT10N.0THER
RËASONS THAN DISCHARGE VIA IFG
ed by providing a system that will
close the gates automatically, if the
storm surge exceeds a given extreme
level. Thus, by using the fault tree as
a tooi, the design of the barrier was
refined in every aspect while care
was also taken to achieve the
specified safety criterion of 10- 7 in
the most economical manner.

6. Conclusions
Probabilistic methods have greatly in-
fluenced the design of the Easterrt
Scheldt storm surge barrier.
It proved possible to establish the
joint probability density function of
the storm surge level, the basin level
and the wave energy, in the regions
of very low probability by a combina-
tion of physical models and
statistical methods. enables the designers to relate the babilistic Ioad determination1;
The probabilistic ioad determination probabilities of failure of the various Hydraulic aspects of coastal struc-
provided more realistlc loading com- components to the overall safety of tures, Delft University Press, 1980
binations which were 40% lower than the structure. Further aspects such 2. J.K.Vrijling, J.Bruinsma, 'Hydraulic
the deterministic values previously as the malfunctioning of the boundary conditions'; Hydraulic
used. hydraulic system, mismanagement or aspects of coastal structures,
The advanced first order second mo- a snip collision could be incor- Delft University Press, 1980
ment method has proved to be a porated. Design changes resulted 3. D.Kooman e.a., 'Probabilistic ap-
good tooi in providing consistency from this approach. proach to determine loads and
between the designs of the concrete Probabillstic methods were ex- safety factors'; Foundation
pier, the steel gate, the foundation perienced to be very useful in the aspects of coastal structures,
and the sill. The criterion was design of a fullscale structure such Deift 1978
specified as an allowable probability as the Eastem Scheldt storm surge 4. J.P.Schellekens, J.Wouters,
of failure for the overall structure. barrier. J.K.Vrijling, 'Transitional struc-
The safety of the total sea defence tures between barrier and dikes';
system was assessed by means of a Literature Hydraulic aspects of coastal struc-
fault tree analysis. This technique 1. Th. Mulder, J.K.Vrijling, 'Pro- tures, Delft University Press, 1980

49
H.van Schaik
Dosbouw, contractor
Design of concrete structures
Durability and corrosion

1. Introduction ad.b. Chloride penetration appears to cover

The lifetime of the flood barrier en- be the actual cause of depassivation
visaged is 200 years. This is quite a and corrosion of the reinforcing steel,
stringent requirement for a concrete in both cases oxygen and moisture
structure, especially in a aggressive are necessary for the actual corro-
sea water environment. There is lack sion process.
of experience with regard to such a
long period of time, while inspection 2.2. Corrosion initiated by chloride
and maintenance are virtually im- penetration (see fig. 1)
possible, because vital parts of the The following phases can be distin-
structure are under deep water ghuised in the corrosion process.
embedded in a 10 meter thick layer of Phase 1. Chloride penetration.
rubbie. Although there is lack of ex- In this phase chloride from water and
perience an attempt has been made air gradually penetrates the concrete PHASE 1
to predict the expected lifetime by in course of time. After some time Cl penetrotion
analysing the corrosion process. At the chloride reaches the reinforce-
the start of the design in 1976 the ment and finally after time 'To'
assumption was that corrosion of the reaches such a concentration (ap-
reinforcement and durability were proximate 0,5% Cl' on cement mass)
closely bound up with cracking in the that the corrosion process will start.
concrete. The design therefore aims The period 'To' depends on thickness
at achieving a structure that wil! be and properties of the concrete cover.
as crack-free as possible. The choice of the kind of cement is
very important. For blast furnace ce-
2. The corrosion process in time ment the chloride penetration is 5
2.1. Corrosion times as slow as for Portland cement.
Steel enbedded in dense concrete ob- Phase 2. In this phase the corrosion
tains its resistance to corrosion from of the reinforcement takes place
a passive surface layer, caused by when there is a sufficient offer of ox-
PHASE 2
the alkaline environment of the con- ygen. This corrosion process is coupl- corrosion remforcement
crete (pH 12,5). This alkaline, non- ed with an increase of volume, so
corrosive environment can be that finally the concrete cover is
transformed into a corrosive environ- pressed from the reinforcement, or
ment by several causes: iongitudinal cracks appear parallel to
the reinforcement.
a. carbonation of the concrete;
Phase 3. In this phase the cover has
b. influence of aggressive
been damaged in such a way that the
substances, among them chloride;
bare reinforcement freely corrodes
under the influence of wheather and
ad.a. Carbonation involves the in- wind or water. Now the corrosion pro-
teraction with the atmospheric CO2. cess takes place faster than in the
The pH of the surface zone of the preceeding phase, nameiy approx-
concrete becomes depressed to a imately 0,1 mm/year. Now, for out-
value below pH 9. However, in the siders a psychoiogical limit state will
structure in question, with a cover of have been reached, by which
7 cm concrete with a high quality, the maintenance will have to be carried PHASE 3
carbonation front will not reach the out. The resistance of the piers loss of cover (free corrosion)
reinfcrcing steel during the lifetime of however is so big that they will not
200 years. So there is no fear for fail, partly because of the bigger 1
depassivation of the steel due to car- cover on the prestressing cables. Phases in the corrosion due to
bonation. chlorides

50
 BASIC CORROSION
CL"*
Corrosion environments
SPEED DIFFUSSION DIFFUSSION
ZONE OFFER
{without cover) CONSTANT Db CONSTANT De
grams/cnr
cm/year cmZ/year cm 2 /year

splash zone 0,01 3j0xl0" 4 3000 0,2

<3px10" 4 >0,2
tidal zone 0,01 * 100
4
>0,13x10" <0,5

submerged zone 0,01 0,13x10"4 100 0,5

* the crrtical Cl" content is assumed to be 0J5V» CP/cementmass

2.3. Corrosion environments. 3. The lifetime of the flood barrier proceeds very slowly due to the low
In the c o r r o s i o n process, initiated by As mentioned in the introduction the offer of oxygen and a very low diffu-
chloride penetration three principally requtred lifetime is 200 years. sion speed of the oxygen. Only after
different corrosion e n v i r o n m e n t s can Because of lack of experience with more than 200 years loss of cover
be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , dependent on the regard to such a iong period of time, takes place.
offer of oxygen and c h l o r i d e (see there was a need to make a predic- Tidal zone
figure 2). tion of the durability. Theoretically it In the tidal zone chloride penetration
1. S p l a s h Zone. is possible to approach the corrosion probably proceeds somewhat faster
Here the offer of oxygen f r o m the air process arithmetically. For this pur- than in the splash zone. However,
is relativety h i g h . The d i f f u s i o n speed pose a study of literature with regard because the concrete is more
of o x y g e n is also high because the to durabiüty and corrosion reseach saturated with water, the diffusion
c o n c r e t e is not s a t u r a t e d w i t h water. was carried out (lit. 1). On the basis speed of the oxygen will be lower and
The d i f f u s i o n of c h l o r i d e is relatively of this study the required parameters also consequently the corrosion
low. such as diffusion constants for speed.
2. S u b m e r g e d zone. chloride and oxygen in concrete,
The offer of oxygen f r o m the w a t e r is critical chloride content, etc, were Conclusions regarding the corrosion
relatively low, w h i l e the d i f f u s i o n of determined. With these parameters process in time. In the design of the
o x y g e n t h r o u g h the c o n c r e t e an analysis of the corrosion process piers no difference has been made in
s a t u r a t e d w i t h water is m u c h lower in time was carried out. Because the the part of the piers which is situated
than t h r o u g h c o n c r e t e of a dryer con- results of short-term tests (10-50 year) under water and the part which is
s i s t e n c y . On the other h a n d t h e diffu- were used, the prediction of the situated above water. It appears from
sion of c h l o r i d e is relatively h i g h . lifetime should be seen only as an in- the corrosion process that the
3. Tidal zone. dication. The corrosion process as a submerged part has a much longer
Lastly t h e tidal zone c a n be mention- function of time is given In figure 3 lifetime — about 200 years — than
ed where a m i x i n g of t h e above- for three corrosion environments: the part above water. This is a good
mentioned circumstances takes splash zone; point because under water repair on
place. The d i f f u s i o n of o x y g e n w i l l be submerged zone; large scale is almost impossible.
lower t h a n in the s p l a s h z o n e if the tidal zone. Above water on the other hand the
c o n c r e t e is s a t u r a t e d w i t h water. necessity of repair of the cover after
The corrosion process has been divi- 80-100 years is not precluded and
ded into the three phases mentioned repair here is practicable. For the rest
above. it can be noted that, even when the
Phase 1: chloride penetration mild steel reinforcement has been
Phase 2: corrosion in the presence of lost, the barrier will have sufficient
the cover safety. The prestressing cables have
Phase 3: free corrosion after loss of got a larger concrete cover and
the cover. therefore they will be attacked by cor-
Splash zone rosion in a later phase. However loss
After about 80 years the chloride will of cover will be a phychological limit
reach the reinforcement in such a state for many people, in each case
concentration that the corrosion pro- for the administrator and
cess might start. In the splash zone maintenance will then be carried out.
there is a lot of oxygen so that the
corrosion process proceeds very 4. Design (lit. 2)
quickly. After a couple of years 4.1. General
already the cover spalls from the cor- At the beginning of the designstage
roding bar. in 1976 the assumption was that cor-
Submerged zone. rosion and thus durability depended
In this zone the relatively quick to a great extent on the cracking of
chloride penetration caused by the the concrete. Therefore the design
high offer of chloride is striking. After aims at achieving a structure that will
Corrosion process in time that however, the corrosion process be as crack-free as possible. Besides

51
Semi probabilistic design method
distribution functon
of loods ,0"
Pr(Q>Q!
probaölity density
function of
resstonce „R*

other reasons, this was an important due to the serviceability loads! Later
argument for choosing the prestress- will be come back to these special in-
ing method. At the same time a sur- fluences. Reinforcement is applied
face reinforcement is applied to ümit now, to limit the cracking due to
cracking, which cannot be avoided these special influences.
30
completely.
4.5. Cracking
20
4.2. Semi-probabilistic design method In the design the crack width has
The design is based on the semi- been limited to:
probabilistic method. Figure 4 shows < 0,4 mm for incidental cracks;
Z10 the principle thereof. The one curve < 0,3 mm for permanent cracks;
shows the probability density func- < 0,15 mm for cracks at the place of
I-JÜJ
tion of the strength 'R' of the the prestressing cables.
material. The other curve gives the
distribution function of the load 'Q'. 4.6. Special measures to limit crack-
The most important limit states on ing in the construction phase
which the design is based are: 4.6.1. Artificial cooiing of concrete.
Development of: — the serviceability limit state; During the hydration process a con-
— temperature 'T' — the ultimate limit state. siderable temperature rise occurs in
— modulus of elasticity 'E' The requirements which arise from the concrete, in thicker parts even up
the serviceability limit state are in to about 40 "C. A major part of this
general governing. From figure 4 it temperature rise takes place in a
can be seen that the probability of phase In which concrete has prac-
exceedance of the hydraulic loads ap- tically no stiffness, while cooiing
plied to the serviceability state is 102 takes place in a phase in which con-
per year! crete has almost full stiffness (see
figure 5). If now for instance a pier
4.3. Prestressing wall is poured on the pier slab, high
In the serviceability state under in- tensile stresses develop in the wall
fluence of dead load and hydraulic after cooiing, because the slab
loads the following requirements are prevents the free deformation of the
STRESS N/imrn 2
CROSS SECTION
WALL AND SLAB
TEMP 'C
appüed: wall. Figure 6a shows that these
OÜ < 0 stresses rise far above the tensile
6a p < 0,5 fy strength of concrete. For the piers
Stresses due to hydration in wall and c?b = bending tensile stress (con- these so-called hydration stresses
bottomslab (uncooledj crete) are limited to the level of the tensile
p = principal tensile stress (con- strength of the concrete obtained by
crete) artificiat cooiing of the concrete dur-
fy = design value of the tensile ing approximately 4 days. Cooiing is
strength of concrete. effected by a system of cooling-water
ducts in the concrete, connected with
4.4. Reinforcement cooiing units. The cooiing of the pier
It is an illusion to suppose that a wall is shown in figure 6b. At the
concrete structure will remain un- lower side of the wall the expected
cracked, if tensile stresses due to temperature rise is fully prevented by
CROSS SECTION
WALL AND SLAB
TEMP 'C STRESS N/mm2
serviceability loads are limited. cooiing, while at a height of 8 m
Special influences as the hydration there is no more cooiing. Between
6b process, shrinkage and differences in these extremes there is a lineair path.
Stresses due to hydration in wall and temperature can be cause of tensile The average tensile stresses are now
bottomslab (cooled) stresses which even exceed those reduced from 7,0 to 1,0 N/mm!. Figure

52
 POUR 7

POUR 6 cooling

POUR 5
uncnoled

POUR *

coolihq
POUR 3

temp with
cooiing _

POUR 1
i i 3 k 5 k 7 f i Ï5 I temperature inerease..
TlME(days)

lOO'fc 507.| OV. cooling eopocity CROSS SECTION PIER TEMPERATURE 'C
COOLING DUCTS

9 7 shows the development of the

Development of temperature in wall Artificial cooling concrete of piers temperature in time for the non-
'cooled' and 'uncooted' cooled part of the wall and for a wall
section, where half of the
temperature rise has been cooled
down. This artificial cooling is ap-
plied during approximately 3 days on
full capacity and about 1 day on half
the capacity. After approximately 4
days, depending on the outside
temperature, cooling is stopped. It
appears also from figure 7 that In the
non-cooled wall section a
temperature gradiënt develops due to
faster cooling at the outside. The
stresses belonging to this gradiënt
are given in fïgure fi. Figure 9 gives
TEMPERATURE *C STRESS N/tnmz
AFTER 1=2 DAÏS AFTËR i-M an outline of the artificial cooling in
(slress - 0) (temp=0) the different pouring phases of the
8 pier.
Temperature gradiënt and stresses in
uncooled walfsection 4.6.2. Thermic insulation of the base
slab of the pier.
In a non-insulated base slab the
following phenomenon presents itself
(see fig. 10).
In the lower part of the base slab an
inerease of temperature of about 39
0 9 °C occurs due to the hydration pro-
ces. At the upper side this inerease is
limited to about 9 °C. Now a
temperature gradiënt of about 30 °C
arises. This gradiënt generates
SLAB TEMPERATURE °C without stress during the first two
SECTION AFTER t=2 DAVS t=4DA¥S
SLAB- TEMPERATURE "C (s1ress« 0,0) (removal insulalion) days after pouring, because the con-
SECTION AFTER t=2 DAVS(stress-O)
crete has almost no stiffness then
tenaon . .ccmpresaon (see figure 5). A later drop in
temperature causes high tensile
stresses at the bottom of the slab,
through which risk of cracking oc-
curs. Thermic insulation on the top of
STRESS N/mm2 the slab during 4 days after pouring
STRESS N/mm 2 AFTER t=4DAYS AFTER )= considerably depresses the gradiënt
AFTER t = osl(ennp (removal msulation)
(see figure 11) and thus also the level
11 of the tensile stresses. Temporary
70
Development of temperature and Development of temperature and high tensile stresses occur after
stress in bottomslab (non-insulated) stress in bottomslab (insulated) removal of the insulation.

53
 POUR
12 L
Phases in horizontal prestressing of
pier

-it
r —'
OJ5 1,0 1,S 2,0 2J5 3,0
HORIZONTAL PRESTRESSING

POUR 1
1 3
PRESTRES5ING PHA5E

4.6.3. Shrinkage prestressing up that damage cases in structures

An other measure which has been are frequently caused by insufficient
taken to prevent cracking is the se- detaitling. This does not only apply to
called 'shrinkage prestressing1. The failure of structures but also to early
principle is to install a part of the maintenance. It will be shown in the
total prestressing as soon as possi- following examples how durability
ble in each poured part of the struc- has been taken care of in detailing,
ture. The advantage is that the acting too.
tensile stresses, which arise in the The fill of the recesses for the an-
course of time can be limited by the chorages of the prestressing cables
prestressing and so the risk of crack- (see fig. 13). The anchorages of the
ing can be depressed. Figure 12 prestressing cables are finished with
shows an outline of the phases of the three layers of tar epoxy with a total
prestressing of the pier. The disad- thickness of 0.15 mm. The ends of
vantage of this measure is that it the strands are provided with a
causes some problems in the plastic protection cap. The recesses
organization of the implementation. are filied with spray concrete.
Electric isolation of metal parts on
4.7. Durability in details the outside of the structure.
Up to now the most important design If metal parts on the outside of the
criteria with a view to durability have structure make electrical contact
been dealt with. In practice it shows with the internal reinforcement,

73a
Grid-blasted tendon anchorage
recess
13b
Filling the tendon anchorage
recesses

54
14
Electric Insulation of guideway of HORIZONTAL SECTICN PIER - GATE
svnlhetic motenals
ga te
epoxy-mortor

potential differences arise by which Literature

corrosion is initiated. In order to 1. The lifetime of the Eastern Scheldt
avoid this happenings metal parts on Barrier or An arithmetical approach
the outside of the structure and in- of the corrosion process in reinforced
serts are electrically isolated. Figure concrete, by: J.G. Hageman
14 shows an example for the guide- 2. Cement nr. 12, 1979
way of the gate. The isolation has Eastern Scheldt Storm Surge Barrier
been established by means of — Design criteria and design calcula-
grouting with an epoxy-mortar. The tions for the concrete stucture, by:
isolation of anchor bolts has been F.F.M, de Graaf and H.H. van
achieved by means of a plastic layer Schalk
on the bolts. Figure 15 shows the — Probabilistic design method by
control measurement of the electrical H.H. van Schaik and D. Kooman
resistance of such an anchor bolt.

5. Quality control during execution

Up till now design criteria were
discussed which are oriented towards
getting a reliable and durable con-
struction. However besides these
theoretical assumptions, the quality
of the execution is just as important.
With a view to this requirement, a
special staff division 'quality control'
is incorporated into the organization.
This division has at its disposal
highly qualified personnel and a well
utilized laboratory. Beside the normal
control on pressure and split strength
of the concrete, setting measure,
water-cement ratio etc, critical details
such as the filling of the centre-pen
holes, the recesses of the an-
chorages of the prestressing cables
a.s.o. are regularly controlled for
permeabiiity. Furthermore, the con-
struction is inspected in detail for
gravel nests and unacceptable crack-
ing ( > 0.15 mm). And so the staffdivi-
75 sion 'quality control' guarantees that
Control measurement electrical the theoretical quality requirements
resistance anchor bolt are implemented in practice.

55
E.Ypey
Bridges Division, Rijkswaterstaat Design of gate structures
Gates

Introduction as short as possible this implies that

As mentioned in other articles the during the closing and the opening of MSL-l'°

barrier in the Eastern Scheldt is a the apertures, heavy loads will act on
composition of concrete, steel and the gates.
stones. The apertures in the barrier The maximum load exerted on the STATIC WfcTEHPRES5URE
are formed by the piers, the sill and gate at the end stage of the closing
the upper beam giving the desired ef- process wlll be as illustrated in figure tl£L
fective flow opening of 14,000 m2. The 4. As can be noticed this is a heavily
apertures can be closed by means of alternating loading with maximum +
movable elements, the gates. values of approx. 80 kN/m2. During
Figure 1 illustrates the varlous the movement of the gate the loading
members of the barrier. Because of will be as given in figure 5. The value MORTH SEA LEVEL HIGH6H THAN EASTEHN SCHELDT LEVEL

the fact that the piers are placed 45 at the beginning of the closing pro- L ,3°°

metres centre to centre, the span of a cess may be approx. 30 kN/m2. This
gate is 41.3 metres. The height of the loading acts on the lower part of the
gates varies from 5.9 metres to 11.9 gates.
metres since the top plane of the sill A load reduction is obtained when
follows more or less the existing bot- the loading cases are considered ac- MOR1M SEf. LEYEL LOWER THkN ïftSTEBN SCHELDT LEVEL
torn line of the three gulleys of the cording to a probabilistic method.
Eastern Scheldt. The method takes into account the
possible coincidence of various oc- Loaüing of the gate in closed posi-
Requirements of the structure with curences such as: tion
regard to the strength — storm surge level;
As mentioned above, the barrier must — wave energy; 5TVLL WATEftLEVEL

be capable of withstanding the forces — water in Eastern Scheldt basin,

and actions that have a probability of etc.
occuring 2.5x10~4 per year. Fixing
these requirements in a deterministic
way, this implies that the gates have
to withstand forces resulting from:
Case I: water level sea side M.S.L +
5.3 m;
water level land side M.S.L. - 1.7 m;
waves significant height 4.5 m;
period 12 seconds.
Case IS: water ievel sea side M.S.L
-1.5m;
water level land side M.S.L. +3.5 m.
In case I the maximum loading of the
gate is approx. 140 kN/nf. The effect
of the waves can be illustrated in
figure 3. Constdering the wave height
which has an occurence of 2.5x10~4
per year and taking into account the
rebound effect of the barrier the ex-
treme wave height in front of the LOADING AT LOAÜING AT
gates located at the deepest parts of WAWE-CHEST VJfcVE-TROUGH
the gulleys will be approx. 16 metres. 1
Since the periods when the Eastern Cross section gate and concrete
Scheldt is completely ciosed will be girders Wave loading of the gate

56
 WATERLEVEL SEAS1DE M.S.L. *3.6O
It has been found that the extreme WATERLEVEL LANDSIDE M.9.L.
loadings that have an occurence of
2.5x10 "^ per year are approx. 75%
-80% of the loadings determined ac- WAVE :H.(u«ll),H,
cording to the deterministic method.
In determining the probability of oc-
curences it is accepted that the
operator of the barrier shall have
M.S.L 3.°°
every freedom in any operating ac-
tivities regarding the gates. This re-
quirement makes of course a heavy
A
demand on the ioad-carrying capacity
of the structures. STATIC WAVE LQAD RÊSULTING LOAO
The design life of the barrier has WAT6RPHESSURE

been set at 200 years. In this period a

certain amounf of damage inferded
on the steel gates is accepted as it H. 35*35 . 1 . - ^ - I T . WAVE-PËIUOD IN SECONDS

can be repaired. For the determina-

tion of the ultimate strength of the 4 5
steel gates the following factors are Loading of the gate at moment of Forces required for closing the gate
taken into account: closing
material factor y m = 1.05
loading factor y 1 = 1-00 WAVËS ADJUNCT TO
calculation factor yB = 1.10 WATER LEVEL
The material factor takes into ac-
count:
the difference in strength of the
material in the completed construc-
+ 5-00 -
tion and the test pieces.
The calculation factor takes into ac-
count: M.S.LT
— the inaccuracy in the schematisa-
tion of the construction with
regard to the calculations; -500 -
— the inaccuracy in the calculation p(e.s. level)
methods; p = probability density
function
— the deviations in the completed
construction.
SEA LEVEL EASTERN SCHELDT LEVEL

The requirement of the gate design

with regard to the building toierances Naturai conditions
Since the barrier is to be built in the
open sea, consideration must be TOP VIEW
given to the toierances in the dimen-
sioning of the totai construction.
The toierances stem from: UNQEFJSlDE HUM BER HEIGHT
g
QATE ÖA Eï
— unevenness of the foundation bed; ram 1
70 tt, ÖGQD
— elevation of the foundation bed; 70 m
70 m B9ÖO
— ptacfng tolerance of piers, a.s.o. T0 m 1 10&Ö0
Furthermore consideration must be TD m 11900

given to: EASTERN SCHELDT

— unequal running of the ends of the
gates during closing and opening FRONT VIEW CROSS- SECTION
procedures; • yiEW WITH P I A T E COWSTHUCTION , y l E W WITHOUT PIATE COH STRUCTIOH
— settlement effects of the piers, 1'cENTRE LINE UIFTINC D E V I c 7

sills etc. due to loading effects of

the barrage, a.s.o.
In view of these toierances, it has to
be considered that the span of a gate
varies between
41.3 m + 0.55 m > L > 41.3 m - 0.55
m.
Furthermore each gate must be a tor-
sional weak construction, as the rota-
tion difference of two adjacent piers
with regard to the axis of the barrier Construction of gates

57
can be 1 cm in 1 metre. To overcome
the rotation effects of a pier along its
longitudinal axis, the width of the
rubbing faces in the piers must be
determined in accordance with the
toierances.

Description of the steel structure

There are in total 63 gates in the bar-
rier varying in height from 5.9 metres
to 11.9 metres. The variation is in
steps of 1 metre. The steel weigths
vary between 300 and 500 tons.
The gates are composed of the
following parts:
— a vertical plate construction;
— a main girder system;
— a vertical girder system.
For the vertical plate construction
cylindrical segments were chosen
that are located at the Eastern
Scheldt slde. Within the segments 8
the stresses are primarily tensile, but View of gates
in the case where the water level of SECTION PIER NEAR GATE
the Eastern Scheldt is higher than
that of the North Sea the occuring members. The positioning of the ver-
compressive stresses are permissi- tical members of the gate construc-
ble. The loads are transmitted to the tion is such that the torsional rigidity
main supporting system via the ver- of the gate is as low as possible and
tical beams. acceptable. The horizontal forces ac-
The advantages of cylindrical ting on the gates are transmitted to
segments compared to flat plate con- the piers by vertical end beams
structions are: located in the recesses of the piers.
— no stiffening of the plates is re- Given the fact that the gates are
quired; designed as slide gates, special 'low
— large openings exist between the friction' material wil! be mounted
segments and the main girders. throughout the entire height of the
The latter advantage makes it possi- end beams to keep the forces,
ble for water to flow in the vertical necessary to open and close the
direction through the gates, resulting gate, as low as possible. In order to
in a damping effect on gate oscilla- prevent oscillation during gate move-
tions and a reducing effect on the ment (stick-slip), the difference be-
underpressure. The main support tween the static and dynamic coëffi-
system is composed of 2 or 3 ciënt of friction must moreover be as
horizontal truss type girders, depen- small as possible.
ding on the gate height. The truss The gates will be positioned in the
members are tubes, hence they are recesses of the piers in such a way
less sensitive to wave impact effects. that horizontal movements of the end
The main girders are coupled by ver- beams in relation to the piers is
tical bracing and supporting reduced to a minimum. Rubbing f aces in the piers

58
 2V3Pn

STANDARD
UNIT
[TO BE CAST IN
.COUPLING BEAM RUBBING FACES
WITH STUDS

This precaution is essential since the

wave loadings are very large as com- 3?m
pared to the static loadings. The SITUATION
reduction will be obtained by creating
sufficient high prestressing forces in
the rubber strips at both sides of the
end beam.
Great care must be given to the cor-
rect positioning of the rubbing faces 2.V
LEVEL CASTING JOINT
in the piers. For that purpose ad- F OF CONCRETE PIER
justing frames are employed as are
shown in figure 10. SUPPORT FRAME
Figure 11 gives an impression of the
completed rubbing faces. Between
the rubbing face plates and the con-
crete of the piers an epoxy-resin con-
sisting of two components was used. 10
A difficulty in this application is the Adjusting frame for positioning rubb-
effect of the vertical height of the ing faces
rubbing faces being 10 metres - 24
metres, especially with regard to the
mixing and pumping of the epoxy-
resin.

The positioning of the vertical plate

construction
In the over-all design of the barrier
concrete upper beams above mean
sea level have been adopted, giving a
reduction in the total surface of the
steel plates. Without upper beams
this surface would be 35,000 rn2,
whilst with the use of the beams the
total surface is 22,500 m2, giving a
reduction of more than 50% with
regard to the last figure.

Location of the upper beams at the

seaward side of the gates as shown
in figure 13 has the disadvantage of
heavy wave impacts against the
underside of the beam when the
water level is in the neighbourhood of 11 12
M.S.L + 1.0 m. These impact forces Adjusting frame (construction phase) Alu-bronze rubbing faces mounted on
can be as high as 200 - 300 kfsj/m2, the pier
which means that the dead weight of
the beams is insufficient to with- gates resulting in heavy vibrations, gates which will result in heavy wave
stand the up-lift forces. Secondly, dur- a.s.o. Thirdly, the sides of the piers impacts in the corners formed by the
ing closure of the gates unfavourable protrude to the seaward side with side of the piers and the vertical
flow effects will be imparted to the regard to the vertical plate of the plate of the gate. For these reasons

59
 9-7? MASS

H--- !' i SPRING SCALE

MODËLS
i / I \
i i
HANGEDN
JESIGN/

O
5
IK CHANGEABLE
ELASTIC SCALE
BOX BEAM VERTICAL PLATE VERTICAL PLATE
MODEL
SEA-SIDE SEA-SIDE LAND-SIDE

the location of the upper beam on the 13

seaward side of the gate is unaccep- Positioning of the vertical plate con-
table. With regards to the location of struction
the vertical plate on the seaward
side, the following remarks apply: I ELASTIC SCALE
firstly, the force required for the lif- 14 | MODEL
ting of the gate is increased by the Scheme of hydraulic model investiga- iFINAL CHECK
dead weight of the water volume tions
above the gate;
secondly, unfavourable forces will act
on the web of the top beam of the
gate due to wave impacts a.s.o.;
thirdly, during the closing of the
gates vibration problems will arise
with regard to the lowest main glrder
and the total gate construction. The
latter as a result of the unfavourable
ratio of height to thickness of the
gate, this being approximately 1 to 1
for the lower gates and 1 to 3 for the
higher gates.
For these reasons the location of the
vertical plate on the seaward side is
unacceptable. Therefore the location
of the plate construction at the
Eastern Scheldt side must be ac-
cepted.

Vibration effects and wave impact Investigated sections with elastic

In the design period of the barrier beam and gate supports
great attentfon is being given to the
possible vibration- and wave impact .580
effects. In general, it can be said that
the greatest attention will be given to
a design by close co-operation be-
tween designer and researcher. Each M S L.
one has his own expert knowledge;
together they can cover more than
the simpfe sum of this individual
knowledge.
In figure 14 an impression is con-
veyed of the general scheme of the
research with regard to vibrations.
— The rigid model provides the
possibility of measuring the loads
acting on the gate
— The spring scale model indicates 76
the response of the construction Vibrations due to gap flow at lowered
— Minor changes had to be made to gate and to gap flow at partiaily rais-
the pre-design. ed gate

60
 .5-80

amplitude =0.3mm .10

17 18
Vibrations due to nappe phenomena Nose construction upper beam for
and fluid oscillations suppressing vibrations

— After that, more detailed informa- RESPONSE FROM MATHEMATICAL IMPACT SHAPE IMPACT
tion was obtained by using an ELASTIC SCALE MODEL MODEL PARAMETERS
elastic scale model. FROM RIGID SCALE MODEL
force
— The final check was made testing force
the elastic scale model made in pressura

accordance with the final design

of the gate. gate (ar beam)

During the festing period a constant and fluid system

exchange took place between Impact

designer and researcher in order to
obtain the most acceptable design.
As can be seen in figure 15 the bar- 19 Other investigations
rier consists of a number of elastic Calculation of wave impact A number of studies and investiga-
beams affecting the vibration tions were requlred for the design of
behaviour of the gate. of between plus 50 cms and minus 50 the gates. Next to the investigations
Figure 16 gives an illustration of the cms of that water level. !n the raised regarding the vibration problems and
vibrations due to gap flow at lowered position of the gafes this occurs the effects resulting from wave im-
position of the gate and partially rais- when the water level is in the pact, the following studies and in-
ed gate. Figure 17 lllustrates the neighbourhood of M.S.L. + 3.0 m. vestigations were carried out among
vibration due to nappe phenomena; The other possible occurrence of others:
this can occur when the water level wave impact is during the lowering or — the determination of the friction
in the Eastern Scheldt is higher than raising procedure of the gate, see coëfficiënt when various material
sea level, at a lowered gate position. figure 20. combinations for the rubbing
Also shown in this figure is the possi- taces in the piers and the sliding
ble fluid oscillation at fully raised As mentioned above, heavy wave im- surfaces of the gates are adopted;
gate position. pact on gate members will occur — the effect of marine growth to the
The effect of adopting a so called when these members are in the area friction coëfficiënt and the wear of
nose construction to the concrete up- of between plus 50 cms and minus 50 the surfaces;
per beam is illustrated in figure 18. At cms of the water level. Since the — the stickslip effect to the oscilla-
the bottom side of the gate the shape lowering or raising speed of a gate is tions of the gates;
of the cylindrical segments against approxlmateiy 3 mms per second, — the response of the gate struc-
the straight face of the sill construc- this implies that the member of a tures to wave loads etc;
tion yielded a positive effect in sup- gate is in this area for approximately — the stress and strain concentra-
pressing the magnitude of the 5 minutes. At lowered position the tions in the tubular connections.
vibrating amplitudes of the lower memoers of the gate will not receive
members of the gate. heavy impact forces, since they are Fatlgue and inspection
Another investigation is the study of deep below the mean water level. Since the gates are above water level
the effects of wave impact. Figure 19 Figure 21 gives an impression of the under normal conditions, inspection
shows the calculation procedure of wave impact on horizontal members of the various members of the gate is
the wave impact on the gate of the gate. The pressures caused by possible. The access to the members
members. The maximum effect of the wave impact against horizontal will be made by using a special in-
wave impact occurs when horizontal members of plate constructions may spection car. This car will run over
members of the gate are in the be as high as 280 kN/m!, whilst these the bridges of the barrier and carries
neighbourhood of the mean water pressures against tubular members an inspection platform. The platform
level, more precisely within an area may be 85 kN/m2. can be brought to the required posi-

61
 60 mm

20 adopted as an inspection policy that 21

Position trusses during enclosure after each heavy storm in which the Wave impact on horizontal girder
gate gates were closed, the most heavily
loaded members would be inspected. of placing tolerances etc. These
In doing so it will be possible to precautions are:
tion with the use of a number of repair the crack in its initial stage. — the horizontal tubular trusses have
hydraulic operated lever-arms. From fatigue tests on repaired an excess length of 850 mm's;
The effects of the wave loads are ti'bular joints it has been shown that — the vertical plates connecting the
cyclic with periods of 6 to 10 the fatigue strength is equal or even cyiindrical segments to the end
seconds, resulting in approximately better than the fatigue strength of the walls have an excess length of 850
15,000 load cycles during a 24-hours original specimen. mm's.
storm. The assembly of the gates will be ef-
In the design philosophy it is ac- Construction, assembly and placing fected in the sequence in which they
cepted that during the Ufetime of a of the gates have to be placed. The effects of the
gate cracks may occur in the most In total 63 gates have to be manufac- tolerances in the positioning of the
heavily loaded tubular connections. tured and placed in the storm surge piers wil! be taken into account dur-
From tests it has been found that the barrier. In order to obtain a kind of ing the assembly of the gates. The
ratio between the number of cycles quantity production the gates have placing of the gates will be carried
after which the crack has completely been split up in members that are out with the floating derrick that is
gone through the wall of the tube and more or less identical to each other. also used for placing the bridge
the number of cycles required for the Figure 23 gives an impression of this girders, the upper beams a.s.o. of the
first visible cracks to appear is splitting up. The major members are: barrier.
greater than 1.5. For the most heavily — the horizontal tubular trusses; In order to place the gates in the
loaded gate, this being the gate in — the vertical tube members; recesses of the piers in which they
the centre of the Roompot gulley, this — the cylindrical segments; are more or less in a prestressed
implies that approximately 10 heavy — the end wall constructions. position, funnel type temporary con-
storms are required after occurrence structions will be placed on top of
of the first crack before complete Since the manufacture of the various the piers. The bottom sides of the
failure of the tubular connection is items will be started before the piers gate will be placed in these funnels
reached. are placed in their final position, cer- and by being lowered the gates will
In order to detect the cracks at an tain precautions are being taken in slide in between the rubbing faces of
early stage the principle has been order to overcome the consequences the piers.

62
22 24
Inspection car Placing gate with floatmg derrick

23
Exploded view of gate

1 = Maingtrder
2 - Vcrtical braces.
3 m, Connecling member malnglrdertoendbeam.
A - Conrt#cVr*f} member wrNCdl braces to end beam
5 - Vertlcal plaie constfuction
6 . Connecting member verticalpiateioend beam^
7 * End bearo
8 - S[|de support.
9 *. Sldeaupport horizontal mowments
10 . Vertlcal Bupport.
11 _ Fixinq beomsfor lifting equipment

• Üvarlength-

63
F.J.Remery
Bridges Division, Rijkswaterstaat Design of gate structures
Operating machinery for the gates in the barrier

1. Choice of the type of machinery for Incidentally the latter type of In what could be called, to some ex-
the storm surge barrier. machinery is used as a jack-up tent, a neck-to-neck race, the
The choice of the type of operating system for off-shore platforms. hydrauiic type of machinery was
mechanisms for gates in barriers However, the demand for a finally chosen (fig. 1). Decisive
depends highly on the type of gates reasonable lifetime of the system did aspects were possibilities of monitor-
to be operated and the forces to be not allow for rough constructions. So ing, costs and aesthetics. The other
exerted. We knew from experience thls type should also be highly aspects got more or less a com-
that hydraulic cylinders offer the sophisticated. Complete preliminary parable qualification.
cheapest solution when big forces designs were made for both
and iow velocities are to be achieved. machineries and they were 2. Operatinq requirements for the
Nevertheless.considering the impor- thoroughly evaluated regarding a machinery
tance of this project it was worth- series of aspects: In a policy analysis study for the
while examining all possibilities for — design qualification; storm surge barrier called BARCON
the construction of the operating — reliability/ possibilities for (for 'barrier control') operation
machinery. Moreover, the shape of monitoring; strategies (i.e. rules for closing and
the barrier and the dimensions of the — lifetime and maintenance; opening the barrier) were developed
gates had been changed significantly — fabrication;
during the design process, resulting — costs and planning {complete of-
in ever growing forces and dimen- fers were made); 1
sions of the machineries, especially — aesthetics. The Eastern Scheldt gates
as far as the stroke was concemed.

At last the gate dimensions were fix-

ed, and it became clear that the n n
gates should be driven from both ex-
tremities, resulting in two operating
machineries for each gate. All gates
have the same length of approx. 41.3
m, whereas the height ranges from
5.9 to 11.9 m in 7 steps, depending on
the iocation of the gates in the bar-
rier. In principle the stroke of the
machinery is equal to the gate height,
but in order to facilitate maintenance
of the gates, it was decided to in-
crease the stroke of the machinery by
approx. 1.3 m, resulting in a total
stroke of the machinery ranging from
7.2 to 13.2 m.
The question arises whether a
hydraulic cylinder with a stroke of ap-
prox, 13 meters is still a good soiu-
tion for a gate-operating machinery.
Hence an alternative type of
machinery was developed as well and
we ended up with 2 types of
machineries:
— a duat action hydraulic cylinder;
— a toothed rack, driven by a number
of pinions operated in parallel.

64
 Wlean inside water level
Cotnparison of two extreme closing with open barrier
Water level
strategies
L H during closing

H during closing Mean inside water leve!

with closed barrier
Close at low slack water Close at high outside
water level

and their effects on the Eastern The design of the machinery is based The friction coëfficiënt was determin-
Scheldt basin (safety, ecology, water- upon strait-on closing strategies. ed in an investigation which took the
management, shipping) analysed. Reductor strategies and also the combination of the material of stides
Barcon studies revealed a.o. that the opening operation will be restricted and rubbing faces into account
forces to be exerted by the machinery by the capabilities of the machinery. {Hakorit L:L and aluminium bronze
of the gates are largely influenced by In the opening sense a total respectivily). This investigation reveal-
the operation strategy chosen. This equivalent head of 2.5 m is allowable. ed that a static friction coëfficiënt in
can be made clear in fig. 2 where two In actual practice these restrictions the order of 0.4 is an upper limit and
extreme closing strategies are will probably not exert a major in- that after some years of operation a
represented for the same storm surge fluence on the complete freedom of dynamic friction coëfficiënt of 0.2 is
outside water levels. operation. to be expected. Such a difference
If the barrier is closed at low slack For the design of the machinery the between static and dynamic friction
water the head difference over the following main forces are to be taken coëfficiënt causes a stick-slip
gates and hence the loading on the into account: behaviour of the gate during
operating machinery during closing is — head difference over the gates and movements which influences the
low. On the other hand high loading horizontal wave loading in com- hydraulic cylinders. This influence
on the machinery is to be expected if bination with the frlction coëffi- has been the subject of a dynamic
a relatively late moment of closing is ciënt of the gate slides on the analysis of the complete hydraulic
chosen. From the very beginning it rubbing faces in the pier recesses; system.
was decided that the choice of the — flow forces over and under the Because the gates are prestressed
moment of closing should be com- gate; between the rubbing faces, the
pletely free. — vertical wave loading; machinery has to overcome friction
— prestressing of the gate slides be- forces for each movement, even in
A probabilistic approach was used to tween the rubbing faces in the pier the absence of any horizontal load.
determine the resulting maximum recesses; When the gates are partly submerged
head difference over the gates during — (apparant) gate weight. during the closing operation they are
closing with an excess frequency of Head difference and wave heights are subjected to the alternating vertical
1/4000 per year taking into account at known from the probabilistic studies. wave forces and the machinery must
the same time a relatively high out- Their effect in the form of flow forces be able to keep the gate tight in that
side water level. The calculated head and wave loading were determined by situation. In the lowered position the
difference is 4.2 m and the correspon- extensive tests in the hydraulic gates have to be pressed on their
ding wave loading with the same ex- laboratory. seats. In the opening sense oniy puil-
cess frequency is based upon a ing forces have to be exerted by the
significant wave hetght of 3.7 m and machinery.
a period of 5,7 sec. In all this it was
assumed that the gates, once they 3. Description of the actual design
started to close, wou ld be closed In the actual design the gate
without any interruption. In that case, operating mechanism comprises
the tallest gates need about one hour Wfltflf level
three main parts:
and the smallest about half an hour — 2 doublé acting hydraulic cylinders
for the complete closing operation, — one at each extremity of the
the gate velocity being approx. 3 gate — which are connected to
mm/sec. the gate with a spherical bearing
Figure 3 indicates that entirely dif- and to the piers via a complete
ferent closing strategies might be cardan ring;
possible. They are called reductor — 2 electrically driven and controlled
strategies, since the barrier is not pump sets — one for each
completely closed, thus working as a hydraulic cylinder — which are
reductor. Their application is still housed in the intertor of the box
subject of the BARCON-study. Reductor strategy girder bridge;

65
 Table 1 smallest cylinder biggest cylinder
stroke 5,900 + 1,300 mm 11,900 + 1,300 mm
inside cylinder diameter 635 mm 830 mm
mimimum wall thickness 62.5 mm 75 mm
piston rod diameter 390 mm 520 mm
total lenght when gate is
closed 20,575 mm 33,290 mm
total mass of cylinder 41,890 kg 91,675 kg

— piping between pump sets and corrosion resistance. Galvanizing cond, wider limit is exceeded (50 cm)
hydraulic cylinders. vats for the treatment of such long both machineries are stopped and a
In order to get the gates moving, parts do not exist in Europe. signal is flashed to the central con-
there is also an electrical installation Moreover, the complete handling of trol room, where corrective measures
subdivided into three parts as well: these reiatively slender parts which can be taken.
— power generation- and distribution bend considerably in horizontal posi-
system; tion, requires utmost care during The hydraulic installation
— control system; machining, assembling with the The hydraulic installation of a
— monitoring system. cylinder, store and transport. Exten- cylinder is mainly composed of a
This instaüation will not be described sive instructicns for all stages of pump set, hydraulic valves, filters,
in detail here, but it is just mentioned these operations will therefore ac- safety valves, pressure switches and
because of its close relationship with company the design. so on. Together with the appurtenant
the operating mechanism. electric control installation, these
As a second protection aid against parts are housed in containers which
The hydraulic cylinders. corrosion of the piston rod the lower are built into the interior of the box
As mentioned before, the hydraulic end of the cylinder is equipped with a girder bridge.
cylinders and appurtenant conservation chamber filled with The containers were chosen as a pro-
mechanical parts have various dimen- slushing oil. When the piston rod tection for the hydraulic and electric
sions according to the location in the moves downwards it will be covered installation, both during the construc-
barrier (see table 1), by a thin film of slushing oil which by tion of the box girder bridge when
The cylinders are designed for a max. drying has such a consistence that it these parts must already be present,
internal working pressure of 220 bar resists the influence of water sprays and to ensure a reasonable lifetime
and a testing pressure of 270 bar. caused by wind and waves. of the installations after completion
A hydraulic cylinder is mainly com- When re-entering the conservation of the barrier. If necessary, internal
posed of: chamber, the dried slushing oil will heating is possible, whereas the
— cylinder cover with connections to be dissolved by the oil in the noise from the hydraulic pumps is
the hydraulic system; chamber which is cleaned and damped.
— cylindrical part with bearing block refreshed at each movement of the A container houses the complete
for the connection to the cardan gate. hydraulic installations of the two
ring; The cardan ring is a completely weld- cylinders on a pier. This creates the
— piston rod with piston, carrying lin- ed structure, carrying the pins for the opportunity to use one of the installa-
ing and sealings; rotating connection with the tions as a back-up in case of failure
— cylinder bottom with sealings lin- hydraulic cylinder, and those for the of the other one. All switches and
ing and connections to the bearings on the piers. Each cardan valves necessary for this switching
hydraulic system; ring houses a levelling gear which operation are housed in the container
— conservation chamber; continuously measures the position as well.
— rod eye with plain spherical bear- of the matching extremity of the gate. The oiltank is located outside the
ing for the connection to the gate. This installation does not only pro- container. It also services both
The cylinder as such is a completely vide good information about the gate hydraulic cylinders on a pier.
welded structure. For the two smaller position as such {which is required The inside of the box girder bridge
types of cylinders the cylindrical for barrier operation) but it also furthermore houses containers for
parts are made of thick-walled pipe. creates the opportunity of controlling the electric installations (power
For the 5 other types these parts will the horizontatity of the gate during distribution, control and monitoring
be made from steel plates, hot rolled closing and opening procedures. This system), workshops, laboratories and
into a cylindrical shape and welded is necessary because the pier recess measurement containers. All these
by electro-slack weiding. depth and the rubbing face width containers are located at one side of
The piston rod, forming a one-piece restrlct the allowable deviation of the the box girder, whereas the opposite
forging with the piston, will be nickel gates from the horizontal position. side is completely filled with a con-
and chromium plated (100 umMi and During movement of the gate the tinuous cable-rack for all high and
50 u mCr). Because of the corrosive loading end will be stopped if the low-tension cables, data transmission
environment the top layer on the rod level difference between both ends lines, piping and so on (tig. 4).
might be heavlly attacked when the exceeds a certain value (15 cm). The Between cable-racks and containers
gates are down and the piston rod is trailing end then has the opportunity a through corridor is available in a
out. For that reason tests were ex- to overtake the leading end and from channel over the full length of the in-
ecuted in order to find nickel and that moment both ends continue terior of the box girders. Therefore
chromium layers with an improved moving. If — due to a fault — a se- even under the worst weather condi-
 Cover 33570-

Piston rod

-Cylinder

20630*
-Cardan ring
Cylinder bottom
Conservation chamber

Bod eye
13250*.

9400*_,
Gate

4 between pipe sections must be made

Operation machinery for gate possible, hose connectlons have Hydrauiic scheme for operation of a
h =s 11,900 mm been used. cylinder

4. Reliability of one machinery leads to a 'failing

tions all hydraulic and electric in- From the main fault tree for the gate', i.e. a gate which cannot be pro-
stallations can be easily reached. For storm surge barrier it follows that perly closed within one hour after
transport in the corridor an electro- failure of the gateoperating complete closure of the barrier.
car is planned. machinery can lead to a failure of the
The hydraulic system of whlch fig. 5 bottom protection, followed by the Design harmonization put flgures to
gives a scheme feeds oil to a foundation, causing the collapse of the probability of all undesirable
hydraulic cylinder via a piping the pier. Hence the constructional events, one of them being the failing
system. During closing hydraulic oil strength of the bottom protection and gate. The figure actually was 2 x 10^3
is fed at the topside of the cylinder at the failure rate of the operating per barrier closing operation, which
constant pressure, whereas at the machinerles are interrelated. Failing — presumlng a storm surge closure
bottom of the cylinder the hydraulic
oil ieaves at a load-independent cons- North Sea side
tant velocity via a constant flow
device.
in this manner the hydraulic cylinder Seclion A-A Pier
is internally prestressed by the oil
columns under and above the piston
in order to prevent the gate from
changing its direction of moving
under influence of the alternating
wave loading.
In the opening sense oil is fed at the
bottom of the cylinder, the pressure Electro container Conducting bridge
being determined by the external
load, and the gate velocity by the
discharge of the pumpset.

The piping system between pump

sets and cylinders will be executed in
stainless steel for the section in the
open air and in carbon-steel for the
section in the interior of the box
girder bridge. Since the box girder
bridge is supported on the piers via
one fixed and one free bearing, the Eastern Scheldt side
piping system Ieaves the box girder 6
at the fixed end, Where movements Components in box girders

67
of once a year — is equivalent to 2 x
10~3 per year. Therefore the failure
rate of one out of 126 machineries
should be in the order of 10~5 a year
which is a very high demand. The pro-
bability of an operating machinery
failing was estimated on the basis of
extensive analysis carried out with
the help of spectalized institutions.
Both the electrical system and the
hydraulic system contribute to the
failure rate. The main components to
be taken into account were:
— power generation. The failure rate
can be kept quite low by Installa-
tion of a relatively great number of
power generating sets and by sub-
dividing the power station into 2
completely separate parts;
— power distribution. It was decided
to have two completely separate
high voltage distribution systems
(both high voltage lines,
transformers and switchgear),
which can be connected to each
other in case of failure of one of
them;
— control system. Where possible, Easletn Scheldt sida
the control system is threefold,
possibly with hand operation; local
control and central control via
separate systems. Cabling is of a
fire-resisting type, well mounted 193SQ
and protected on cable racks in 18750

the box girder bridge;

— hydraulic system.

The major contribution to the total

failure rate comes from the electro-
hydraulic switching devices and the Stairs, platforms and landings for
pressure hoses. The main design gates h = 11,900 mm
philosophy was to reduce the number
of switching components in series as
much as possible, whereas hose con-
nections for the downward movement
are executed with a back-up.
The most important contribution to
reliability is formed by the choice to
have two adjacent hydraulic pumpinq
sets which are complete spares of
each other. On the 6 boundary piers
where only one hydraulic cylinder is
present, the hydraulic installation has
a complete spare installation just the
same.
Monthly all gates o1 the barrier will
be closed and opened in order to test
the availability of the complete opera-
tion system. We trust this system will
enable us to remain within the re-
quired failure rate and an earlier
analysis has demonstrated that we
were!

8
Central control room

68
G.Offringa
Dosbouw, contractor Construction aspects
Methods and tools used in construction

1. Introduction The lower part of the pier is cal led

The concrete piers (fig. 1) are very the caisson-part, because it is hollow.
large prefabricated structures to The upper part is of massive concrete
be installed in the 3 gullies of the with two vertical holes, giving access
Eastern Scheldt with the main func- to the caisson.
tion of supporting the superstructure, The final shape of the pier became
consisting of steel gates and con- rather complex and this had con-
crete beams, and of course, to siderable influence on especially
transfer during a super storm the formwork and prestressing. The most
forces exerted against gates and complicated parts are the lifting
beams to the foundation. yokes {'Knuckles') at the outer end of
Basically all piers are of the same the caisson for lifting the piers, the
type, measuring 25 x 50 m at the groove for the sill beam, and groove
base and with a height varying bet- in the shaft for the steel gates with
ween 30 and 40 m, depending on their its sliding plates, to b& instailed with
final location. Some differences have utmost precision.
led to 5 sub-types and, as a matter of To organize the construction, the pier 1
fact, because of further minor dif- has been split up into 7 fabrication Model of storm surge banier
ferences, very few piers are complete- stages as Is shown in figure 2.
ly identical. The total available construction time
The average weight of a pier is ap- was determined by the start of the
proximately 17,000 tons. Approx- construction of the piers (01-03-1979),
imately 7,000 m3 concrete per pier is the date of opening the first and last
used; in all for 66 piers: 450,000 m3. dry doek compartments and the

Construction stages Principal quantitles

(inm 3 ) Construction stages during
prefabrication
Stage 1 Min. 2220

Base slab Max. 2225

Stage 2 Min. 325 Stage 5 Min. 225

Inner walls Max. 340 Bottom sectio Max. 530

Superstructure

Stage 3 Min. 1790 Stage 6 Min. 210

Outer walls Max. 2135 Mld section Max. 685

Superstructure

Stage 4 Min. 1045 Stage 7 Min. 450

Caisson deck Max. 1115 Top section Max. 475

Superstructure

69
 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 19B4

Overall-planning of prefabrication 66

Originol starting, point

i Iproduction program

Central working area and construc-

tion dry doek

SBB lay-out *0iKlnq yard GEUL DAM

numbers of piers per dry doek com-

partment. By trial and error a suitable • •••••• " f j ^ - w

plan was established to meet these

dates (flg. 3). The construction period
of one pier was set at 290 days (ap-
proximately 1.5 year) Including some
time for solving initial problems. The C D czi CD C J -1SA0.D
fabrication was basically split up into
4 building streams. With 7 fabrication
phases, this meant that approximate- EASTERN en
iy 30 piers were under construction SCHELDT
simultaneously.
The fabrication site of the pier is to III
be considered as a very large open C3CD U3\Z D C D
air factory, with a strict and well-
maintained organization.
Construction methods and tools of
CD CD

CD
o.
n i=tetD CD CD
CD CD
D CD CD

27 pler& ! • ^ ] Inner
T"
course had to fit this factory and con- • • LZ Harbour

siderable time was spent during the

preparatory period to invent and Constr. doek to be
study alternatives, and select the op- Construcliun Doek „SCHAAR" MSo>8Wm here

timum solution.

2. Central working area (lig. 4)

As already stated, fabrication takes
place in the dry doek compartments
Comp.2 27 piers
three of which are used for the piers Comp. 1 19 piers

and the iast one for the slll beams. section A - A

70
Prestressing systerns

All compartments are served from a

central working area where a con-
crete mixing plant has been instaüed,
and formwork, prestressing and rein-
forcing steel are prepared. Auxiliary
structural steel supporting frames are
made as well, for pre-insta!ling cable
ducts, reinforcing steel, and all kinds
of fixtures. A road circulation system
has been designed and laid out bet-
ween the central working area and
the compartments of the dry doek,
minimizing transport distances.
anchorage anchoragi
3. Post-tensioning ot the pier (fig. 5)
The piers for the Eastern Scheldt are
of prestressed concrete; although

ULTIMATE
quite a lot of reinforced concrete is NUMBER

LOAD
CABLE SYSTEM OF WIRES STRANDS BARS LENGTH IN M
used as welt. In both cases approx- NB CABLES
imately 40 kg steel per m3 of con-
crete; it is little as far as reinforcing 1a DYWIDA0 26 16 x 15,7 4,90 24,860
is concerned, but considerable for a Ib t 22 . .
prestressed concrete structure.
1c * e 6 « 15,7 2,18 24,800
2 40 t 4.90 49.&60
Because of the number of the piers 3o „ 52 «36 V24 15,148
and the quantity of concrete involved, 3b 28 „ V 12.800
the construction of the piers is one of 3c „ 12 „ 19.560
3* V 4 13360
the largest prestressed concrete 4 „ 12 t * 157 24.600
works ever undertaken. Sa ,. 12 33,610
As can be seen, the total prestress- Sb .. 12 33,210
ing consists of a variety of cables. 6at> ., 32 „ ,, 13,270
Job 10 9 » 15,7 2*5 ,
After an extensive study, a selection 7a CONA MULTI 8 12 » 1$7 326 27230
was made from existing systems, 7b 16 „ 33,320
based on costs and technical 7c 4 21,700
preferences. The following systems e „ 12 „ 2Q750

were fina/ly chosen: 9a DYWIDAG 12 18 K 15,7 490 44,660

9b „ U S » 157 <i

— Dywidag bars 0 36 mm, ultimate 10 CONA MULTI 12 12 » 157 3,26 41,180

load 124 t (for cable length up to 5 11 26 > 45,500
„
m); 12 „ 34 37,050
13a DYWIDAG 10 18 » 15,7 490 44,860
— BBRV anchors with 50 wires of 7 13 b 2 8 « 15,7 2,18 „
mm, ultimate load 326 t {for cable U „ 48 1,24 3980
lenght of 5 up to 10 m); 16a B,BRY 39 50 * 7 7,780
16 b „ 50 „ 9,070
— Dywidag anchors with 8 x 15.7 mm 16c DYWIDAG 3 • 36 5,330
1,24
strands, ultimate load 2181; 17 CONA MULTI 40 12 • 157 3.26 9,460
— Dywidag anchors with 18 x 15.7 18a DYWIDAG e »36 1,24 1SJ250____
mm strands, ultimate load 490 t; 1Sb » 6 9 « 15,7 2,24 13.680
19 6BfW. 14 OF 17 50 * 7 3,26 15,000
— Cona Multi anchors with 12 x 15.7 20 o CONA MULTI 8 12 « 15,7 X 22,360
mm strands, ultimate load 326 t.
The Dywidag bar and strand systems
20 b „ 4,6 OF 8 D u
20c DYWIDAG 8 OF 10 18 » 157 4.90 „
were supplied by Dywidag. The BBRV 21 Bspy. e 50 * T 9,500
wire and Cona Multi strand systems 22 „ 10 „ 9,730
24a CONA MULTI u 12 » 15,7 •««50 bi| yo
were supplied by Spanstaal. 18
24 b a „ JJ3» bl| ^10 ^ 3 0 bl|7.K
The tendon ducts are formed from 24c 'i 8 Itfx-rj sii Jio
smooth-welled sheets with a wall- 25a DYWIDAG VAR 1 6 - 2 3 #36 1.2'.. ^33 1»3,89
thickness of approximately 2 mm, of- 25b VAR. 3 0 - 3 5
25c 0 OF 2 3.580
fering a better protection than the 25d
•p

16 „ „ 4.130
normally used corrugated sheet metal 25e „ 5 „ „ 3,330
ducts. 26 „ 5 OF 6 3,480

As the work progressed, considerable 27 16 . S.860

28 16 3,09 OF 3,55
experience was obtained, for exam- 29
ple: 30 l EMPTY
— Being so close to the sea, proper 31a f DUCTS
corrosion protection of the 31b J

71
interna! support frames: stage 5

Formwork; upper part, stage 7

prestressing steel is very impor- per place, and that sufficient space so that it can be re-used several
tant. Storage time should be was kept in between, among others, times: in general on average, 30
reduced to a minimum and the to give concrete- and steel-workers times.
storage-sheds should be climate- access while cleaning, or pouring
controiled. The total time between concrete. 6. Placing concrete
the arrival of prestressing steel at Concreting the piers is of course a
site and injecting the ducts proved And last but not least, because the major operation. The base plate
too long in the beginning (12 mon- frames were made very accurately, alone, measuring 25 x 50 m and 2 m
ths). It could be reduced to less they could be used to position exter- thick, contains more than 2,000 m3
than 50%. nal formwork. of concrete, to be placed in one con-
— The Dywidag bars are installed Approximately 15 kg structural steel tinuous operation, lasting more than
with their ducts before concreting. per m3 concrete was used for the 30 hours.
Installing supports, reinforcement, support frames. In the central area, a concrete plant
etc, required spot weiding and has been erected with a maximum
this proved dangerous to these 5. Formwork {tig. 7) capacity of 200 rrWhour, sufficient
bars, causing some near-accidents With so many stages, sach of them if, for some reason, concrete has to
when prestressing was applied. Ut- with a different character, selecting be poured simultaneously at two, or
most care was taken to prevent the type of formwork and its design more, places (fig. 8). Normally there
further accidents. was a major task. is only one pour at a time so as to
For labour-saving purposes and quick make a balanced use of the concrete
4. Internal support frames (lig. 6) installation, the formwork comprises pouring group. The organization of
To install the ducts for the prestress- iarge panels. placing the concrete was such that
ing cables as accurately as possible, The construction consisted mainly of throughout the normal working week
extensive use was made of auxiliary timber panels on timber battens sup- (5 days) 2 shifts, working day and
support frames of structural steel. ported by a backing frame of struc- night, had continuously work.
tural steel. For the relatively thin in- The concrete batching plant is com-
While the project was being ner walls of the caisson, steel-forms pletely automated and requires very
elaborated, this support frame are used. Tests have been performed little attendance. Sand and gravel are
became of much more importance, on hydrostatic concrete pressure supplied by conveyor belts from a
because many other items had to be while pouring high walls of concrete. storage area with a stock sufficient
secured in place before the ccncrete For the thin inner walls it proved that for 3 weeks. Sand, gravel and cement
was poured. Besides, a large frame, the formwork should be designed for are brought in by ships to the storage
loaded with such fixtures, and a hydrostatic concrete pressure of 13 area.
prepared at the central working area t/m2, whereas often 4 t/m2, is suffi- Normal potable water is used,
saved a lot of work at the site of the cient. Measurements during pouring brought in by pipeline from the
pier. By caretully preparing all aux- showed that these design values mainland, and stocked in an olympic-
iliary support frames in drawings, one were correct and not overestimated. sized-pool in case of water shortage.
made sure that each item got its pro- The formwork is of rigid construction The concrete is transported by truck-

72
8
Central concrete mixing plant

Composition of concrete with a watercement ratio of 0.45. The upper face of the base plate was
350 kg portland blastfurnace cement, required concrete quality is defined covered with insulating panels. In ad-
class A, water-cement ratio 0.45, as B 37.5, whlch is a statistical value dition, curing compound was used to
0,75 I superplasticizer per 100 kg of but means that the average cube prevent loss of water by evaporation.
cement strength is of about 400 kg/cm* + (or For the outer walls and following
aggregates: 40 N/mm2 + , or 6000 psi). stages the concrete was cooleó by
10% (±185 kg) 'Meuse' sand 0-4 mm Concrete strength is measured by pumping cooling water through ducts
25% (± 465 kg) 'Rhine' sand 0-7 mm crushing cubes in a laboratory at dif- incorporated in the concrete; in all
65% (± 1205 kg) gravel 5-30 mm ferent stages of curing. In general, approximately 10 km of duet were in-
the average strength obtained was stalied per pier (fig. 10). The develop-
higher than 40 N/mm! and the devia- ment of the temperature was record-
tion less than assumed in the Dutch ed by thermo couples. In general the
code. On the job, experlments have
been carried out with the 'lok- test',
which defines the strength of con-
crete locally by the force needed to
pull out a certain type of bolt.
Crushing cubes and the lok-test
showed a good coincidence. Tests by
rebound-bammer were not satisfac-
tory. -I 500 mm
h- 4100m
inlfl

Composition and quality of concrete 8. Compacting the concrete

mixers with a capacity of 9 m3 (14

Compaction of concrete is mostly
done by vibrating needies. External
r-
cuy), the largest available, to the site. vibrators were only used on the steel
At the site the concrete is placed formwork for the Inner walls of the
either by batch or pump. The first caissons. The use of 'torpedoes',
method generally has preference horizontal vibrators being pulled up
because it is less vulnerable and has at the rate at which the concrete
fewer requirements of workability. rises, was rejected because of the
However, in places where access is a possibility of damage to the ducts.
problem, and for flexible use of The needies of the vibrator had to be
capacities, the concrete pump has operated manually, and, as the pours
proven to be a successful tooi. for the walls were very high, these
Through a balanced composition of men had to work inside and ciimb up
two types of sand, gravel, water and during the placing of the concrete.
additives the concrete can be placed For determining minimum wall
by either means, although if it is tnickness, this factor had to be taken
known that it will be pumped, the into consideration as well. Having NOBTH SE* SIK EASTEHN SCHELOT 3IO£

amount of water is slightly increased. support frames was certainly useful

The pouring capacity varies between to the men working Inside.
40 and 50 nrVhour per pump or
crane. 9. Curing of the concrete
Once placed, the concrete had to be
7. Concrete quality (fig. 9) cured, and the method depended on a 4—J
For thls marine type of concrete, the part of the pier concemed. For ex-
Hw, MClïon A - A
blast furnace cement is used. To ar- ample, to avoid cracks in the massive
rive at the required strength, 350 kg base plates, the formwork was left in 10
cement per m3 of concrete is added place during a certain period and the Cooling of concrete during curing

73
11 water is mixed with antifrost, as is in- crane. Of course other cranes were
Use of cranes: Peiner crane TN 180 jection mortar. If cold weather Is ex- used as well; e.g. smaller pedestal
12 pected, fresh concreie is covered. In cranes on top of the caisson and
Locomo crane lor prestressing general, the placing of concrete is Locomo-cranes fitted out with cabs
stopped at temperatures below zero for prestressing activities (tig. 12).
and/or at an unfavourable forecast. It
is not intended continue placing con- 12. Scaffolding (7/g. 13)
crete during frost periods. The choice of scaffolding was again
a result of studies. Numerous places
11. Use of cranes had to be reached at different stages
cooling system worked well, although After extensive studies, it was finally without a crane always being
the preliminary method for decided to install a crane on rails available. Access had to be provided
calculating the amount of cooling did alongside of each pier. If necessary, to the caisson and the shaft. As the
not prove very accurate and is being two cranes could then work together height of the pier was 30 - 40 m, con-
reviewed. In the few cases when the on one pier. Although the various sideration was of course given to the
cooling system did not work (e.g. partners in the joint venture had use of elevators; however, this proved
when the ducts were blocked by con- cranes available, they were of dif- to be complicated and costly, and it
crete) cracks were the inevitable ferent types, capacities and state of was decided to use staircases of
result! maintenance. Having 30 of these scaffolding-material.
Another means of preventing crack- cranes in operation would have been
ing was to tension some of the asking for problems. 13. Construction organization
prestressing cables at an early stage, Considering 'tools for, and methods
even before removal of the formwork, Therefore, after selecting the most of construction', a proper, well-
suitable cranes, invitations were sent maintained and motivated organiza-
10. Summer and winter precautions out to crane manufaciurers or their tion is a most important tooi without
Summer and winter had of course representatives. This resulted in a which quality, time and costs cannot
their influence on the mixing, placing lease-contract for 30 Peiner-cranes be kept under control.
and curing of concrete. The water for type TN 180 (lig, 11). The same com-
example can be cooled or heated be- pany got also the maintenance con-
tween 10 and 22" C before being add- tract, and the contract to move a 14. Quality control
ed; in cold weather, sand and gravel crane from dry doek to dry doek. A As quality takes first place, quaüty
can be heated by steam. In winter, special installation on tracks was in- control for this complicated
additives are used which have a less vented to perform this move within prefabrication-job with a tight
retarding effect than normal; cooüng hours and without dismantling the schedule was considered as a special

74
13 ,ht ,
Scaffolding

tooi in itself. It was therefore decided

to install a department where both
parties, principal and contractor,
could work together f or achieving one
goal: quality!
Although it was obvious that there
would be certain moments of conflict
of interests between the construction
and quality department, both were
sufficiently aware of each other's
duties and goals that mutually accep-
table solutions could always be
found.

15. Special features

The concrete piers are fitted out with
some special features which influ-
enced the fabrication of the piers,
and also of certain interest for off- Special Additional concrete cover
shore construction. These features to be installed after thick 70 mm
are: placing the piers
a. Protection againsf faiiing stones
Extensive tests showed that the
larger stones of the underwater-
sill, when dropped from the
waterline, could easily damage the
concrete piers.
This problem was solved by
deciding that the very large stones
(> 3 tons) should not be dropped,
but placed. To permit the dropping
of medium-sized stones, the pier is Temporary cover
protected at the most vulnerable 40 or 70 mm of metal sheetpiling
places by increasing the concrete
cover or adding an additional layer 14
of gunnite (fig. 14). Furthermore, a Protection against faiiing stones
temporary cover of metal sheet pil-
ing is installed to protect the
place where the concrete sill beam
is to be placed (fig. 15). Later on, a
special curtain will be hung in the
groove for the steel gates so as to
protect the sliding plates.
b. Sealing-off a pier after instaliation
in situ
Once a pier is installed, the void
between foundation and underside
of the pier has to be sealed off
from the Eastern Scheldt, the 15
reason being that the growth of Protection of pier by gunnite layer

75
 BLOW UP: doublé
clamping device
"1
1

fabric
Gravel bag in
transport situation Gravel bag in
and immediately final situation
alter placing the
piers

aer rnattress [ Lower mattress

16 grouting system be incorporated in 16. Conclusion

Sealing bag around the pier the concrete base plate and lower It should be clear that utmost care
part of the outer walls of the was taken to have high-quality piers
mussels should be prevented as caisson, as shown in figure 17. available within the short time plan-
well as settlements of lime or One of the main problems was to ned for their construction (general
sand. At a later stage, this void make the connection between pipe view, fig. 19). This quality should not
will have to be completely filled and concrete pressure-resistant only ensure the lifetime of the struc-
with grout. because grouting operations will ture (200 years), but also the safety jf
It took a number of alternatives take place inside the pier under at- the workers in the caisson when
and experiments to arrive at the mospheric conditions at 30 m undergrouting at 20 - 30 m below sea
final solution: a sealing bag, flexi- under water! level.
ble enough to close an opening of d. Sandballasting the pier (fig. 18) Although no piers have been placed
variable height (fig. 16). The bag For final stability, the piers wiil be yet, flooding the dry doek (fig. 20)
can be easily loosened after the filled with sand. This is done by a showed that the piers are watertight.
piers have been installed and is circuiating system of a sand/water Trials with the lifting-vessel Ostrea
sufficiently robust of construction mix, where the sand will settle in- have shown that lifting the pier with
to withstand forces during installa- side the caisson, and the water is its sealing bag and transporting it to
tion, transportation and grouting. returned by pumping it out. Tests its final location is no problem either.
c. Undergrouiing atter instailation have shown that for a good
To have a complete connection distribution over the various com- Therefore confidence is justifiable
with the foundation, the void be- partments, the inner walls should that the prefabricated piers will arrive
tween pier and foundation mat- be perforated with a number of safely at their final location and that,
tress will have to be filled with smaller op'enings. In this 'remote by installing them in one quick opera-
grout. It was of importance for the controlled' way, the caisson will tion, they will have tremendously
construction of the pier that the be filled for approximately 90%. reduced the risky work at the site.

17
Details of undergrouting system

Outlet pjpe
ovérpressure water and grout

Giout pipe with valvas

for undergrouting central part

~
Consti
no flnes
ruciionconcrele
floor
I ''
| Basa plate \£

76
18 Box gifder bridqn

Sandbailasting system
f.vvatei

A.O.D.

Feed-in ol sand-water mixture

Holes in innerwalls

79
General view of prefabrication of
piers

F/rsf prefabrication dry doek flooded ! ft;

77
J. Brants
Dosbouw, contractor Construction aspects
Labour and social aspects of the barrier
construction

Introduction nection with the seabed construction dependent on cold weather situa-
Labour aspects are very much related {filter mattre$s)-towing-placing in- tion;
to the kind of work involved. cluding the sill construction indicated — in winter, a longer waiting time for
— Large- or small scaled; that for each pier a total of 290 work- the shrinkage of the prestressing
— planning all or not tied -(normal ing days was available with an inter- system, a.s.o.
40 hours' work week possibly with val of 8 working days between them.
overtime, doublé shift or con- It is shown on figure 3 that the 290
tinuous working day of 24 hours); Figure 2 shows the elaboration of days set aside for each pier wou ld be
— smaller or larger repetition effect this construction schedule divided in- maintained for the entire construc-
(partly retrained (un)skilled to the construction- and prestressing tion of the 66 piers while the gain in
labourers can be employed). stages. Next to each stage the labour time obtained by the repetition ef-
force and their staff are shown. fects could be used to get the above-
The construction of the 66 prestress- It was decided to work according to a mentioned required slack time. As
ed concrete piers for the storm surge so calied conveyor (assembling line) can be seen the total working time
barrier presents a large scale project belt system which means: one shift for a pier could be reduced to 242
involvlng the planning of normal 40 and its staff will always remain at the working days. Equipment and staff
hours' work week (except the large same construction stage. To cope employed are based on this last
concrete pours) and a major repeti- with downtlmes in the conveyor figure for economical reasons.
tion effect. A general view of the system, slack time between construc-
planning of, and labour force for each tion stages is required to deal with Figure 4 shows the management
pier and an insight into the overall delays in one stage in view of the structure of the construction team
planning and organisation is next stage. which proves to be the most effective
necessary. one.
Delays may be caused by e.g,: The graph indicating the average
Schedules and labour — break-downs and transport of estimated and actual labour force is
Construction stages equipment; shown in figure 5. At the start we us-
Each of the 66 piers is divided into 7 — strong wind force which affects ed more than the estimated figures
construction stages and one stage only tower crane handling; while later on the repetition effect in-
for flnal finishing activities (figure 1). — unforeseen repair work on con- ferences the graph more than we ex-
The first studies for the construction crete structures; pected. Every newly started construc-
of the piers in three dry docks in con- — concrete pours and injectionwork tion phase has its own problems

1
Construction stages of a pier

78
 aso _ 3^o i — |

Planning of the construction stages WorUnj Dan I

4, una Construclion ïloor

cz^z Concreto structufe &
•••i Prasirssslng stage
Q Conatrucllon stage
0 Finishing »i:l.v,llas

Planning of 66 piers

DDD
DnnG DDDO
nnD• QÖDD
DDDD D
D DO QODD
DD
GDDD
aooo

Organisation scheme of construction

team
Eqjlpmenl
Deparirnent

Malntflnance Planning
ÊIMilclty P r aperlng
pl
Wïithopi Project Adm |n lal rat! on
Induslrlal allalrs

\ \ \

Gen fortman Gen loieman Qfln. lommen Qen. f araman

Construct Ion sto( Constructlan stage Concrellng Shotcreilng
1-2-3 150 7

Qen. actures Hel nforcfl ment Ralnforcemenl Preparing Ürlib laating

Workshopg Shoaihirtfl Fil
FiHlng sirands
i Batch Ing yard Epoicy
Qllrï PreslraeBlng Shutter Prestroaslng Tiftnsport Shktl
Anthors mjecllon Pouilng
Shutterlng F in al lóuct.

Graph of estimated and actual labour

force

79
Unemployment figures 1974 • 1981
* » * Alternntlna rauta hovercraM

Pareentago Itbour loiea

Q AIHinMIvo buiWIn,

AHTWetlPEN o
Map of Delta area with information

while a repetition effect continues to trade operative is used to travelling reduce overtime in connection with
affect figures to a greater extent than daily and his car is partly be financed the ever-growing unempioyment
expected. by the employer in the form of travell- figures of the past years and we were
ing expenses. The worker is therefore able to satisfy this aim in the manner
Labourresources quite willing to drive over a long described (figure 8).
The recruitment of the labour force distance. Solutions were searched in
was started towards the end of 1978 the form of transport by coach and to The crews performing dredging ac-
•beginning of 1979 at the very time reduce travelling hours which normai- tivities — anchor handling, rubble
when the national unemployment ly will also be paid by the employer. placing (siii), in short, all those
figures in Holland were at its lowest The auxiliary bridge proved to be the workers falling under the so-called
since years (figure 6). In the light of most economie one. The longest Dredging Collective Labour Agree-
the experience of the past years ob- travelling time is around 2x1 Vz hours ment are used to stay at work-camps.
tained with other offshore concrete and is still acceptable according to Most of them are working in shifts of
structures which are always more or the collective labour agreement 12 hours with a total of 44 hours a
less built in outlying areas, studies which concedes 11V4 hours away week. A work camp with a capacity of
were made how and when the re- from the worker's residence. 250 occupants is therefore being
quired labour force could be obtained established in the vicinity of the pro-
with particular reference to the West Shift working ject.
Brabant area. There remained the problem of a dou-
blé shift (2x12 hours) for the concrete The whole complex is divided into:
The working site is located on an ar- pour gang. a. one general service building with a
tificial island which means transport In general the Dutch building common dining-day- and entertain-
by boat or over an auxiliary bridge of operative is used to living at home ment room (TV, reading, billiards,
3 km length (figure 7). Several studies and shows no wlllingness to stay in tabie-tennis/kitchen a.s.o.);
for other construction sites nearer to labour camps. For the doublé shift b. five separate one-storey buildings
populated areas were made but work of the concrete pour gang a with 50 bedrooms each {night- and
transport problems of the solution was found in consultation day shifts do not mingle).
prefabricated piers forced us to main- with the governemental labour in- Each guest has at his disposal one
taln the original designated construc- spectorate and the unions that within bedroom with shower and toilet; each
tion site. a 2 weeks period the working time 16 bedrooms have their own day-
To prevent difficulties with local con- should be 2x8 + 3x12 hours for the room.
tractors, arrangements were made day shift and 3x12 hours for the night
with local authorities according to shift. The total for 2 weeks being 88 Training
which no local labourers from the hours. These figures have to be Apart from a campaign for the
province of Zeeland should be reduced for meat breaks. The con- recruitment of building labourers
recruited. crete pours within a period of 2 from different parts around the Delta
Studies were made for the transport weeks were organized in such a way area and in view of the above men-
from West Brabant by Hovercraft, that each week a continuous pour of tioned low unemployment figures in-
busses and even by helicopters. Un- 3 days and 2 Interrupted pours of 3 vestigations were carried out in con-
fortunately railway connections were days and 2 interrupted pours of 8 sultation with the Ministry of Social
not avaiiable at a reasonable hours are carried out. This solution Affairs about starting reconversion
distance. In general the building agrees with a subsequent action to courses for the building trade.

80
 W( ehend piaart n Ua, ork 'Jlahlwork
8
Two weeks concrete pourlng 3
* * ï

1
FaaB m hrs

schedute 5 510 1S> \ Ï Cojistructioji Hoor 125 ma

2 113 e Consl ructionslage 1 2225
7 450 11 l i• : 2 339
2 113 f! X _ ^
3 1B20
£ ;_'
3 1920 24 i 4 1100
W 62S E) '<:m 5 510
1 2225 30 • 1 1• 6 6S5
4 1100 16 • • 7 4S0
W 62' e Avera ge 7334 m J
per 2 weeks
6 8BS ie 1!•
2 113 e
l ï
Mo Tu We Th Pr Mo Tu We Th Fr Each shift per 2 weeks

i 1i 1
Tï l ^ 12 ^ 52 houra dayworh Bnd
Shift l l =ï 11 z \
Shtlt II i l 36 rioura nlghtwork

i \ \ T* 31. Average 44 hours a w e e h

Carpenter training course program

Studies were made where as to how

and for whom, the duration of a
course and the number of trainees.
It was advisable to install the schoo!
as naar as possible to the working
site to accustom the apprentices to
the circumstances in which they
would have to work later-on and to
facilitate trips to the site for inspec-
ting in actual practice what they had
learned in class. The target and the C 4 Weeks
contents of the course were based on Carpentry and
a course which was already used for Compl Icaied
other retraining schools in parts of Shuttering
the country where industries that no
ionger proved viable had to shut
down (textile and shoe Industries).
Only some minor items calleb for The works council and the working
Each course consists of: work in carpentry shops such as condltlon act
a. 4 weeks carpentry; repair work on shuttering-recesses Concerning the socla! aspects we
reading of drawings; a.s.o. (However most of the prestress- mention
preparing of machines; ed recesses are made of steel and I the Works Council Act (WC act)
material and tooi theory; rubber). Since most of the construc- II the Working Conditions Act (Arbo
codes. tion items were prefabricated act).
b. 7 weeks carpentry of shuttering; wherever possible e.g. supports for The purpose of the Works Council
operatlng carpentry machines; reinforcement steel in which Act is the proper performance of the
practical measuring; prestressing Items such as anchors enterprise and representation of the
maintenance of tools; and sheathing were fixed Interests of the employees of the
theory of concrete; simultaneously, the apprentices in enterprise. The Working Council Act
carpentry from drawings. the second course were more is compulsory with 100 and more
c. 4 weeks carpentry of compticated prepared for these activities in steel employees and the number of
shuttering; work instead of only carpentry work. members of the Works Council Act
additional theory. In total 87 apprentices attended a are:
course, 75 of which with good 7 members eiected by 100-200
After the first course we learned that results, 5 went to the site before employees
on a large-scale project like the finishing the course and 7 left the 9 members electect by 200-400
Eastern Scheldt barrier the appren- course. employees
tices were very disappolnted that After two years 50% of the appren- 15 members eiected by 1000-2000
they had not the chance of putting in- tices are still on the site. From the employees.
to practice what they had learned. other half approximately 75% are still
The fact being that nearly all shutter- active in the building trade. Nomination of candidates by the
ing was prefabricated outside in With the ever growlng unemployment trade unions and of employees who
workshops so that only very small figures prolongation of the course are not member of any trade unions.
quantity of carpentry work was proved no Ionger necessary after two Works Councils consult with manage-
available. years. ment at least 6 tlmes annually.

81
For the first time since the Works ing inspection tours of the firm. Genttal business slluation
Anmjal accounts
Counci! Act was implemented the There must be regular work consulta- Long Mrffi plan
Personel pollcy in the
joint venture Dosbouw was obliged to tions between management and {a conifng year

Install a Works Council: the main delegation of) employees in divisions

Informaties and
rights and duties are mentioned in which may be regarded as working discussion

figure 10. The marked subjects are units.

largely not applicable to a Works Firms will be obliged to employ ReoroanJzallons, lake ouers,
marge/s
Oppertunlty lo state Important inveslments
Council of a joint venture. speciallsts in the areas of safety, lis views (advise) Inlended flppolnlmenl or
dlsmissal of the miinaglno.
health and welfare. Services may be
A summary of the hierarchical com- set up by one or more firms together.
munication in an enterprise or joint The specialized services advise and
venture, the supplementary com- assist employers, employees and ; Appolntmenl mflmbers of
munication and the communication Works Councils. aupanilsöry board
Personnel pollcy matter»
of the Working Council with all the concamlng
— Wage scales or other
branches of the enterprise is given in The Joint Venture Dosbouw tried to remumneratlon Gcfiïmss
— pension sohcmes, prolll
figure 11. satisfy as many of these re- sharlng plans or savlng
scheme'1
The Working Conditions Act (so- quirements as possible, though the — Working hours and
holydays
called Arbo act) became law and will Act has not yet been implemented, — SaiBty, healih. hygiëne
— PoIJce wlih regardto
be introduced gradually. It will take 8 such as introducing: recruitmenl, Iwmlnatiofl
or promoilon
to 10 years to be implemented. Basis — a safety officer; — Appralaal syslams
— Training
principles: — a safety committee to assist and — Works cDnsullallc-ns

safety; advise the safety officer;

health; — a first aid officer with a clisnen-
welfare. sary on the site; 10
The worksituation must be as safe — a weekly consulting hour of a f ui ly Survey of main rights and duties of
and as healthy as possible. These re- qualified physican for those who works councit
quirements must be fulfllled as think that they have physical com-
regards: plaints resulting from work condi-
— production and working pro- tions;
cedures; — first aid course for labourers (for
•— limitation of the effects of possi- every 25 labourers there is a train-
ble injury; ed employee).
— use of machines, tools and To prevent fraud regarding socia!
materials; liabilities of (sub) contractors, each
— prevention at the 'source'. employee on the working site has to
prove nis identity by means of a
Work must be adjusted to persona, special identity card. in consultation
factors such as age, experience, with the Government Labour Inspec-
physical and mental fitness; torate and unions the chief contrac-
work must not harm the mental and tors furnish these cards with all kind
physical health of employees; of information regarding registration
frequentiy recurring and monotonous of the (sub) contractor.
work procedures must be avolded A continuous guard during 24 hours
wherever possible; per day at the entrance of the aux-
the work situation must help iliary bridge is installed for control
employees to develop their personali- purposes. 11
ty and skills. Summary of communication Unes in
an enterprise connected with the
Concerning this kind of career work councii
development opportunitles have to be
provided such as: Suggesl ing
Managmg p.rBClors [*- -'J?^ »] work Council
— initiative; box

— organlsation of work according to

the workers' own insight;
— contact with fellow workers;
— information on purpose and
results of the work.
Viewed in this light Work Councils re-
quire the provision of consultation Wo'ks CouncM

facilities, by right so as to be inform- Management

ed by:
— the employer
— the Labour Inspectorate and
— specialized services.
It also compromises the right to talk
with labour Inspectorate officials
privately and to accompany them dur- Management Siruclurs

82
Tj. Visser
Delta Division, Rijkswaterstaat Operations
Assem bly

A consequence of the requirement

that the configuration of the Eastern
Scheldt should remain unchanged
was the decision to design a
prefabricated barrier.
The elements of which the barrier is
composed are very Iarge. The filter
mattresses have the surface of a soc-
cer pitch, the piers have the weight of
a freight vessel, the sill beams have
the size and dimensions of box girder
bridges. These elements have to be
placed under water in tidal channels
at an exposed location. The
superstructure elements like the cap-
ping units, the upper beams, the
bridges, the gates and the hydraulic
rams are also massive but can be
placed above water.
The four subjects of this paper are:
1. planning the assembly;
2. decisionmaking in design and con-
struction;
3. the supply of information on
natural conditions;
4. a manual for future use. clear at a very early stage that the 1
limitations imposed by the space the Eastern Scheldt estuary
1. Planning the assembly machines occupy would govern the
The elements that eventually com- assembly pace.
pose the barrier are in their order of The mattress laying barge Cardium
placing with its anchoring wires for instance
— the filter mattresses and in- cannot work closer than 1050 m' to
termediate seams; the preceding soll compactor Mytilus
— the protection mattress; and cannot be followed closer by the 2
— the block mattress; pier placing Ostrea than 1050 m'. Pier and congrescentre 'De Doelen'
— the piers;
— the rip-rap;
— the capping units;
— the gates;
— the sill beam;
— the upper beam;
— the rock armouring.
The machines that have been built to
place the prefabricated elements are
Iarge in comparison with the width of
the three channels in which they will
work. The working sequence is from
North to South, from the narrowest
channel to the widest, from Hammen
to Schaar to Roompot. It became Cross seclion pier

83
 Schouwen - Duiveland
Pattern of anchoring cables

These limitations are due to the

undesirability to cross anchor wires.
Another determining factor for
assembly planning is the velocity of
the tidal currents that can be ac-
cepted with regard to scouring occur-
ring in the narrowing channels.
Therefore not a!l six abutments can
be built prior to placing the filter mat-
tresses.
It became evident that the best way
to represent the assembly plan was
to put it down in the way of a road-
time diagram, vety much like railways
and airlines do. Numerous variations
were drawn up until In April 1982 Plan
600 was eventually declared the
governing scheme. This plan is based
on progress estimates of each
assembly unit. The progress JAK H&YMANS
ANCHORS
estimates are forecast after a study A t O I O R CABLES W I T H MOQRING PONTOQNS

of each handling sequence and bas- ANCHOR PlLES

AUKILIAHV BRIDGE
ed on annual wheather worse than FEMDER CA0LE
FOUNDAflOM MATRESSES 500 m
average. K - SEA BED
100

The consequences of deviations from 1985 | 1Q86

the target progress are very complex ! AbuLmeni Schouwen
and, as these are certain to happen,
an effort has been made to com-
puterize the road-time diagram in
order to enable a quick assessment
to be made of the effects on the
other operations. Abutmejil Roggenplaat Saulh
The existence of a computerized
road-tlme diagram enables the pro-
ject management to implement in ad-
vance various progress rates in the
plan. In this way the sensitivity of the
V •••/,
NttLl.t JANS

plan can be tested and an eventual

Abutment Noordland NOORDLAHD
completion date can be forecast with
a certain probability. Thus the pro-
babilistic approach that was appiied
to the design of the barrier, is also
appiied to the time schedule.

Abutmenl Noord Beveland NOOHD SEVELANO

A - CAROIUM
^ 0S7REA

STJX GIROER BRIDGE * CAPPING

SlLL BEAMS
N UPPER BEAMS

/
/
\
\
l„ CAP ROCK PLACING

\
s
J7/ Time-distance chart
\ V

1
\
\ 'I
1 Flnnrf

Velocity of tidal current in Roompot Probability of completion in time

84
 Work tïone plus
'- commitments
s 8( Actual eatim^te
- Orlglnal estimate
Includlng «scalalion
- - -'- 72%

5 )%
/
/
/

•»»»

1976 1978 1980 1982 1934 1986

Preliminary . Datalled , Assembly

design design *
construction

Development of cost estimate and ex-

penditure

8
Deveiopment of cost estimates for
some North Sea projects 19Ï0 1972 1974 1976

Year of estimate

2. Decision-making in design and design is accepted by all par- so as to render them able to judge
construct Ion ticipants. General acceptance of the the soundness of the contractors'
In an earlier article it has been ex- design adds greatly to the motivation decision with regard to quality, time
plained that a contract has been con- of the design managers that con- and cost.
cluded with a consortium of civil secutively are in change of construc- This requires a change in the
engineering contractors. This con- ting what they have designed. employe's organization at the time
tract f ixes the terms under which During construction however the when the construction progress is so
prices are negotiated for design work roles of employer and contractor fast that quick decisions must be
and for construction. The implication become more distinct. The contractor made. Authority of a single man tak-
is that the same group of engineers is given a fixed price contract for a ing decisions must replace the group
is involved first in the design and portion of the Job and his personnel decision-making process of the
later in the construction. This was is in charge of operations with the design period.
especially necessary because design aim of profitable progress. The
work had to be done whilst construc- designers become inspectors and as 9
tion was already under way, at first such must not interfere with the con- Organization chart of contractor in re-
on the closed dam scheme, later on struction line of command. They must lation to clients, design staff and su-
the barrier scheme. A second con- be so informed at each decision level pervisory staff
tract was placed with a consortium
of construction contractors for the
Employer
fabrication and placement of the Contractor
Pro|ect Group
steel gates and electro-mechanical Board of Dlrector Poste rschalde
equipment. This latter contract is a
fixed price contract with variation _L
clauses for adjustment to escalation. Supervlsory Boards Project Group Storm Surga Barrier

The design process takes place in • I Project Manager •

mixed groups representing the clvil Agento Resident Engeneer | Chlef Design
engineering contractor and the
employer. These groups report to a
design board that sets out the main
principles and checks the designs of
I Construction Manager
] [ Ass. Bes. Engenoors Design Groups

the various groups for consistency

with the main principles and for cost. Advlsory Groups

Decisions are made at all levels of

the design organizations by consen-
sus of the different disciplines of
engineering, This process of decision-
Sits Management
J L Site Engeneers
J Empoyers

and Construetors
making is time-consuming, but it has
Superintendent I I Inspaelors I Design Stalt
the enormous advantage that the

85
zoo

150

i: i
^ 20

50. .; c 151

ü
5 io

0 i t i
001 1 10 50 90 *" O ( 10 100
q ° Hmoln %
d
Excass Irequency in %
ExcQSB Iraq In %

10a 10b 70c

Wave frequencies F lood level frequency Wind force frequency

The above process of changing the decisions are governed by quality set-up, and the tidal currents. Efforts
organization is a contlnuous actlvity, specifications and tolerance rules are being made to also predict the
as some efements of the construction derived from an overall tolerance transportation of sands by the tide
pass from the design to the construc- guideiine. The five construction and wave action.
tion stage earlier than others. groups consist each of about 30 The forecasts are put at the disposal
Therefore during the past two years government employees. They are sup- of the contractcr and the engineer to
the organizations of both the ported by just as many civil servants enable accurate planning of the
employer and the contractor have providing information, or furnishing operations in the channels at regutar
gradually been changing from being support facilities to the construction times. If ordered in advance, extra
design-orienied to construction- groups. forecasts can be made for special oc-
oriented. The information and support func- casions. The information thus
tions are: available is accessible round the
The values of work done per annum — survey and underwater inspection; clock through an operator's counter
is in the order of fl. 600/700 mllllon — risk analysis and tolerances on site, to which metereologists,
under a multitude of contracts — research and natural conditions; hydrologists and hydrographers supp-
averaging f!. 20 tnilüon each. — architecture and landscaping ly their data. The operators have ac-
The assembly contracts are divided — administration and secretariat. cess to the information through writ-
into five groups. The manager of each ten bulletins, radio broadcasts and
group is also in charge of supervising 3. The supply of information telephone enquiries.
the prefabrication of the appurtenant The storm surge barrier is situated on
elements. a most unfriendly coast. It is typified 4. A manual for future use
The five groups are of similar by shifting sands off unruly banks, Upon compietion the barrier will be
relevance. storms generating incoherent waves placed under the authority of Rijks-
and deforming the tidal curves to waterstaat (Ministry of Public Works).
They are: dangerous values, fogs that reduce A complete set of revision documents
— soil improvement and abutments; the world to a few square meters. must accompany the handing over.
— mattress laying and rock placing; The prefabrication method reduces These documents consists in a writ-
— placing of piers and construction the opportunities of placing construc- ten design bibliography plus draw-
of special plant; tion elements to less than two hours ings. The information contained in
— placing of bridges, superstructure around the low water turn of the tide. the revision documents must be so
and capping units; There are only 10 such windows in a comprehensive that the control
— placing of the steel gates and working week of 126 hours. Many of authority will be able to tracé back
mechanical structures. them will be useless due to bad every construction detail.
Each group has three decision levels. weather. The remaining windows are During design and construction
Decisions can be made autonomous- precious and should be precisely therefore the catelogue of data must
ly by each group manager as long as forecast for optimum use. Therefore a be kept up to date. The time span of
the effects of his decisions do not af- unique facility has been created, call- 10 years from concept to delivery is
fect the other groups. This is not ed the hydro meteo centre, which too long for the work to be allowed to
often the case therefore many cross- makes special forecasts for the area be done at the end of construction
references have to be made, controll- not only as regards the weather, but period if for no other reason than
ed by the project management. The also for the resulting waves, the tidal staff rotations.

86
11
Measuring instrument for sand in
suspension

LEGEND:
Ai INSTRUMENT CAmsren
ABSORQTION RECEIVING
B: 50IL SAMPLING DEVICE TflANSOUCER
TRANSMITTINO
C: TRANSDUCER CONFIGURATION TRANSDUCEH
D: ECHO SOUNDER rPiJKSMISSlON
THANSDUCER

ACCOUSTIC DOPPLËR SAMPLER OPERATION MODE

WITH COMBINEQ ABSORBTION AND TRANSM1SSION

Also the control unit must have a

maintenance manual based on obser-
vations made and experience gained
during construction. For that purpose
some engineers of the operating
department are already working on a
draft maintenance manual within the
project organization. such as the fishing industry, the
The decision whether fo open or ecologists and the pofder authorities
close the gates will have a wide ef- responsible for the sea walls.
fect on the environment of the During the construction period the
Eastern Scheldt basin. The results four subjects discussed above form
wltl affect different interests in part of the daily concerns of the pro-
sometimes conflicting ways. For in- ject management team.
stance closure at low tide will The multifunctional purpose of the
negatively affect marine life on the barrier enlarges the scope of ex-
mud flats that will remain uncovered perience gained by the builders
during more than one ebb tide. The beyond pure technicalities.
maintenance of the sea walls around It is our conviction that this kind of
the basin will however, be adversely experience has a value that can not
affected if closure takes place during be expressed in money, but which
high tides. will make the barrier construction
A study is under way to define profltable when put to use world-
various strategies for closure and wide.
opening responding to possible ap- An other, more direct, source of in-
proaching calamities such as storm come is the sale of the special plant
surges or sea pollution. The result of that has been financed by the
the study will be that the barrter con- employer. Already, even before the
trol unit will have at lts disposal vessels are at work, a world-wide
automated operating programs that campaign is advertising the
can be run from the control tower. capacities and the possible use of
Emergency handling of each pair of the equipment. The expertise in doing
gate pistons is an option that will be unusual things with unusual
built into the box girder bridge. machines is also avallable through
The operating strategies will be our contractors, who by the time our
discussed prior to being laid down job is finished will be perfectly
with all relevant parties in the area, capable and willing to serve you.

87
12 Introduclion
Design brief History of design
Relatlon to othar projects
Part 1 Description of design
Limit States
Geology
Genera) Morfology
Naturel condltions
Ecology
Landscaplng
Design criteria
Risk Analysls
Future use and meintenance

Part 2 Ancillerles
i Soll impvOMement and compactlon
Fllterbed construction
Marine works Rock sill construction
Seabed protectlon
Survey equipment

Part 3 Shlpping Lock

i Plers
Sill beams
Concrete works Bridge
Abutments
Control building

Part 4 Lock doors

i Drop gates
Mechanical works Hydraulic Rams
Electrlcal

I
Malntenance and services

I Verification of design under loading condition

H Maintenance guide limit
IE Reierence for interested parties

Outside water level

13 Water tevel storm surge Febr.1.1953
A closing strategy example

Poster schelde basin

Barrier aperture

14000

12 24 36 48 hours

88
R. de Leeuw
Dosbouw, contractor Operations
Transport and placing of 18,000 tons piers

Introduction 25x50 m, a height of maximum 40 m

Building a storm surge barrier in the and a maximum weight of 18,500
Eastern Scheldt surroundings poses tons, will serve as a foundation for
many problems caused by prevailing the other concrete components, such
natural conditions. The Eastern as the road bridge box girders, sill
Scheldt, an iniet of the North Sea, beams, upper beams and sliding
although not subjected to offshore steel gates.
conditions, is still affected by rather
strong wave movements. During History
operations waves may reach a signifi- Apart from various genera! quality
cant height of one metre, and under aspects an important factor involved
extreme circumstances equipment in the assembly of a prefabricated
and construction may have to withs- construction is to make everything
tand wave heights of up to 2.50 m. fit. This is of particular relevance in 1
Another of the prevailing cir- the construction of the storm surge Eastern Scheldt area
cumstances is the tide. (n the present barrier.
situation a maximum current velocity In order to ensure that the road
of 2.50 m/sec occurs at least once a bridge box girders, the sill beams, up-
year. As during construction the per beams and, in particular, the
channel openings are reduced this sliding steel gates will fit properly,
velocity will increase to a maximum tolerances in respect of translational
of 6 m/sec. displacements in x, y and z as well as
The third important natural condition rotations <j>x, $y and $z of the pier posi-
is the constant nriovement of sand. tions are of the utmost importance
The above mentioned tidal currents (fig. 3). Concrete pier
cause the sand to be swept up from
the river bed when the current veloci-
ty increases and to be deposited
again when velocity decreases. The
total quantity of sand shifting across
the axis of the barrier amounts to
between 25.106 and 50.108 m3 per
year. These natural conditions were NORTH SEA sldo
decisive factors in the choice of a
design and a corresponding method
of construction based, as far as
possible, on prefabricated elements.
This plan reduces construction risks
Uiftlng yokes
in the three channels. Now, a number
of assembly operations of restricted
duration can be carried out when
prevailing conditions are most
favourable.

The largest components are the 66

prefabricated concrete piers which
are to be installed on a foundation
bed, laid beforehand and itself also
prefabricated. The piers themselves,
with bottom slab dimensions of

89
 This proposal also caused a great positioning of the pier within the
deal of design problems which were same turn of the tide period. This re-
retated to: quirement and the fact that the lifting
— possible damage of the foundation vessel has to be moored within the
bed by the spuds; shortest possible time, have led to
— too great a load on the legs in ex- the design of a dual-purpose mooring
treme conditions. and cleaning-up pontoon, equipped
In the meantime, however, several with a dustpan suction head, about
other alternattves had been studied 28.50 m in width.
Local grid and developed both in theory and in The final decision, therefore, favoured
the iaboratory. On this basis of the use of a lifting vessel, the Ostrea,
calculations and tests with the model to collect the pier in the construction
the final choice was that of a lifting doek, and to transport it to the
vessel without legs. designated location in one of the
This lifting vessel, secured by an channels.
eight cable mooring system, will posi- After arrival on site the vessel will be
tion the piers within tolerances of 30 secured to the mooring and cleaning-
Because of this tolerance problem a cm in the x and y-direction and within up pontoon, the Macoma.
lifting vessel equipped with four legs 7 mm/m rotation about the z-axis. Just before the turn of the tide lifting
was initially envisaged. This would Together with tolerances for the foun- vesse! and mooring pontoon together,
lower the pier with great accuracy to dation bed of plus or minus 15 cm in secured by eight mooring cabies, will
just above the foundation bed which z-direction, of 8 mm/m in <tv direction be warped so that the pontoon, in
would already have been cleaned and and of 4.50 mm/m in <t>y direction, passing over the foundation bed, can
levelled to tolerances of plus or these positioning tolerances result in perform the final dredging operation.
minus 25 cm. an acceptable solution for the pro- Around the turn of the tide the pier is
With the pier in this position the re- blem of fitting the other components. then installed within the required
maining space between the bottom These tolerances, however, are tolerances.
slab of the pier and the foundation related to deformations existing dur-
bed would then be filled with grout. ing the final stages of the operation Short description of equipment
An operation such as this would and due only to deformations in the Ostrea: measurements and output
restrict all six variables of the pier foundation. This means that sand The Ostrea (fig. 5) is a vessel with a
within precise parameters. Although must be prevented from being U-shaped huil which can be position-
it would have been the ideal solution deposited on the foundation bed ed around a pier. The principa! par-
to the tolerance problem, it had to be itself and between foundation bed ticulars are:
abandonned for a number of reasons. and installed pier, as this could be length 87.25 m, width 47.00 m, depth
The most important ones were: swept away in the final stages anti 12.50 m, well width 22/16 m, well
— the vulnerability of the grouting cause extra deformation. Conse- length 69.75 m, draught approx. 10.00
operations; quently, the foundation bed has to be m, height above waterline when load-
— the duration of the operationai cy- swept clear of sand just before the ed 47.00 m, total machinery output
cle in the channel, particularly if 6,845 kW (9,300 hp).
account were to be taken of possi-
ble interferences, and the ensuing
risk of extreme conditions which
the equipment might not be able Li ft ing vessel with tegs
to withstand.
An alternative solution was based on
the idea of a foundation bed, laid
with the utmost precision, upon
which the pier could be directly in-
stalled. Within this solution the
variables in z and $x and 4>y would be
determined by the foundation bed.
The installing operation would then
be subject only to certain re-
quirements in respect of tolerances
in the x and y-direction and in rota-
tion about the z-axis.
It was thought that the problem
might possibly be resolved by using a
lifting vessel equipped with spuds
which would rest on the foundation
bed. Then, with the aid of a guiding
frame, the pier couid be positioned
between the legs of the vessel with
the greatest accuracy in x and y as
well as in «lydirection.
Uvel loundatlon bad

90
After the hoisting tackles of the
Ostrea have been attached to the pier
the well is closed off for added
strength with a heavy boom of 3.50 x
1.80 m.
Hoisting equipment: in order to lift
the pier two gantry cranes, rising
respectively 36 m and 24 m above
deck level and equipped with multiple
lifting systems with a lifting capacity
of about 10,000 tons, have been
mounted on the vessel. Each gantry
crane has four tackles from which a
heavy hoisting beam is suspended. 87.25
Each tackle consists of two
28-sheave blocks and a cable of 64
mm diameter. Furthermore, for mooring in the con- such that it is tapered in width. The
Each hoisting beam has two clam at- struction doek and to assist in the principal partlculars are:
tachments which fit imderneath the coupling operation the vessel is length of huil 45.00 m, length overall
pier's lifting yokes. equipped with two ancillary winches 67.10 m, width 33.60/47.50 m, depth
The 315 kW winches, installed below of 300 kN, producing a pulling power 5.80 m, draught 2.25 m, freeboard
deck, are of the continuous type, and of 750 kN. 3.55 m, total machinery output 5,050
consist of a separate hauling and a Propulsion: kW (6,860 hp).
separate winding winch. after detailed studies the vessel has Mooring: the mooring of the vessel is
Pier buffers: been equipped with some propulsive carried out with the aid of eight win-
during transport the pier is kept in power of its own to increase its ches, i.e. four 1,000 kN, two 900 kN
position aboard the vessel by ten buf- manoeuvrability in the construction and two 600 kN winches. The vessel
fers of which four are positioned doek and during mooring operations is connected to the Ostrea by means
lengthways, four sideways at deck in the channels. of the afore mentioned 8,000 kN
level and two sideways in the lower At each of the four corners of the coupling system.
gantry. Ostrea a Schottel rudder propeller For this operation the Macoma is
The buffers consist of heavy with an output of 1,335 kW (1,800 hp) equipped with four horizontally
hydraulically operated rams with a has been installed. mounted hydraullc rams of which two
nominal operating pressure of 220 Additional propulsive power during are positioned lengthways and two
bars. transport Is provided by tugs. sideways.
Mooring: Control: Each cylinder transfers the required
for mooring purposes four 800 kN an- all operations are controlled from a pulling power via two steel cables to
chor winches, each with a pulling central control room equipped with a a steel ring fitted over the pin con-
power of 1,400 kN, have been install- general control console and separate struction on board the Ostrea.
ed on board the Ostrea. In the ends ones for mooring, lifting and Dredging installation
of the U-shaped huil heavy coupling navigating operations. The Macoma is equipped with a
pins which can transfer a load of dredging ladder. Mounted on this lad-
8,000 kN have been mounted to con- Macoma: measurements and output der and supported by rollers are six
nect the Ostrea to the Macoma. The shape of the Macoma (fig. 6) is dustpan suction heads designed to

91
 Mooring and cleaning-up pontoon Ma-
coma

clean up the foundation bed. The

heads are each 4.7Q m wide and the
overall width, inclusive of spaces bet-
ween the heads, is 28.50 m.
For every three suction heads an
underwater pump has been installed
powered by an electric motor with an
output of 800 kW and with nominal
capacity of 2.30 m3 of sand/water
mixture per second.
To bring the sand deposits into
suspension a jet system consisting
of three rows of jets with a total out-
put of 0.04 rrvVsec/m has been install-
ed on top of the heads. Additionally,
air can be pumped through the jets at
a nominal amount of 2 nvVsec under
a pressure of 4 bars. The shape and
dimensions of the dustpan heads
were decided upon after extensive
tests with a model on a scale of 1 to
4.
Control:
the Macoma also has a central con-
trol room equipped with a general
control console and separate ones
for dredging and warping operations.

Operating meihod
Mooring
The various craft used in the building
of the storm surge barrier cannot be
anchored in the conventional way as
this could damage the exiensive mat-
tresses already laid \o protect the
seabed. To rnake mooring possible
within the working site anchor piles
have been installed. These anchor
piles consist of tubular poles with a
diameter of 1.40 m, driven 10 to 15 m
into the seabed and protruding 1.50
m above it.
On top of each anchor pile a revolv-
ing head piece has been mounted to
which, via a shaft and shackle, a
mooring line of 84 mm is attached.
The piles can withstand an operating
load of 200 tons and have a breaking
load of more than 300 tons. Whilst
the anchor pile is not in use the

92
Block mattress on top of the filter
mattresses

Upper tilter mattrass a i n 6 0 m

Lowar filter maHress 42xao0m

mooring line is attached to a buoy by

means of a hauling wire.
When a working vessel is to be
moored to such an anchor pi Ie the
mooring line is hauled above water
by means of the hauling wire and
coupled onto the anchor cable of the
vessel concerned. 8
Laying the block mattress with the
Preparations along the banier axis in Dos I and Macoma
the channets
The foundation bed consists of
prefabricated filter mattresses laid by
a specially developed rig (fig. 7).
There are two mattresses the first of
which measures 42 x 200 m and con-
sists of three filter layers, containing
respectively sand of 0.3-2.50 mm,
gravel-sand of 2-8 mm and gravel of
8-40 mm.
The second mattress, measuring 31 x
60 m, consists of three layers of
gravel of 8-40 mm and serves as a
protective covering for the first
underlying mattress immediately
beneath the base of the pier.
As the filter mattresses are laid at a
centre to centre distance of 45 m
there is some space left between
them which will be filled with loose
filter material.

After the mattresses have been laid a

very accurate profile of the founda-
tion bed is made. On the basis of this
profile two block mattresses with
counter profiles are manufactured
consisting of concrete blocks con-
nected to each other by steel cables.
These block mattresses will be posi-
tioned on top of the filter mattresses
in order to obtain as flat a surface as
possible.
The positioning of these block mat-
tresses will be carried out by the pon-
toon DOS I which, for years, has been
involved in seabed protection opera-
tions (fig. 8).
The block mattresses are manufac-
tured on a loading quay and are

93
Anchoring system of the Dos I and
Macoma

wound onto a floating cylsnder which

is then towed and attached to the
DOS I.
Before these block mattresses can be
laid, however, the foundation mat-
tresses have to be cleaned up
because of possible deformations af-
fecting tolerance parameters, as has
already been mentioned. These
cleaning-up operations are carried
out by the Macoma which, for anchor-
tng reasons, will be working in the
channel at least four pier locations
ahead of the pier most recently in-
stal led. The vessel will be moored
partly to anchor piles and partly to
piles on shore or to piers already
positioned, depending on the loca-
tion (fig. 9).
The greater part of the sand deposits the time needed to position a pier, no As the pier is hollow and contains no
which, in some areas, may be many instailing operation will be started water, It develops its own buoyancy
metres thick will be dredged by the after 19.00 hours on Thursdays. When of 9,000 tons. The greatest load to be
Macoma and removed downstream it has been decided to go ahead with liüed by the Ostrea is, therefore, in
via a 300 m long floating pipeline. the installation t>f the next pier the the case of the heaviest pier about
After this 'preliminary' cleaning-up Ostrea, under its own propulsive 9,500 tons (18,500 minus 9,000 tons).
process DOS I will be moored to the power and using ancillary anchoring When the Ostrea lifts the pier from
Macoma at the turn of low tide. Then, points on shore, will manoeuvre itseif the bottom of the construction doek
at the turn of the next high tide, the around the pier concerned. The the draught of the vessel will in-
cylmder with the block mattress will hoisting tackles will then be paid out crease by about 6.50 m to 9.50-10.00
be towed to the DOS I. Again six and the claw attachments fitted m, depending on the weight of the
hours later, at the next turn of low under the lifting yokes of the pier. pier to be lifted.
tide, the combined Macoma and DOS After the claw attachments have To keep the pier in piace horizontally
I will be warped first seawards for the been fastened onto the concrete lif- hydraulic buffers have been fitted
final clean-up of the foundation bed ting yokes the closing beam is fitted around the well and along orte of the
by the Macoma, and then iandwards and secured across the open side of gantries of the Ostrea.
for the block mattress to be laid. the well. The pier can now be lifted The draught of the suspended pier
After this operation has been com- (fig. 10). itself will be about 11 metres.
pleted it will be decided whether the
next block mattress is to be laid or
the approprlate pier is to be installed. 10
This decision depends on progress, Lifting device of the Ostrea
location, weather conditions, the
amount of sand deposits, mooring
pattern and many other factors.

Activities of the Ostrea in We con-

struction doek
After a pier has been installed the
Ostrea will return to the construction
doek. A decision is then to be made
as to whether the vessel should be
moored alongside the specially con-
structed jetty or around a pier, or
whether it should lift the next pier.
This decision will also depend on the
progress of operations, weather con-
ditions, sea conditions in the channet
as wel! as on the actual day and
A: Hoisting tackels
time. The whole operational process B: Claw attachments
is based on three shifts working a six Cs Concrete lifting yokes
day week. This means that, in view of

94
11
Routes from construction doek to
Hammen, Schaar and Roompot chan-
nels

The lifting vessel with the pier will

then manoeuvre out of the construc-
tion doek.
Transport:
depending on where they are to be in-
stalled, the piers will have to be
transported over distances of up to
23 km as only navigable channels
between the existing sandbanks can
be used.
The depth of the routes to be taken
should be 15 m beiow Amsterdam
Datum Point to allow for a low tide
level of 2 m below Amsterdam Datum
Point, a keel clearance of one metre
and a tolerance of one metre to take
into account possible sanding-up and
sounding errors. The channels to be
used should be 200 m wide at a level
of minus 15 m, this being about twice
the vessel's diagonal. After arrival towards the turn of low the Macoma. During this cleaning-up
Transport is planned to take place tide the Ostrea will be moored to the operation certaln complications oc-
with the flow of the current. The re- Macoma. The combined vessels will cur. These are due, on the one hand,
quired power, however, is determined be secured with an eight cable an- to dredging restrictions in a horizon-
by the condition that the Ostrea, for chorlng system (flg. 12). tal direction, caused by the presence
reasons of safety, must be able to of loose materlal between two foun-
travel with a speed of 0.50 m/sec in Instailing the pier dation mattresses, and, on the other
relation to the seabed against the After the vessels have been moored hand, to the change in distance bet-
flow of the current which, along the at the turn of low tide the Instailing ween the dustpan heads and the
transport routes, may reach a velocity operations proper can commence. foundation bed, when covered by
of maximum 2 m/sec. It has been The foundation bed, consisting of block mattresses (tig. 13).
calculated that to achieve this an ex- two filter mattresses and com- The horizontal restriction problems
tra 4,500 kW will be needed in addi- plemented by the block mattress, will have been solved by accurate posi-
tion to the vessei's own propulsive have been cleaned up previously by tioning of the loose material through
power of 5,350 kW. This power will a pipe lowered from the vessel Jan
have to be provided by at least two 12 Hetjmans and by careful adjustment
easily manoeuvrable tugs. Anchoring system of the Ostrea and of the dustpan heads of the Macoma,
The conditions which will allow the Macoma i.e. plus or minus 0.75 m.
transport to take place and on which
the design of the quipment has been
based are:
— significant wave height 0.75 m;
— mean wave period 4 sec;
— maximum current velocity 2 m/sec;
— maximum wind vetocity 15 m/sec;
— visibility 500 m.
An additional condition is that when
the vessel leaves the construction
doek the current velocity must not ex-
ceed 0.75 m/sec.
As transport takes place with the
flow of the current, mooring facilities
have been provided at the turning
point in the estuary for the Ostrea to
await the turn of the tide (flg. 11).
The lifting vessel with the pier must
arrive at the appropriate location in
the channel when the current velocity
is diminishing and is less than 1.25
m/sec.

95
 Max 0.65m max 0.65m

Dustpan heads MACOMA

13 The maximum 0.60 m vertical check the cleaning-up process. These

Dustpan heads of the Macoma on distance between the dustpan heads detectors have been mounted in such
and between the block mattresses and the foundation bed is a result of a way that it is passible to check the
extensive tests in the laboratory. An angle between tile mat and founda-
absolutely clean foundation bed can tion mattress, in particuiar.
be achieved by the careful position- Simultaneously, the various locking
ing of the jets, which is a decisive devices and buffers between vessel
factor in ensuring the best results, and pier are retracted, and the lower-
and by the provision of a combined ing of the pier is started as soon as
water/air system for the final the current velocity reaches less than
cleaning-up operation. This operation 1 m/sec.
will be carried out only just before At the turn of the tide, when current
the pier is installed at the turn of low velocity is less than about 0.20
tide, following the low tide at which m/sec, the pier is installed onto the
the Ostrea has been moored. foundation bed within the prescribed
tolerances of plus or minus 30 cm in
The turn of low tide has been chosen the x and y-direction, and of 7 mm/m
as being the best time to install the in the <t>z direction. It has been
pier for several reasons: calculated that this operation can be
— movement of the pier during the carried out under the following wave
installing operations is dependent conditions: Hs = 0.75 whilst T = 3-4
on wave and current conditions. sec, and Hs = 0.35 m whilst T = 7-8
The turn of the tide is the most sec.
favourable period as the current
significantly decreases. Wave con- When 20 percent of the pier's weight
ditions tend to be more favourable has been transferred to the founda-
at the turn of low tide rather than tion bed the position is carefully
at that of high tide; checked.
— in the Eastern Scheldt the duration After the required confirmation has
of the turn of low tide is much been obtained the final stage of
longer than that of high tide; lowering the pier is completed.
— cleaning-up operations combined When the pier rests completely on
with the mooring of the Ostrea on the foundation bed the Ostrea will be
the Eastern Scheldt side can be disconnected. Next, gravel-filled
accomplished much more easily in bags, so-called 'sausages', attached
the current conditions prevailing to the pier's base, will be released to
at the turn of low tide. close off the cavity between the bot-
As soon as the current of the outgo- tom slab of the pier and the founda-
ing tide decreases to 1 m/sec the tion bed. The mooring lines will be
combined Macoma/Ostrea wiil be detached and the Ostrea will be
warped over the foundation bed and ready to return to the construction
the final cleaning-up operation will be doek.
carried out. In view of the fact that This whole operation will take about
the cleaning-up operation is of vital 45 hours (fig. 14). In order to carry out
importance the Macoma is equipped the operation a system of weather
not only with the normal recording in- forecasts for periods of up to 6, 12,
struments used to monitor the dredg- 24, 48 and 72 hours has been set up.
ing process, but also with a number On the basis of these forecasts
of sand detectors mounted behind subsequent decisions will have to be
the suctfon heads and designed to taken as to whether or not to proceed

96
 EBB n 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
CURRENT
VELOCITY
IN
0
MIS

Ft-OOD *•
CYCLUS OSTREA
LIFTINO OF PIER IN CONSTR. DOOK

TRANSPORT TO PLACINO LOCATION

MOORINQ AT PLACINQ LOCATION I
COUPLING TO MACOMA
DREDQINQ COUPLEO TO MACOMA

EMPLACEMENT OF PIER
DISCONNECTION OF PIER I
PLACINQ OF ORAVEL-BAQS
DISCONNECTION MACOMA / MOORINGS
TRANSPORT TO CONSTR. DOCK AND
MOORING TO JETTY
. MIN. WOHKIHO CVCLE MftCOMA APPP.OX. 50 HOURB
CYCLUS MACOMA
DREDQINQ PIER FOUNDATION I
REARRANGEMENT MOORINGS
MOORINQ / COUPLINQ DOS I

DREDQINQ COUPLED WITH DOS I

MOORING - M ATTRESSCYUNDER/
LAYINQBLOCK.MATTRESS
TOWOUT MATTRESSCYLINDERJ
DISCONNECTION OF DOS I
MOORINO COUPLINQ I OSTREA

DREDQINQ COUPLED WITH OSTREA

EMPLACEMENT OF PIER, QRAVEL-BAGS

DISCONNECTION OF OSTREA

CYCLUS DOS I +
STANDBY IN HARBOUR, TRANSPORT TO
WORK LOCATION
MOORING AND COUPLINQ TO MACOMA

DREDGINQ COUPLED TO MACOMA

MOORING OF LOADED MATTRESS-
CYLINDER
LAYING OF BLOCK MATTRESS
TOWOJT MATTRESS-CYLINDER
DISCONNECTION FROM MACOMA
TRANSPORT TO HARBOUR

14 with the next stage of the operation. As the latter process has been
Working cycle of Ostrea, Macoma These decisicns will have to be made delayed, the preparatory operations
and Dos t at the moment the pier is on the for the installation of the piers can
point of leaving the construction be carried out at a steady pace. The
doek, when the turning point half-way schedule of the whole operational
along the transport route is reached, process is set out in the diagram of
at the moment of mooring and im- figure 15.
mediately before installation of the The most outstanding date is, un-
pier. doubtedly, 1 April 1983, as by that
time the first pier is to be installed.
Schedule
The schedule of the whole opera-
tional process is dependent on the
building time and, therefore, comple-
tion dates of the various vessels in-
volved, as well as on the progress of
laying the foundation bed.

1982 1963
15 Jan Febr March April May Juns July AU9 SofiL Oct NOV Dec Jan Febr March Mov
Time schedule OSTREA
• M M
YardHrials

Start pioductlon

MACOMA
Construct ion

Training andtry-oul
Start production

DQS1
FTaconskr.ajidtrtata
Training andtry-out
Start production

97
Tti.Monnier
TNO-IBBC
Research on concrete
J.M. van Geest Durability test ing
Locks and Welrs Division,
Rijkswaterstaat

1. Introduction related to this problem-area of having Assuming that some restralning will
The Eastern Scheldt barrier must be no cracks in concrete at early age, always exist, the temperature
safe and servicable in operation du- will be explained in chapter 2. changes are directly responsible for
ring a long life set at 200 years. The prediction of the crack width in the development of stresses. On the
Moreover, the barrier wiII exist in a case of extensive concrete cover and other hand the temperature rise plays
continuously aggressive environment. big diameters of the reinforcing bars an important part in the development
Therefore the durability of the struc- needed attention. The regular for- of the concrete properties: stiffness
ture is an important aspect in design mulae do not always yield satisfac- and strength.
and construction. tory results in these cases. Investiga-
This contribution wil! give a survey of tions carried out within this field are
some of the investigations which described in chapter 3.
were carried out with respect to the
durability of concrete structural 3~ 80

elements. 2. Concrete at early ages I 50"

The hardening of concrete is the
The strategy with regard to the result of the hydratation of the ce-
durability in the design of the con- ment. The cement reaction is exother-
crete structures was to aim at un- mic. The heat produced by hydrata-
cracked concrete. Therefore most of tion can cause a considerable rise in
the structural concrete was designed temperature in the interlor of a con-
as prestressed concrete. The con- crete mass, since the conductivity of Curlng time in days

crete itself of course must be of good concrete is relatively low. Figure 1

quality and density. For the proper shows examples of the temperature Typical curves for the average tempe-
protection of the reinforcement development recorded in the interior rature in 1 m cubes (with 350 kg ce-
massive concrete covers were applied of concrete hardening under almost ment per m3 concrete) under almost
ihroughout the structures. Special at- adlabetic conditions. The maximum aóiabatic conditions
tention has been paid to the protec- temperature may reach high values
tion of the prestressing tendons and up to over 70 "C.
the anchorages, including the injec- Cracks may arise if the concrete can- concrete
mix camposlilon
tion of the cable-ducts. Finally, in the not deform freely and strain is impos- ca mem type
prüducilon o) surroundlng
hydration heat climate.
mass concrete of the pier structures ed on it. Then tensile stresses may camenl content In timB mould,
mesh-reinforcement was applied with arise and crack formation is very pro- water cement railo treaim&ni,
mïx temperature
reasonable concrete cover bable, especially within the period
c ooi Ing

underneath the full external surface when the concrete cools down again.
of these structures. The so-called
'skin-reinforcement' must ensure that To judge whether cracks wilt arise as temporal ure

the unavoidable crack-formation or a consequence of hydratation heat

dlstribuilon
proporties
local damage will be of minor impor- developing, the tensile stress occur-
tance only which will not cause any ring in the concrete act must be com-
stllfneas

reductlon in the durability. pared with the tensile strenqth foi of rastralnlng

the concrete. Both are developing in compressie

The concrete structures of the time f. To prevent cracks, the require- suanglh

Eastern Scheldt barrier and especial- ment acl < icl must be fullfiiled. lensIIe strength

ly the piers have vast dimensions. This judgement is rather complicated. L

Rather big quantities of concrete are The scheme shown in figure 2 gives
cast in situ in one pour. With regard the factors and their relations, which
to the aim of uncracked concrete, are determining the crack formation
stresses in the mass concrete at ear- under consideration. Factors determining the behauiour of
ly ages must be considered and The temperature throughout the con- concrete at early ages and the crack-
reduced if necessary. Investigations crete mass is of great importance. formation

98
 1=
E -3.0
i +40 z

j *3D
£
I-
+20- fJ
t *1
5 6 7 10
Time (days) I *a.o-
z \ f c Tensjle_strength % Faliure
.u +3.0-

The problem may be clarified 3a

somewhat furtrter by showing through - r.a.AT,.cr.£'ot</0( Temperature regime imposed f o
figure 3 the stresses which may oc- restrained prisms
cur during the period of hardening. 3b
These stresses were obtained from Note that the influence of sustained Typical stress development In a prism
experiments on concrete prisms imposed deformation has been in- fully restrained (pv = 1.0) for the tem-
measuring 150 x 150 x 700 mm. The troduced by a simple coëfficiënt cri perature deformation at early age (ac-
prisms represent conGrete from the called relaxation factor. Knowing that cording to temperature course shown
interior of a conGrete mass. The creep and relaxation refiect on iden- in figure 3a
hardening of the prisms was tical phenomena and both could af-
stipulated by imposing a temperature fect the stresses considered, only
development as might be expected in relaxation will be mentioned for Therefore it has been decided to
the conGrete mass (fig. 3a), simplicity's sake. record the rise in temperature direct
Besides, the deformation of the This simple model defines in fact the within concrete of similar compost-
prisms was restrained in the direction chief part of the objectives of the in- tion as the one to be used in the ac-
of their length. The stresses in the vestigations to be performed, since tual structure. For this purpose large
prlsm show a typical curve: during the designer must be able to cubes were cast with dimensions of 1
the increase of the temperature com- calculate the stresses by good ap- m. At several points in the interior of
pressive stresses arise. After the proximation in order to find out if these cubes the temperature develop-
temperature has reached the cracks will occur and to define the ment was measured during the first
maximum vatue, the compression measures to be taken agatnst them, day of hardening. The curing condi-
decreases gradually and changes if any, tions were almost adiabetic. The
relativety into tensile stress. Finally cubes were wrapped up in a thick
the prism breaks when the tensiie 2,1, The temperature course in con- layer of insulation material.
stress aot comes up to the minimum crete during the first days of harden- Moreover, the cubes were fabricated
tensile strength fct. ing and cured in a specific room condi-
Under the circumstances considered, Since the cement produces hydration tioned to a specific temperature. By
the change of the concrete stress Aact heat, the amount of heat liberated in these means the temperature of the
in a short period of time Af equals the a concrete mass consequently materials used, the temperature of
product of the restrained thermal ex- depends on the type of cement, the the mix and the temperature at the
pansion and the actual effective cement content, the water-cement ra- beginning of the hydration was laid
modulus of stiffness: tion and the temperature. The rate of down and maintained during the
heat development is mainly determin- recordings. Three temperature levels
A a , = - r . a . A 7 \ . c r , E'oX ed by the temperature and the were investigated, namely 10°C, 15°C
in which: hardening state in addition to the and 25° G. Each of the 12 mixes In-
Aat = change of the stress in A* other factors mentioned. The in- dicated in table 1 was treated at each
( - for compression); fluence of the various factors is well- of the three temperature levels. ln-
r = restraining factor, 0 < r < 1; known from cement chemistry and cluding 3 duplicates per temperature,
a = coëfficiënt of thermal expan- can be quantrfied for a specific type a total of 45 cubes were investigated.
sion; of cement by rather simple tests. !n table 1 the variables applied to the
Af, = temperature change in At mixes are given. Two types of cement
{+ for rise in temperature); Therefore one could assume that by were used: low heat cement type A
c, = relaxation factor, 0 =Ê c, < 1; introducting the temperature capacity (ordinary portland btast-furnace ce-
£'ot = the actual modulus of elastici- of the concrete, the rise in ment) and type B (rapld hardening).
ty in period Af, being the temperature may be calcutated. It The mixes 1-4 were especially com-
tangent to the stress-stram seemed however that the granular posed for use in the Eastern Scheldt
curve at the origin. composition of the concrete mix, the barrier. The required characteristic
water content and the use of admix- strengihs for the various elements
After a specific time tu the concrete tures may affect considerabiy the ex- amount to 45 N/mm2 and 37,5 N/mm2
stress o-cl wlll be: pectations based on that calculation. respectively.

99
 I
2.2. Development of concrete proper-
cement water- air type ties
mix content cement content cement additionals Another important item of the in-
kg/m3 ratio %
vestigations deais with the develop-
1 350 0.48 1.0 A or B • the aggregates contain ment of the concrete properties dur-
2 350 0.42 3.0 A or B 35% sand and 65% gravel ing the first hardening period.
3 325 0.50 1.0 Aof B • in mtx 2 and 4, 0.75 I Therefore test-specimens were made
4 300 0.48 3.0 A or B superplasticrzer per of more regular sizes and cured in a
100 kg cement was added special testing chamber in which the
5 275 0.56 1.0 A • in mix 6, 0.04 I air- temperaiure during the first 10 days'
6 275 0.53 4.0 A entraining agent per 100 kg hardening varies according to the
7 275 0.57 1.0 A cement was added. temperature development within
8 275 0.58 1.0 A mass concrete, as composed for the
actual structure. Of course, the con-
crete mix belonging to that
temperature development was ap-
Tabie 1 plied. The investigations concern:
Concrete mixes applied in adiabatic imum temperature occurs earlier in — cube strength using 150 mm
tests proportion at the rate of which the cubes;
temperature leve! at the beginning is — tensiie strength measured by split-
higher. The maximum temperature ting of 150 mm cubes;
recorded in various test-cubes are — the modulus of stiffness or
also shown in figure 4. The lower Young's modulus through prisms
curve in this figure concerns mixes 150 x 150 x 600 mm;
5-8, having a cement-content of 275 ~ the coëfficiënt of thermal expan-
kg cement A/m». The curves clearly il- sion by recording the elongation
lustrate the effect of the temperature of prisms 150 x 150 x 600 mm;
at the beginning of hydratation and — the deveiopment of the stresses in
the scatter that may sometimes be prisms 150 x 150 x 700 mm,
expected. However, most of the restrained for different percen-
deviations are caused by ir- tages of the temperature deforma-
regularitres in the temperature course tion.
in relative short periods of time. The testspecimens were wrapped up
Maximum temperatures recorded in 1 Moreover, the accurate starting with tight foil to prevent drying
m cubes cured under almost adiaba- temperature recorded within the mix shrinkage. Except the last ones, in
tic conditions is in many cases somewhat unstable. fact all tests concerning the strength
The drawn curve represents the and ihe stiffness were regular short-
i 70
smoothed specific results very well. term tests. The only special aspect
As appears also from figure 4 the was that the temperature during
temperature rise depends linearly on hardsning was imposed on the
60
the cement content of the mix. specimen according to a certain
The effects of the variables in the course.
E- mixes, like water-cement ratio and Special equipment was built for
the admixtures used were minor - the recording the development of the
limited range in which ihey varied - stresses. These frames allow the
and msufficient for any conclusion length of the test prism to be kept
30 based on the recordings made, The constant (= 100% restraining) or to
use of cement type A or B appeared adapt the specimen length in such a
30 40 so eo„ 70 ao to show no significant difference with way that a chosen percentage of the
Man.lsmpoiature In C fth- respect to the temperatures recorded. 'free temperature deformation' of a
In addition to the measurements of dummy prism will be restrained.
Reduction of compressive strength of the temperature developments, the in- These tests concerning the stress
the concrete due to high temperatu- vestigations on the 1 rn cubes were variation were a practical solution
res at hardening used to gain further information with afso. The tests mentioned were all
regard to the mix, the workability and carried out for several concrete mixes
the strength. The most interesting and temperature regimes imposed.
conclusion from this additional infor- The resuits of the tests which will be
Figure 1 shows typical graphs for the
mation concerns the compressive mentioned fiere, ali concern two con-
three temperature levels during
strength of the concrete from cores crete mixes designed for the Eastern
casting and curing. These curves con-
taken out of the cubes. As iliustrated Scheldt barrier and are identical to
cern the recorded average
in figure 5, the compressive strength the mixes 2A and 2B from tabie 1 (A
temperatures in the 1 m cubes with
of the concrete (measured after 28 and B refer to the cement-type used).
respect to mixes 1 and 2 (350 kg ce-
days) decreases in proportion with
ment A/m3). The imposed temperature-time rela-
the increase of the temperature dur- tions were based on the adiabetic
The maximum temperature in the ing hydration. This result is a confir-
cubes clearly depends on the cube test mentioned above and con-
mation of the well-known effect from cerned all three mixtemperatures of
temperature of the mix at the begin- cement-chetmistry.
ning of hydration. Besides, the max- 10, 15, and 25°C respectively.

100
 l'
1
• |

.. — — - 4 - ••-

s
** ^ . t 1
40 J s, > k 3
3 \

30 1- ' ....
*
Sr —
f n.
"N, 1
20

10000 - »* 0
10
0 1000 3000 5000 7000 9000

Maturity M In °Ch-
i. • u

Tlm« In hours •

6a From the development of the com- In which f'ct = compressive cube

Procedure for the determination of pressive cube strength measured, strength of the concrete. The approx-
the maturity direct relations appear between the imation of measured values is rather
6b specific curves and the curing good for all concrete mixes in-
Maturity according to temperatures. An important aspect vestigated.
Papadakis/Bresson for mix 1 and 2 with regard to the practical applica-
and three different curing temperatu- tion is the definition of a method The modulus of elasticlty has been
re regimes enabllng the prediction of the cube determined by measuring the stress-
strength, assuming a certain strain relation up to the crushing of
temperature development. the prisms. On a load level equal to
Therefore the maturity has been con- half the estimated actual prism
sidered. The idea, well-known frorn strength, unloading was performed to
literature, is to relate on an empirical consider the permanent deformation.
basis the strength oi the concrete to The deveiopment of the modulus of
the summation of (time x elasticity is very fast. From about 1/4
temperature), called the maturity. up to 3/4 of the final value, the stiff-
ness develops in about one day. The
Papadakis and Bresson (1) proposed higher the curing temperature, the
to enlarge the influence of the higher more this speeds up.
temperature ranges in the maturity,
because of their relatively favourable The Eó-values concerned are deter-
effect on the strength development. mined as the tangent at the origin of
Following this proposal, the maturity the measured stress-strain diagram.
M must be calculated as: A typicai result of the measurements
M = I f,. Ar,. /c"i is laid down in figure 7. It appears
In which t-, ~ the time during which also with regard to the modulus of
the temperature interval AT, is impos- elasticity that an empirie relation to
ed on the concrete during hardening. the compressive cube strength, as
The factor k is a material factor applicable for hardened concrete,
depending on the type of cement us- may be applied:
ed. Moreover, nt is related to specific e;t = (1800 - 4 Q • /10 f'cx N/mm2

1-
50
£
=
~ temperature Intervals (see figure 6a).
40
c
f Applying the maturity according to The coëfficiënt of thermal expansion
30
Papadakis and Bresson, the cube recorded on prisms appeared to be a
ö 20
f
c T strength obtained during the severai constant factor by veiy good approx-
1 ) %
i '9 0 curing temperature regimes are rather imation during the complete hydrata-

:- i
ii i A M i

0.24
- i
-,--
*
•-1

f- well related to one curve, as shown in tion period. This coëfficiënt shows
-± -7: figure 6b. slight variation depending on the con-
> 0.16 - crete mix. The concrete considered
ï 012 -
J From the tensile sptitting strength here delivered a = 12.10"6.
f f
tests it appeared that for the con-
l -
0.04
l - / -
- crete at early age a regular empirie The stresses in a prism restrained for
'Jru

K m
r r r relation to the compressive strength thermal deformation were recorded
2fl 3 4fl 50
Slfaln c c In 10 holds, as is valid for hardened con- extensively. Several different levels of
crete. The tensile splitting strength fcX restraining were applied. It appeared
then may be derived from: that during one temperature develop-
Typical stress-strain curve and creep r"ct = 0.28^/ /ét2 N/mm2 ment, two constant reduction factors
of a prism with f'B = 0.735 N/mm2 or ffrom for relaxation can be used. Those fac-
2
loaded after 19 hours hardening 'et = 12 + 1/20 f^ N/mm i f / ; t > 15 tors appear to be dependent on the
under warm curing conditions N/mm mix used. But they are the same, In-

101
 Cr = 0.7

Cr = 0.7 Cr=1
-1.0

o
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
Rastraining 70% »fc.Time (days)
•1.0
%
•2.0 \ fc Tenslle strength
Fa Uure

8 possibility of the hardened element, the long term durability of the struc-
Comparison between recorded and the slab, to deform together with the tures concerned, crack width limita-
calculated stress in a prism partly early age wall. Piled-up structures are tions are generally used as one of the
restrained for temperature deforma- very unfavourable in this respect Dur- measures to ensure durability.
tion at early age ing the hardening of the wall the stiff- The idea of limiting cracks widths
ness wiil increase, which means that has been applied here too, knowing
the stiffness ratio and the restraining that smaller cracks will reduce the
dependent of the temperature course factor will change during hardening. probability of excessive corrosion
and the measure of restraining. For The second aspect is the fact that in unless other phenomena overrule
the mix considered here, the relaxa- the contact area of wall and slab, their importance. The latter must be
tion factor amounts to 0.7 in the strain is imposed from point to point avoided otherwise.
period of increasing temperatures in principle. In large concrete structures, the sizes
and to 1.0 when the concrete cools This prevents the occurrence of other of the reinforcing bars and of the
down. Figure 8 shows the com- than very small cracks, if any. At a concrete cover may exceed by far the
parison for two examples, of record- certain distance from that contact regular sizes. This holds especially
ed and calculated stresses determin- area, a larger discontinuous deforma- when the structure must operate in
ed according to the anatysis shown. tion become possible and wider an aggressive environment. Then the
A caiculated curve has been drawn in cracks may arise with greater spac- problem arises that most of the prac-
figure 3 also. Generally stated the ing. tical methods known for analyzing
agreement is satisfactorily. Finally, investigations with regard to the crack width only apply to regular
All test-specimens of the stress the measures against cracking of sizes of the parameters mentioned.
recording experiment finally broke on concrete at early ages have been con- The formulae concerned may
a stress level of about 75% of the sidered. Tests were carried out to overestimate the crack width con-
recorded tensile strength. This dif- determine the effect of direct cooling siderably if the bars exceed 25 mm
ference can be explained. The by a flow of water through cooling diameter and the concrete cover is
specimen concerned failed in sec- pipes constructed wlthin the concrete
tions with about the minimum mass. Several big concrete blocks
strength under sustained loading. The provided with such cooling were
tensile strength reported before, carefully recorded. A typical result is
however, concerns the mean value shown In figure 9.
taken from short term tests. Both Theoretical study, including the com-
aspects bring about a reduction of position of a computer program for
the effective strength in the restrain- the analysis of temperature dlstribu-
ed prisms, tions are carried out (3).
The restraining of the concrete at Information obtained from the in-
hardening is evidently an important vestigations mentioned have been
aspect. succesfully applied in combination
with a lot of knowledge and ex-
Generally, two main types of restrain- perience obtained previously. It may
ing may be distinguished. One type is be understood that a full explanation
the restraining of deformations of of all aspects of these matters is
concrete fibres in a cross-section. An rather impossible within the scope of
other type concerns the restraining of the present contribution to the sym-
the mean deformation of a structural posium.
element (e.g. a wail) cast in place on 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 100 110 120
a hardened element (e.g. a slab). Both 3. Cracks in large concrete structures Time in houfs-

types wlll often occur in combination. The durability of reinforced or

Especially the latter type of restram- prestressed concrete structures re- 9
ing has been subject of investigation quires that excessive corrosion of the Effect of cooling in a concrete cross-
(2). Two important aspects in this embedded steel will be prevented. section of 650 x 650 mm with 1" pipe
matter can be mentioned. The stress Although no unique correlation can in the centre, water flow 0,48
distribution highly depends on the be shown between crack width and mVhour of 5'C

102
greater than 50 mm. This of course ? = empirie coëfficiënt depending pure tension. These specimens are
reflects on the empirie character of on the bond characteristics of drawn in figure 10. The main rein-
these formulae and the limited but the reinforcement and the forcement consists of two 40 mm
common range of variations in bar type of loading e.g. pure ten- bars or four 28 mm bars. As shown in
sizes and concrete covers applied for sion or bending. the figure, the test specimens were
the purpose of their experimental This formula is obtained from the edi- partly provided with reinforcing bars
verification. tion 1966 of the CEB-FIP Model Code perpendicular to the main reinforce-
Nevertheless there is a necessity to and extensively evaluated in ex- ment. That reflects on a common
gain a realistic idea about the crack periments. The calculated results situation in practice. The concrete
width in large concrete structures. concerning regular sizes are very cover in the various specimens varied
In order to solve this problem to satisfactory compared with recorded within the limits from 25 mm to 150
some extent, experiments were car- crack widths. mm.
ried out on concrete elements rein- Specifically with respect to big con- The results of these tests confirmed
forced with bars and provided with crete cover and big bar diameters, a the basic problem defined:
concrete covers beyond the regular formula has been beveloped. This for- the crack widths recorded were far
slzes. mula reads: below the values according to the
simple regular formula (3.1).
=
The test-specimen may be considered ""max Figure 11a shows the maximum crack
as sections out of large walls or width recorded. All calculated results
slabs. The load cases applied repre- are drawn in this figure too. Note that
sent situations in which these walls in which: (2c 4-<t>) < 0.5 ft, the recorded crack widths refer to the
or slabs are subjected to axial ten- a = distance between reinforcing maximum width after 1000 load
sion or bending, investigated in two bars; cycles of the level concerned. The
series respectively. ht = f uil depth of the cross- 1000 load cycles of a certain load
Before explaining these experiments section. level result in deformations and crack
further, the crack width analysis used This formula concerns pure tension widths which are comparatively
for comparison will be mentioned. As in the first place, but wil! be applied stable and approximately constant in
the representative of a simple regular also to bending. further load cycles. These values will
formula, the one applied in the former Later on, the last 1978 edition of the therefore be defined as the crack
edition of the Dutch code for con- CEB-FIP Model Code became width at the load level concerned.
crete structures (1974) has been used. available. The analysis for crack con- They concern a fully developed crack
This formula reads: trol contained therein has been con- pattern.
1-5 siderably adapted. This analysis has The results from the experiments
w, mm also been used for comparison. The related to pure tension with respect
in which: (3.1) CEB-FIP method is rather com- to the mean crack spacing and the
wma„ = maximum crack width; plicated. Full account is taken of the mean crack width are shown in figure
as = steel stress in a cracked favourable contribution of the con- 11b and c.
cross-section; crete in tension between the cracks.
c = concrete cover; For the description of the method, The following conclusions have been
0 = bar diameter; reference is made to the CEB-FIP drawn with regard to pure tension.
CJ0 = percentage of reinforcement Model Code (4). The maximum crack width can be
with respect to the effective The first serie of tests performed con calculated rather well for steel
cross-section; cerned 6 specimens subjected to stresses around 200 N/mm2 by using

10
Measures (in mm) of the test- Cross-sections of the test-specimen
specimen loaded in pure tension
2040 2 o 4Q
:
1
~4
S.0.A8.-200 en
„345. JL0_25.r 362f. 0_25 -400
2 04CL 2 0 40 4 0 26
o,
-
o

°
60 8-200 en
4(1 25-400
Concrete cube strength 40N/mm 2
Steel yield strenglh 400 N/mm 2

103
 after tOOO
load cyclea

25 50 75 100 125 150 5 50 75 100 26 50 75 100 125 150

Concrete cover c(mm) ^ ^ " Concrete Cover clmml'

Concrete cover tlmml

11a 77Ö 11c

Maximum crack width W max IWea/i crack width W mean Mean crack spacing S mean

11 the CEB-FIP formula. However, the to regular sizes for the bar diameter
Comparison of recorded and measu- results are pessimistic. The dif- and the concrete cover.
red values related to the crack width ference increases with increasing These conclusions of course cannot
in reinforced concrete, Ioaded in pure steel stress which means also that be stated too firmly because of the
tension the maximum crack width depends statistics and the scatter playing a
more strongly on the steel stress in part in the crack mechanism and the
the reinforcing bars than appears relative low number of experiments
from the recordings. The CEB-FIP for- performed.
mula overestimates both the mean
crack width and the mean crack Remarkable phenomena in these ex-
spacing as well. The specific formula periments were the many cracks oc-
(3.2) shows satisfactory results regar- curring along the main reinforcement.
ding the mean values These iongitudinal cracks already
(W - W
ma* ^ arise at rather low ioad levels. The
\vïmean ~
~ H1I7 «x 1
1 4A 'I widths of these cracks were generally
compared with the measured values. smaller than the crack across the
However, the maximum crack width main reinforcement. However, it is
is overestimated. The simple regular clearly apparent that the bigger bar
formula (3.1} in which ivmean = wmax sizes cause Iongitudinal cracks in a
12 divided by 2.1, overestimates by f ar much earlier stage of ioading. These
Measure (in mm) of the testspecimen all measured values. This formula cracks affect bond, anchorage and
laoded In bending thus appeared too much connected corrosion of the bars concerned.

The second series of testspecimen

consists of 4 beams subjected to
bending. Figure 12 shows the main
dimensions. Reinforcing bars of 25
mm and 32 mm respectively were ap-
plied. The concrete cover on these
bars is 60, or 90 mm. These specimen
All beams were also provided with reinforcing
stirrups 0 12 - 300 bars perpendicular to the main rein-
View of test-specimen forcement.
424 The maximum crack widths recorded
are indlcated in figure 13a together
with the calculated values from the
formulae described before. Again the
measured values refer to the max-
imum crack-width after 1000 load
cycles at the load level concerned,
but in this case to the steel stress os
= 200 N/mm2 only. In figure 13b and
c the mean crack width and the mean
crack spacing are given.
Concrete cube Cross -section of As will be clear from the figures, the
strength 30N/mm 2 t e s t - specimen simple regular formula results in
Steel yield crack widths which are too big com-
strength 400 N/mm 2 pared to the recordings.

104
 O * 0 25 "1 ftecOFdeü values
fl"isaij aftsr tQOO loird cycles

o Reco'dad values
• = 032 ƒ ader 1000 laad cyclus

73a 13b 13c

Maximum crack width W max Mean crack width W meen Mean crack sparing S mean
13 Moreover, these calcutated values are 4. References
Comparison of recorded and measu- greater than the values trom the two The investigations described have
red values related to the crack width other formutae. The CEB-FIP formuta been completeiy reported in a great
in reinforced concrete loaded in ben- shows in fact the best agreement number of TNO-IBBC reports and
ding with the experlments in bending. reports of Rijkswaterstaat, Locks and
Especiaüy the inftuence of the bar Weirs Division. No specific reference
size works out very weil. The specific wili be made to these reports, but fur-
formula developed for tension in the ther information couid be obtained on
first place, appears tess satisfactory request,
in the bending situation. (1.) Papadakis M and Bresson J, Con-
However, with regard to the scatter tribution a i'étude du facteur de
and the very limited Information gain- maturité des liants hydrauliques ap-
ed, one could conciude that the plication a rindustrie du béton
specific formula may be a useful ap- manufacturé;
proximation. Revue des Matériaux No. 678, Mars
Also in bending, the longitudinal 1973.
cracks along the main bars were <2.) Stoffers, H. Cracking due to
remarkabie. shrinkage and iemperature variattons
in walls;
The genera! conciusion is that with Heron 1978, 23 (No. 3).
regard to the validity of the crack (3.) Reinhardt, H.W., Blaauwendraad,
width analysis for large concrete J. and Jongedijk, J., Temperature
structures, the rather complicated deveiopment in concrete structures
formula described in the last edition taking account of state dependent
of the CEB-FIP Model Code (4) shows properties;
satisfactory results in a wide range Contribution to RiLEM-symposiurn
of bars sizes and concrete covers. 'Concrete at early ages' 1982, Paris.
This statement is to some extent (4.) CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete
related to a steel stress level of 200 Structures;
N/mm2. A specific formula (3.2) for big International system of Unified Stan-
bar sizes and concrete covers, which dard Codes of Parctice for Struc-
is much simpler, may be appiied as a tures, Volume II.
useful approximation. CEB-FIP Internationa! recommanda-
The simpie regular formula (3.1), well tion 3rd edition 1978.
known from several concrete codes,
appears too strongly calibrated to
regular sizes. Such formuiae cannot
be appiied to the analysis of crack
widths in large concrete structures.

105
prof.H.W.Reinhardt
Delft University of Technology
Research on concrete
P, van den Berg, K.M. Postma and
D.W. de Haan
Investigation of the mechanica! properties of fresh
Dosbouw, contractor and hardened concrete used in the Eastern
Scheldt storm surge banier

1, General introduction To design the present shape of the At first the necessary research was
This contribution to the symposium pier base as weil as to find the most performed in a fiow channel at Lttb
witl treat three types of investigations suitabie materials and method of fiit- for the preiiminary design of the
which belong to concrete technology. ing, extensive technological in- storm surge barrier with caissons.
The problems to be solved arïse in vestigations are being carried out. The underbase fitiing of the caissons
connection with extraordinary loading Requirements with regard to the had to be started from a filling pipe
concfitions and in connection with the underbase filling are: of 35 m height. This meant an effec-
use of huge prefabricated concrete durability: 200 years, equai to the bar- tive pressure of 5 bar from the mortar
elements which have to be piaced rier as a whote; against the base. In view of the large
and fixed precisely and secureiy on strength: 5-10 N/mm2 {cube compres- forces in the fabric required and the
the foundation, The three investiga- slve strength); great unevennesses of the foundation
tions concern firstiy the mechamcal stability: must be stabie under an ex- bed, nyton fabric with a tensile
behaviour and the workability of the treme hydraulic gradiënt (400-600%); strength of 250 kN/m and a strain
füting concrete under the piers, degree of fitling: almost completely limit of 25% was chosen. This fabric
secondly the forces exerted on and fiiied {90-100%). gave very good resuits. Due to the
damage to concrete surfaces caused strong current, cement was washed
by tmpacting bouiders, and thirdly the 2.2. Preiiminary tests away under the construction, but
erosion of concreto in water carrying Pretiminary investigation took place within 15 to 20 minutes a complete
abrasive material. to make an inventory of suitabie seating was obtained white no more
materiais. This has led to a sand- than a few percent of the cement us-
Although the investigations have cement mortar. With this material an ed were rinsed out.
been carried out for the specifie case almost complete filling of 95-100% The high pressure of approx. 5 bar
of the Eastern Scheldt storm surge can be reached with cementing accelerates the hardening process.
barrier, the resuits are more widely material under limited stream condi- Strengths of 20 Nlmm2 are being
applicable. On the other hand some tions: in this case a gradiënt of ap- measured already after 48 hours
parts of the research were stopped prox. 5%. The required strength can when an alternating ioad has been
white in progress because of little be realized easity. The space to be applied with a period of 8 sec from
significance and utility for the struc- fiiied has to be iimited in a coarse the moment of completed fitling. The
ture in question or because the struc- granular setting just as the sill. For fiüing layer appeared to be very
tural concept has been changed dur- this a permeable sand tight fabric is homogenous.
ing the design process and the in- apptied with positive effect. Locai Experiments in the test tank at Kats,
vestigation was no ionger relevant. leakages in this apptication can be which made It possible to exert ver-
Nevertheless, the authors beiieve that remedied without excessive tosses. tical and horizontal loads upon a futl-
there are numerous aspects which Alternative applications of materials sized underfiliing gave values for the
are worthwile reporting and which were iess attractive. H/V ratio from 0.5 (dynamic) to 1.0
can heip other englneers to avoid or With a grout of cement-waier and ad- (static).
to solve probtems in future hydraulic ditlves such as bentonite, the The resuits of the tests with a sand-
structures. desirable strength is not eastly attain- cernent mortar in a fabric were so
ed, a very tight fabric is required and positive that these tests were also
2. Concrete fitting under the piers leakages are difficult to remedy. continued with the next designs.
2.1. Introduction and requirements The guarantee of a sufficient degree
The joint between pier and founda- of filling appeared nol to be at- 2.3.2. Filling tests under high
tion mattress requires special atten- tainable with concrete. This also ap- pressure
tion within the design of the storm plies to asphalt mixtures. Underflow- in a foilowing design stage of the
surge barrier. This joint has to be fiil- ing with sand gives an unstable fill- storm surge barrier the possibility of
ed to prevent undesirable rotations ing. transferring horizontal loads from t h e
and translations of the pier. The fitt- pier to the foundation bed a few
ing must also conform to strtct condi- 2.3. Experim&ntal investigation hours after casting was still being e>—
tions in order to avoid subsurface 2.3.1. Underfiliing caissons on coarse erted. Because underfilting under
erosion. stone foundations high pressure effects a prestressed

106
1
Shear resistance on function of time t
0.20 Fill pipe

f l mn&
0.13

s Foundation material
S 0.071 ^.•^••..viv^V

1 2 3

Tlmö m hours —fe>

Testing arrangement for underbase
fiiiing
have shown that a homogenous com-
position is guaranteed when a rubber
tube, mounted to the iniet, reacties
the foundation bed.
Discharge of water takes place main-
}y through the foundation bed. Only
at a late stage the outlets start
discharging water. The completion of
füling a compartment is then marked
by the almost simultaneous overflow-
ing of mortar through the four
outlets. Until then, practicaliy no in-
crease in the pressure should be
observable. During half-an-hour after
sand skeleton, the property of direct gravel bag as edge sealing, a height the outlets have been closed a filiing
strength is available. The shear of the underfilling space of 0.5 a 1.0 process takes place with ümited over-
strength of the mortar has to be m, permeable fabric protection of the pressure of about 1 bar. To confine
known. Therefore a pressure tank gravel layers of the foundation bed. the influence of overpressure to only
was made with vanes at different The underfilling space is separated one compartment, the second inlet
heights to determine the difference by dividing ribs of Ümited height. without a rubber tube under the pier
between the strength of the outer Each compartment is filled from a slab is used. The pressure ratio
shield and of the core of the füling. central sleeve in the base slab, the within one compartment shows in all
An example with art overpressure of 2 outlet being at the edges of each par- cases an even level. The ribs
bar is given in figure 1. tition (fig. 2), prevented the transmission of
Investigations are atso carried out in In the test special attention was pressure to an adjacent compartment
the pressure tank how to prevent given to: (fig. 3). Application of pigment to a
penetration of the foundation bed — the behaviour of the mortar when single charge has shown that the
and thus any disturbance of the filter transported over iong distances sand-cement mortar does not move
action during underfiüing. Various and the appearance of signs of over large areas but flows through
stoney materiats were tested. It was segregation and bleeding;
found out that materïals with an iden- — the influence of the shape of the Pre&suru tn bar ^

tical granuiar buiid-up from 0.5-30 mm under-surface (flat or corrugated)

are not injected by a sand-cement on the possibility of obtainlng a FKIinfl aft
mortar. This material however is not good water discharge and conse- by ml et wi
current-resistant. More coarse quently a good rate of filiing; O3* shutters compartment 1
iing by high irtiets
material did not appear to be mortar- — the progress of the whole filiing
tight, so that application of a sand- process under low overpressure to Fi II untill full comp
tight fabric was needed. This attain a sufficient degree of filiing; wiiti (ow ffov* r&te
permeable fabric is intergrated in the ~ the inffuence of the dividing ribs
filtermattress as a cover cloth. to transmission of the pressure to
the adjacent compartments; Comparlment 2 1 uit
2.3.3. Filiing tests with iimited — the determination of the location
pressure of in- and outlet pipes;
untiU ruLi corhpariniQnC 2
a. Test method applied to underfiil — measure of the pressures against
In support of the elaboration of the underside floor. -fer
underbase filiing model for the After the mortar had hardened for a
operative design of the piers a full- few days, the erttire set-up was
sized run of tests is set up. Plans of dismantled and the mortar product
the prototype are as mucn as possi- examined, both visually and by Pressure in the compartments as
ble brought into use such as the means of core drillings, The tests function of time, schematic

107
 ind O Scheidt eand
comparatively narrow channels. Full results in spite of its higher water-
overflow of all outlets guarantees a cement ratio.
good rate of filling, so corrugation of The least segregation and/or bleeding
the underside f !oor does not appear of the mortar is obtained by addition
to be needed. No test gave any of 40 kg bentonite per m3, but the
bleeding or segregation which can be press-out of water is much slower
explained by discharge of water than when 20 kg bentonite per m3 is
towards the latter part of the filling applied (see figure 5).
under overpressure.
Ground pressure boxes against the 2.4. Conclusions for actual practice
underside of the floor gave the same The following conclusions concerning
results as water pressure gauges the shape of the piers and the pro-
mounted in cast-in pipes. cess of underfilling are drawn from
Mortar strength der/ving from quant i- the results of the above tests:
ty of cement b. Optimlzation of the concrete mix. — the intended cornpartimentaliza-
Therefore a test was carried out to tion is satisfactory;
check: — two inlets (with and without rubber
— the strength of the mortar; tubes) and four outlets are desired
— the pressing out of water as a per compartment. These outlets
function of pressure; are inserted in the inside of the
— the kind of aggregates; pier for observation purposes;
— the kind of additive; — the underside of the pier-base is
— appearance of bleeding and corrugated to provide a satisfac-
Mixture A B
segregation. tory transmission of shear force
Blast lumace
cement A
235 E45 from the base-siab to the filling
Msson sant} 1420 On compiling mixtures, a roughly material;
40 50 equal workability was taken as a — water pressure gauges which are
Watei SSSL WOU
standard. To meet the requirement of assembled in cast-in pipes will be
A and E In kg 5 to 10 N/mm2 after 28 days, a quanti- used for measurement;
ty of cement up to 200 to 300 kg/m3 — to prevent an excess of the accep-
—i was required, as shown in figure 4. table pressure against the floor
^ —l The grain size of sand largely deter- the pumps were placed on the
B mlnes the speed by which water is go- floor of the pier. As result, the
ing to be pressed out. Concrete sand pumps are acting as dosing —
shows a quicker consoiidation than and reducing devices;
Scheldt-sand (d50 = 200 u) (fig. 5). — with the outlined model with
To prevent segregation and bteeding, limited pressure, an almost com-
plastifiers and bentonite were ap- plete filling is well attainabie with
plied. In comparison with other ad- a material of the desired quality.
ditives it was found that the addttion An indlcation of the procedure and
of bentonite gave clearly better the mechanical equipment which
have definitely been chosen for
Settlement of fresh mortar 6 the storm surge barrier are shown
Outline of filling procedure and in figure 5.
equipment

3. Impact of falling boulders

Mortar supply 12 m + 3.1. Introductlon and scope of the in-
vest)gation
North Sea side Eastern Scheidt side One of the conditions of the pier-and
sitl beam design is that the current
method of building the sill sbould be
applied where boulders are dumped
from the surface of the water. This
would imply that stones falSing free
under water hit the concrete struc-
tures. It concerns diverging sizes
from 10 to 10,000 kg. Two types of
damage may occur; smashing of the
concrete surface and overloading of
the concrete structure. In 1978 a
research project on 'faüing boulders'
was started to investigate the
magnitude of the impact forces and
outlet
the amount of damage inflicted. The
Gravel bag Manometer theoretical and.atatic||ipproaches
Foundation bed 'Pressure pipe Mortar pump gave such doubuul ara improbable

108
results, partly because of the number difference between an elastic and a iormulae for impact forces

of proposals, that it was decided to non-elastic impact. The magnitude of a1 elastic irnpad mx<h^0
continue the research as an experi- an elastic impact is deduced from the F=v/TFi
ment on a rea! scale. equation of motion of a single mass 32 nort-elastic impact F= v £ A

3.2. Theoretica! approach

spring system (formula a,).
In case of a nort-elastic response of
<-€
The theoretical research is aimed to the structure, the impact force is as fonnv\ze for spring sfjffness

predict the expected damage. given in formula a2, b1 started frum setm-circle k -
Therefore the hitting velocity has to At first, impact forces are computed
b? sTörted from rjrepression of cgr>c
be determined. It is permitted to start in accordance with the formuta of the
from the terminal veiocity because of elastic impact. Depending on the im- b3 started from plate bendmo
stone v= hi11 ng velocity
|
'-
the great depths of water in which pact location on the piers (fig. 9) the m - maas

the threatened structural elements spring stiffness k Is determined in structure h=

£ ^
spring stirfness
young's modulus
are located (fig. 8). different ways: ^- E-dioduSusy [j-modulu$
C - denstty
Depending on the response of the — theory of the semi-circle-formula A- impact ared
structure to impact loading there is a b, (location 1 and 3); a - width af inipaci area
I - moment of irterha
L - length of plate
a- coëfficiënt of fixaticn

N o r t h Sea side Easlern Scheldt slde

Impact forces

Concrete blocks of
Stone 300 - 1000 kg — depression effected on half of the
Stone 1- 3 t Stono 1-31
Stone 300- 1000 kg-, Stone 6-101
concrete section — formula b2
Stone I0.60kg.60- 300kg,/ Stone 300 • 1000 kg (location 2);
— bending of the plate — formula b3
(location 4).

The impact forces thus computed are

presented in table 1.
Treatment according to the formula
S/7/ construction
8
t V e 8.7 m,
«-"""•^

\
ï.——"
5 m/B
of the non-elastic impact leads to
even higher impact forces.
onderwater movement of the stones The computed elastic impact forces
600 kt)
are so high that the construction
parts of the piers should collapse
when hit by stones of 3,000 kg; a
/ stone of 500 kg should cause con-
/ siderable damage to the concrete sur-
9 face. Related to actual practice, the
impact areas on the pier 4 S computations appeared to lack
Helgtit of fall In m credibility. The great number of fac-

tl

109
 Table 1 impact area spring stiffness reduction impact forces (kN)
Computed impact forces
treatment factor stone 3,000 kg stone 500 kg
1. (support) bi 89,000 27,000
2. b2 52,000 16,000
3. (support) f, 0.3 26,000 8,000
4. b3 0.3 12,000 3,000

Tabie 2 weight of stones impact forces (kN)

Measured Impact forces
horizontal square verticai square (18 : 10)
average 5% average 5%
3,000 kg 3,700 7,400 600 1,050
500 kg 1,000 1,800 150 300

Tabie 3
weight of stone damage in mm
Measured damages
horizontal square sloping square (18 : 10)
average 5% average 5%
3,000 kg 36 56 29 44
500 kg 29 29 18 26

tors for which proposals have to be to attain a statistical compilation of

Helght of fa
made such as spring stiffness, im- measured impact forces and damage
pact area, effective mass and impact inflicted (table 2). The 5% limit-lines
character obscured the issue. are composed for several stone
Therefore it was decided to perform weights on the basis of the measured
experimental investigation. impact forces (fig. 11).
The measured impact forces seemed
3.3. Experimental investigation to be reasonably lower (multiplier 10)
3.3.1 General research than the theoretically computed
10 Aspects such as the smashing of the values. Besides there appeared to be
Testing arrangement concrete surface, imitatfon of impact a targe variation (multiplier 4) in im-
velocities and of the non-elastic pact forces exerted by identicai stone
kN
10000-
5 % Limit
character of impact as well as the weights. Moreover, the shape of the
9000- hoi. SUTIÖ practical possibilities of registering impact area ol the stones and the
8000- impact, have led to real-scale in- momentary position of the impact
vestigations. To imitate a non-elastic area with respect to the centre of
7O00-
impact (the upper limit) and to gravity of the stone (rotation after im-
ï 6000
o neglect the influence of the subsoil, a pact) proved to be of great relevance.
I 5000- testing arrangement with a mass of A small impact area causes a short
~ aooo 150,000 kg with horizontal and ver- impact time and a high impact force,
3000 tical hitting areas was chosen (fig. whereas larger impact area gives a
2000 10). longer impact time and a lower im-
1000 The impact velocity of the stones pact force. Compare figure 12, in
under water is converted to the cor- which both figures have equal energy
05 1 2 3 4 91
responding height of fall in the air. capacity (area F-f-diagram).
11 The impact force and impact time are Falling tests with concrete cubes of
5% limit of impact forces registered by acceleration recorders 2,500 kg, when compared to basalt
glued into the stones. Measurements stones of equal weight resulted in
are also made with the hulp of lower impact forces (multiplier 2 or 3).
pressure boxes, situated beneath the The extent of the smashing of the
tested concrete plate. Both methods cubes, depending on whether they
have given simular results. The fall on a square, an edge or a point is
measured impact times, ranging from of great relevance to the impact time
4 to 10 msec, indicated that the and the impact force.
character of the non-elastic impact The measured damage is shown in
was imitated well. table 3.
Here 5% limit lines are likewise com-
3.3.2. Measured impact forces and posed for the measured damage (fig.
damage of concrete 13).
12 After the pilot research, a larger Additionally to the measured damage
Impact registrations number of falling tests was executed the following was noted:

110
Table 4 weight of stone (M) 3,000 kg 500 kg
Damage: conicai-ended shape
impact velocity (v) 6.7 m/s 5.0 m/s
impact angle 30° 45° 60° 30* 45° 60°
tf
o(rn) 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.09 0.10 0.13
x o (m) 0.17 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.04

Table 5 weight of stone 3,000 kg 500 kg

Damage: spherica! ended shape
impact vetocity 6.7 m/s 5,0 m/s
diameter stone 1.24 m 0.68 m
x0 (depth of damage) 0.12 m 0.025 m

Table 6 weight of stone 3,000 kg 500 kg

Computed impact forces from measu- impact velocity 6.7 m/s 5.0 m/s
red Impact time
impact time (measured) 4 msec 10 msec 4 msec 10 msec
impact force 10,050 kN 4,000 kN 1,250 kN 500 kN

— damage going further than visible The different depths of damage are Compare the values shown
was not discovered (investigations computed for two weights of stone underneath with the measured values
on micro-f)aws in drüled frozen as weil as for different angles Q of a from table 2 (table 6).
cores); conical-ended shape as for a
— increasing the concrete cover did spherlcal-ended shape (tables 4-5). 3.3.4, Damage prevention
not lead to a greater depth of The depth of damage calculated in Referring to the investigations into
damage; this way for 500 kg stones is nearer impact forces and damage many pro-
— the edges of the concrete areas to the measured values than for 3,000 tective possibilities are examined as
are very vulnerable; kg stones. The difference with the lat- to thelr abiiity both regarding the
— damage to vertical areas is small ter weight mentioned is still a reductlon of the impact forces and
(5-10 mm). multiplier 2 or 3. In the publication it the prevention of damage. To attain
is suggested to determine the impact the impact reduction, investigations
3.3.3. Explanation of measured im- time from f = 2.xxlv, The impact were made to replace stones by bags
pact forces and damage force is then computed from F = 2 fiiled with sand or concrete or by wire
A theoretica! explanation of the mv/t. Thls treatment gives excessive netting packets fiiled with asphalt.
measured impact forces and damage, values for the impact time and conse- Reduction of the impact forces prov-
particularly the mutual relation, is quently too low values for the impact ed to be necessary because it ap-
not, or hardly available. A prediction forces. A better approach of the peared in the course of the investiga-
of the depth of damage is treated to measured Impact forces is obtained tion that dropping stones heavier
some extent in the article, published by computation according to F = 2 than 3,000 kg should be excluded.
after the above investigation had mv/t, where f is the measured impact Coverings of gravel mattresses,
been completed: 'Impact of Failing time. wooden screens, synthetic sheets
Loads on Submerged Concrete Struc- and spray concrete were examined as
tures' presented by J.J. Jensen (3). A farm ui 3e for datnage depth
protective devices. The solution with
formula for the depth of damage is spray concrete proved to be the most
given for different shapes of the im- c l for comtal ended shape ^ ° >
favourable in effectiveness and cost-
pact area of the failing object (for- wise, especially on the slope areas.
mulae c, and c2). Sandbags and concrete mortar bags
d 0 = 2. \gp *o
and bags with stoneasphalt as
y = yietd strengfri { 375 « 7O6 N/m2? substitutes were tested. The former
c2 for sphencal ended shape
two were lost by the great percentage
of tears. This was no disadvantage
Xo = ( J S - ^ ! 1 / ! Ve „+
for the stoneasphalt because of the
cementing of the material. The im-
formula for impact liftte ,,
pact force reduction is large.

t 1 r
t 3.4. Practical measures derived from
ter n^ ? 3000 kg the test
xo = 0,12
t : 0,036
In the system of sill design, sill ex-
4 5t F = 1100 hN ecution and the protection of the
Stone welgtit
piers, the investigation 'faliing
13 boulders' resulted in the measures
5% 'limit of damage depth on concre- and adjustments mentioned below:
te Damage depth The sill design was adapted. In a

111
strip of 5 m width around the piers characterized by circular cavities use of an admixture, and the way of
storte-asphalt loads of 20-30 tons (cavitation). The present research is curing on erosion behaviour. Table 7
were used instead of stones heavier concerned with the first form gives a summary of the various types
than 3,000 kg. Free falling from the whereas the second is thought not to of concrete. The 28 days' cube com-
water surface is allowed in that case. be relevant. Cavitation usually occurs pressive strength ranged from 22 to
Sill executlon for stones ranging from at higher velocities than those ex- 48 N/mm2. The specimens of mixes
1,000-3,000 kg is subject to con- pected in the openings of the surge 1-6 and 10-15 were covered after
straints, in such a way that the max- barrier. casting so as to prevent drying of
imum height of fall amounts to 2 m, fresh concrete. After 2 days they
with the effect of achieving an im- 4.2. Testing method were demoulded and stored in the
pact reduction of 50%. To this end The testing method was designed to fog room or under water until testing
special equipment was designed. simulate the exposure of a structure took place. Several specimens (in-
The protection of the piers consist of in running water with abrasives. St is dicated with N) of mixes were allow-
a combination of measures: similar to that employed by Gardet ed to dry out at the surface until
— an increase of the concrete cover and Dysli (4). For this purpose twelve testing took place.
from 70 to 100 mm so that the segmentshaped specimens, each
damage caused by free falling with a surface area of about 0.5 m2 4.4. Test resulis
stones of 300-1000 kg is accep- and provided with adjustable feet, The total average erosion is
table; were placed horizontally on the bot- calculated from 48 measuring points
— all edges of the concrete construc- tom of a circular flume (open chan- (two specimens with 24 points each).
tion will be chamfered; nel) with an outside diameter of 4 m Figure 15 shows an example of the
— application of a protective layer of and a rectangular cross-section as erosion vs. time. At first, it displays a
70 mm spray concrete along the shown in figure 14. At rest, the top non-linear behaviour which later, after
slope faces and an additional surfaces of the specimens were 0.30 about 40 hours, changes into a
layer of 100 mm concrete along m below the surface. Vertical paddies steady rate of increase. Table 7 sum-
the horizontal iaces of the part of mounted on a rotating assembly ex- marizes the results of the flume
the pier under water. Amoured net- tended to a depth of 0.15 m below the tests. Column 13 indicates the total
ting of 0 6-50 mm is supplied. water surface. The speed of rotation, average wear after 240 hours and col-
and therefore the flow velocity of the umn 14 gives the abrasion rate for
4. Erosion of concrete by water and water in the flume was subject to the steady rate behaviour.
attrasive material continuously variabte controS by
4.1. Motive means of an electric motor with a 4.5. Discussion of the results
According to caiculations, the flow gearbox. The average speed of the The structure of concrete at the sur-
velocity in the openings between the paddies was 3,5 m/s. With this face which had been in contact with
piers of the barrier will range from 3 system the water performed a helical the mould or formwork is different
to 5 m/s, possibly attaining higher motion and carried along a total from that in the interior of the con-
values at particularly unfavourable quantity of 50 kg of river gravel, crete mass: there will be more
locations. The water carries abrasive which means a ratio of water to hardened cement paste and fine ag-
material along with it, sand in par- gravel of 87:1. gregate constituents according at the
ticular. There were fears that the After a certain number of revolutions rate at which the distance to such a
relatively high velocity of the water, measurements were taken of the surface is lessened. The outer 'skin'
together with its sand load, may abrasion of the surface. The abrasion of the concrete will consist chiefly of
cause substantial erosion of the con- was measured at 24 points on the hardened paste and fine particles.
crete. These considerations were the concrete surface by means of LVDTs The probability of the presence of
motive for a detailed investigatlon of against three fixed points. small cracks due to shrinkage and
the phenomenon of erosion of con- cooling is greatest in this outer zone.
crete. Erosion attack may occur in 4.3. Material tested
two different forms: the first as the Fifteen mixes of concrete have been The progress of erosion in the course
wear that a surface undergoes by the designed to investigate the influence of time can be explained as follows:
action of water and the sediments of cement type, cement content, since the strength and density of the
carried along in it, the second as a water-cement ratio, maximum ag- matrix (hardened cement paste plus
deterioration that is usually local and gregate size, aggregate centent, the fine particles) are inferior to those of

14
Section through ttume apparatus
Rotating paddie frame

112
 10 11 12 13 14
E
CD c
Ë 3
CD e 8J N u
o O O o EW <b
o O o t/i <D
7
O
JS .2
2 'S
ftii ifi
tra)SE. o rat
If
i O
O
11»
8SÊ
15 i»
25 II
1 281 HA 0.55 1935 37.2 0 1.14 0.8 32 6.89 2.75 4.38
2 296 HA 0.48 0.40 1926 37.9 45 1.10 1.4 32 6.51 2,81 5.57
3 307 HB 0.50 1918 43.1 5 1.08 0.8 32 6.25 3,38 8.39
4 303 HB 0.50 0.85 1897 41.3 190 1.00 1.7 32 6.26 3.00 7.24
5 308 HA 0.37 0.85 2014 48.0 — (1,25) 1.2 80 6.58 3.38 6.85
6 368 HB 0.37 0.85 1826 47.7 100 1.08 3.2 32 4.96 2.86 6.36
7C 266 HA 0.63 1938 31.2 80 1.08 1.2 32 7.27 3.49 6.91
7N 266 HA 0.63 1933 24.1 150 1.11 1.1 32 7.27 5.36 10.45
8C 335 HA 0.42 0.85 1825 39.2 120 1.05 4.0 32 5.43 2.81 7.56
8N 335 HA 0,42 0.85 1813 40.1 100 1.08 3.8 32 5.43 2.57 7.10
9C 384 HA 0.43 0.85 1782 44.4 140 1.04 3.2 32 4.63 2.07 4.41
9N 384 HA 0.43 0.85 1776 39.1 200 — 3.6 32 4.63 2.23 4.88
10 303 HA 0.38 0.85 1999 46.3 (1.21) 1.2 80 6.60 3.27 10,98
11 263 HA 0.63 1948 22.7 100 1.11 1.0 32 7.41 3.60 10.33
12 334 HA 0.41 0.85 1850 40.5 120 1.07 3.2 32 5.54 3,44 10.30
13 380 HA 0.43 0.85 1790 35.4 — 1.01 3.1 32 4.71 3.49 11.50
14 266 HA 0,63 1922 21.0 — 1.01 1.3 32 7.23 3.97 7.90
15 225 HA 0,63 — 1999 21.9 — 1.13 1.7 32 8.88 5.66 18.95
HA = portland blastfurnace cement class A
HB = portland blastfurnace cement class B
Plasticizer = Cretoplast SL (superplasticizer)
Mixes Nos. 5 and 10 are so-called coars gravel mixes wlth nominal maximum aggregate particle size of 80 mm
The sand/gravel ratio was 35/65% for the mixes 8, 9,12, 13 and 15 and was 38/62% for the mixes 1, 2, 3, 4,6, 7,11 and 14
The designation 'N' appended to a mix number indicates 'not cured' whlle 'C' indicates 'cured'

Table 7
Data of the various concrete quatities
together with erosion test results

15
Total average erosive wear per mix
180 260

Test duratlon In hourfi

the aggregate, the outer skin wears a. The compressive strength of the
away more rapidly than in specimens concrete has a distinct effect. At
of concrete taken from the interlor of the rate at which thls strength
a structural member and exposed to becomes greater, the resistance to
similar condltlons. Once the outer erosion also increases. A concrete
skin has been removed, further ero- of poor quality, even If thls occurs
sion wlll (for constant conditions of only locally, will be qulckly attack-
erosion load), proceed at a constant ed by erosion.
rate. b. The curing treatment is of in-
From the statistical processing of the fluence on erosion behaviour,
measurements, the followlng especlally in concrete havlng a
qualitatlve results emerged (a detail- low compressive strength. Good
ed treatment Is given In (5,6)): curing improves erosion

113
 resistance, thus reducing the ef- Before the test results can be reliably problems have been touched upon
fect of compressive strength. On translated into reality as regards the and their solution and the discussion
the other hand, in specimens magnitude and time-related behaviour thereof will hopefully help the prac-
made of high-strength concrete of the phenomenon, it wil! be tical engineer to avoid similar pro-
there was no demonstrable effect necessary to make a closer study of blems in other hydraulic structures.
of curing. the erosion mechanisms. At the pre-
There was no ascertainable effect sent time the results allow oniy a
associated with the addition, or relative classification, assuming the
absence, of an admixture to the mechanisms in the tests and in reali-
concrete mix, apart from the atten- ty to be approximately similar.
dant variation in compressive
strength. 5. General conclusion 6. References
There was a slight relation bet- Various aspects of concrete 1. DOSBOUW: Research Report
ween the quantity of aggregate behaviour were the subject of this 561VAS-M-81010.
and erosion resistance. study. The use of large prefabricated 2. TNO-IBBC: Reports
concrete elements and the location B-79-114/603/604.
of the structure in a rather aggressive 3. Jensen, J.J.: Impact of falling loads
This trend was clearly manifest in environment have raised many ques- on submerged concrete structures;
concrete wtth a low cement content tions about the workability of filling RILEM Symposium 'Brasil Offshore',
(so that the water-cement ratio was concrete, the impact of boulders and Rio de Janeiro 1979, vol.1, page 11.
higher and the strength accordingly the erosion in water containing 4. Gardet, A, Dysli, M.: Essais a
iower). For concrete made with abrasive material. The investigaticn l'abraslon de rêvements d'ouvrages
coarse gravel aggregate the results was carried out in a rather practical hydraulique; Bulletin Technique de la
are less clear. If the conclusions are manner, i.e. problems arising in con- Suisse Romande 91 (1965), no. 4, pp.
confined to those types of concrete nection with the design of the storm 45-49.
wh/ch have approximately equal surge barrier and questions arising at 5. Pat, M.G.M. Fontijn, H.L Reinhardt,
strength( the effect of the quantity of the building site were solved as H.W., Stroeven, P.: Erosie van beton;
aggregate on the erosion resistance quickly as possible with the em- Stevin rapport 5-79-30, Deift Universi-
is no longer detectable. Coarse gravel phasis on utility. Therefore the in- ty of Technology 1979.
concrete then behaves no differently vestigations were sometimes not as 6. Pat, M.G.M., Reinhardt, H.W.: Ero-
from concrete made with finer ag- fundamental as the authors would sion of concrete; Heron 24 (1979),
gregate. have liked. On the other hand, many no. 3.

114
F.F.M, de Graaf
Locks and Weirs Division, Surveying
Rijkswaterstaat Dimensionai deviations and tolerances in the
assembling of the construction elements

PIEft
1. Introduction
When building under offshore condi-
tions it is desirable to choose a high
degree of prefabrication especially UPPERBEAM
for those technical reasons pertain-
ing to construction.
The structure considered here is the
storm surge barrier which comprises
66 openings. Each opening is sur- ••" S R L B E A M - .

rounded by a concrete frame (piers,

sill beam and upper beam) and can
be closed by a steel gate (figure 1), 1
Roughly speaking there are two Schematization of the barrier — determination of the tolerances
methods of divfding the barrier into and deformations;
precast elements (figure 2). depends on the dimensional devia- — examining the influence of the
The first method is to precast all 66 tions initially agreed upon. measuring procedures and of the
concrete frames as monolithic units An analysis of the inherent problems order of implementation;
that are subsequently placed in posi- can be divided into: — determination of the inspection
tion in the channel. — tracing of causes influencing the procedures during construction;
The second method divides each good fitting of the parts; — stock-taking of the measurements
frame into smaller precast com- — determination of the assumptions that are available in the case of
ponents (viz. piers, sill beam and up- required for the assembly and for unfavourable results.
per beam), which will be assembled assessing of any deviations; These points will be explained below.
when placed in the channel.
Method 1 is attractive, because a 2b
dimensional deviation when placing 2a Method 2: joint between piers upper
the frame, and an unevenness of the Method 1: joint at a pier beatns and sill beam
foundation bed will have no influence PIER
on the tolerances between pier and
gate. As a result the functioning of
the gates is unaffected. UPPERBEAM
This in contrast to method 2 (figure 3)
where dimensional deviations when
placing the piers, and an unevenness
of the foundation bed wilt influence
the shape and the dimensions of the
frame. If this is not controlled, dif-
ficulties may arise in the functioning
of the gates. i

Indeed in the pre-design stage

method 1 was one of the alternatives.
T
But this method calls for larger units.
The correspondtng foundation pro-
blems and costs were the most im-
portant reasons why this alternative
was rejected.
However, the choice of method 2 im-
plies that the composition and the
function of the barrier strongly

115
 pi er

tnfluence of the unevenness of the

bottom surface and placing the piers

2. Causes of dimensional deviations

The prefabricated parts of which the
construction consists are:
foundation mattresses, piers, sill
beams, upper beams, the box girder
bridge, the capping units, and the
movable gar.es (figure 4.) In the com-
position of these parts the following
connections are critical;
— the position of the foundation mat-
tresses with respect to the piers;
— the connection of the sill, upper
beams and the trafflc deck with
the pier;
— the guideways for the gates let in-
to the pier.
Because the gates have to fit in both
closed and lifted position, the
guideways for the gates on the piers
appear to be the most critical factor
in dimensioning. The fit is affected by
the dimensional deviations of the pier
and the gate with respect to their
theoretical position.

The most important dimensional

deviations appears in the y-z-piane
(figure 5) and are caused by:
1. Deformations of the subsoil.
These are dependent on the com-
position of the soil and the degree
of compaction.
2. The unevenness of the foundation.
For constructive and safety (PlUPPER
(ZJBOTTEM
FOUNDATION
TOUWWfON
MATTRES
MA11RCS
BLOCHMftTTRES
reasons two filter mattresses are UPPER FOUNDATION MATTREb
needed. After these two mats are BOTTE M FOUNDATION MATTHE5

laid down, the upper side is in

most instances not adequate. For The prefabricated parts of the banier
this reason two block-mats made 5
as a reverse moulding are fitted on Most important causes of vanation of
the spot of the bearing plates. The dimension in z-y plane
remaining unevenness is mainly
caused by the dimensional ac-
curacy in the determination of the
reverse moulding. Afx

3. Washing out of enclosed sand

layers. Despite the construction
method it is not entirely excluded AZ
that sand wil! remain between,
and on the filter mats. These sand
iayers can be washed out in a QiSfTJLEMENT

later stage and cause settlement

and/or rotation of the piers.
4. Manufacturing errors in the piers.
The shaft with the guideways has
to be perpendicular to the mean
plane through the underside of the
bearing plates of the pier. In the
determination of this piane inac-
curacies may appear, caused by
the usual construction errors e =PLACING THE PIEFi f =.COH5rRUCTIOW_OF g ^
(swelling up, adjustment and THE GAT£ OF THE GATE

116
 deformation of the formwork) dur- possible for the processes still ex- the gate, but also those boundaries
ing construction of the pier, and ecuting offshore. However, the which influence other less critical
settlement of the subsoil. widening of the tolerances in the fits, like those of the concrete
5. Installing of the piers in the chan- gate bearing is limited for two elements between the piers, and the
nel. The accuracy of placing is reasons. On the one hand because connection of the foundation mat-
determined by any dimensional er- of the technical llmits set to the tresses with each other between the
rors in fixing the pier, by any ad- manufacturing of these high- piers and the block mat. From this
justment error of the anchorage quality bearings where very high table one can see that the contribu-
system and by the motions of the demands of evenness obtain and tion of the offshore processes
piers consequent upon current and on the other hand because of the dominates the rest {for example lay-
waves. dimensions of the pier. These ing mattresses and placing the piers).
6. Manufacturing errors in the gates. dimensions are limited because of
These errors are in genera! the admissible lifting weight of the To give an impression of what the
relatively minor in nature and have pier and because of the minimum tolerance boundaries of the individual
hardly any influence on the fit. size of the cross-sectional area of partial processes mean to the fit of
7. Unequal movement of the gates. the channels. the gates, these tolerances are
The gates are suspended on both transposed to a point of reference on
sides and driven independently. 4. Tolerance boundaries of the dimen- the pier. For this point of reference
Because of the hydraulic cylinder sional devfations the heart of the gate guideways is
drive chosen it is not possible to The tolerance boundaries for the pro- taken at the OD-!evel for a pier with a
move the suspension points syn- cesses causing dimensional devia- construction depth of 30 m below
chronously. tions are determined by the design mean sea level (figure 6). Only the
assumptions, by the measuring pro- most important tolerance boundaries
3. Design assumptions for the com- cedures, and the adaptation to the in the y-z-plane were considered. Ap-
position and judgement of dimen- implementatton. To this end, the plied to the construction stage: in
sional deviations tolerance boundaries are optimally consequence of the unevenness of
When designing a construction where adjusted according to discipline, the foundation bed:
dimensional deviation plays an impor- commensurate with what can be Ay 0D = 300 mm
tant role it is necessary to determine achieved from both the technical and In the final stage:
a number of design assumptions: the economie point of view. in consequence of deformations:
— it is assumed that the occuring This means that in an absolute sense Ay0D = H • &$x = 30 . 1.2 = 38 mm
dimensional deviations follow a there are big differences between the In consequence of the washing out of
normal distribution, with the tolerance boundaries of the different the sand layers:
characteristlc parameters u and processes. For the most important Ay 0 D . 30 . 2.8 = 84 mm
o ; processes the tolerance boundaries In consequence of uneven walk move-
— combination and assessment of are given in table 1. In this table the ment of the gates:
the dimensional deviations takes values are expressed in a frame of Ay 0D = 12 . 3.7 = 44 mm.
place at 95% reliability boundaries reference the origin of which is The contributions to the construction
thatistosay u + 2a-values. In located in the bottom of the pier in and the final stage may be collected
the following this will be referred the heart of the base slab. Hereby and are assumed to be uncorrelated,
to as tolerance boundaries; not only the tolerance boundaries are except for the contribution to the
— combination of dimensional devia- given that have influence on the fit of uneven movement of the gates.
tions is effected according to the Hence in the construction stage a
probabitity theory; total displacement of Ay 0D = ± 338
— the total tolerance for the gate mm and in the final stage on Ay 0D =
bearing is divided into two parts. Table 1 ± 135 mm. Only for the tolerances
The first part is reserved for Tolerance boundaries for the most mentioned above there has to be a
dimensional deviations that may important partial processes in mm width of the gate guideways of
occur in the building phase. The and mm/m 2 . {338 + 135) = 946 mm.
second part is reserved for the ex-
pected dimensionai deviation that
may occur in the operationai A* Ay A2 A<ji X A«|> V A<t> z
phase, thus after delivery of the
barrier. This subdivision is implementation phase ± 25 25 ± 25
± ± .6 ± .3
necessary if at moment of delivery construction of piers —± 20 ± 20 ± .4 — —
of the barrier the requirement is construction of gates ± 1000 ± 1000 ± 95 ± 9.3 ± 3.7 ± 20
expressed that every gate has to placing upper mattresses ± 1000 ± 650 ± 200 ± 5.2 ± 2.6 ± 14
be able to move with a certain placing block mattresses ± 300 ± 300 — — — ± 4.2
degree of reliability. This can be placing piers
seen as a quality claim require- operationai phase
ment at time when the completed soil deformations 0 ± 45 + 58 ± 1.2 ± 2.9 ± .3
barrier is handed over; 92 + 95
— in the elaboration of the design washing out of sand — — ± 50 ± 2.8 ± 1.4 —
endeavours are made to render the layers
tolerances in the gate bearing as unequal movement of — — ± 3.7 — —
large as possible, in order to a gate
restrict the tolerances as little as

117
 tolerance elements has to include chosen in this case are u± 2 a
deviations resulting from the placing from the expected dimensional devia-
of the piers. From the foregoing it is tions up to the measuring of the pier
demonstrated that for the storm positions. In actual practice this
surge barrier this leads to an unac- means that the correction in the gate
ceptable width of the gate may have a maximum of ± 850 mm.
guideways, particularly as a result of For the same reason as applies to
the unevenness of the top of the the gates it is necessary to determine
foundation bed and also because of the required lenqth of the concrete
the deviation arising from placing of elements after placing the piers. The
the pier. concrete elements were prefabricated
at different locations. The sill beams
However, the time required for the were built in construction doek 4. The
assembling of all parts of one loca- bridge girders and upper beams will
tion of the pier is relatively long. The be made on a different construction
numerous manoeuvres in the channel site. Just like the gates the sill
with vessels require long anchoring beams are prefabricated in sections.
Variation of dimension af the center distances between each other. For A middle section with constant
of guideway this reason, i.a. the total construction length and prismatic cross-section is
time after placing the pier up to the made independently of the placing of
finished work takes a number of the piers. After the piers have been
years. This offers the opportunity of placed and secured the head sec-
carrying out measuring procedures, tions are constructed. For the present
so that a major part of the dimen- the production of the bridge girders
sional deviations in the length of the and upper beams is not planned to
gates and the concrete elements can start until the required length has
The width has to be enlarged yet by be corrected. In a construction se- been measured. In all cases
the required constructive bearing quence like placing the piers, measur- endeavours are made to carry out
width by the influences of tolerances ing their position, building and plac- measuring as late as possible in
that were neglected in consequence ing the gates, the production process order to eliminate the occuring devia-
of the diagrammatizing of the pro- encompassing the gates is in direct tions as much as possible. The re-
blem to one point in the x-z-plane. dependence on the process of plac- maining tolerances will be taken into
Determination of the required width ing the piers. Because of the produc- account in the further details of tje
in ihis marmer yields a result which tion time required for errecting the bearings and recesses in the way
is not realistic in a practical sense. It gates, it is impossible to start described above. In actual practice
is therefore necessary to adapt the building them from scratch only after this implies that the measuring o.t-the
construction and dimensioning pro- the dimensioning has been carried sill beams and the bridge girder will
cedures to reduce the width of the out. Hence a way of execution is take place immediately after the plac-
guideways. chosen in which every gate is con- ing of the piers and the upper beams
structed from one middle section of and simultaneously with the gates.
5. Construction procedures aimed at constant iength and two variable end
reducing tolerances sections. The determination of the 6. Inspection procedures during con-
If the implementation is based on the definite length is effected after the struction
assembling of prefabricated parts in placing of the piers and as briefly as In the design stage some assump-
a limited time set aside for this pur- possible before the assembly. For tions that were determining for the fit
pose, the measuring has to be done constructive reasons adaptations of of the different parts are tied up
with respect to an absolute frame of the length are limited. The maximum (figure 3).
reference. This implies that in variation has to be determined The most important assumption
prefabrication of the elements the beforehand. The tolerance boundaries refers to what has been implemented,

Bearing of the gate and guideway on

the piers

118
namely the assumption that the partial processes are cnecked cedures because adaptation of the
dlmensional deviations which occur together. The fitting of the gate, in- special rejecticn limits is chosen
satisfy the normal distribution with cluding the expected dimensional then the chance of rejection in-
the accepted mean values and stan- deviations in the operational stage is creases for equal working conditions.
dard deviations. During the implemen- a test for all foregoing execution pro- Then the number of repetitions in-
tation it is important to determine the cesses. creases. Both adaptation of the work-
distribution of the deviations that ing conditions and the additionai
have actualiy been brought about and 7. Measures in cases where tolerance repetition of the partial process have
to compare these with the a priori ex- boundaries are exceeded their consequences in planning and
pected values. In view of the minor As regards the presented design costs. A risk analysis has to decide
number of realizations this has to be assumptions and testing procedures which of the measures is the op-
done with the aid of the theory of it may be expected that the realiza- timum.
minor random inspections. A dlf- tion of partial processes will onocca-
ference between the 'a postiori' sion exceed the fixed rejection limits. Measures taken during the opera-
stated Standard deviation, and the 'a If these limits are exceeded, im- tional stage
priori' expected value may give rise to plementation is as a matter of princi- The actual influence of some partial
correction. From a statistical point of ple rejected and the process processes such as compaction of the
view the inspection of additional repeated. However during implemen- foundation and washing out of the
parameters to the mean values and tation it is also possible to test sand layers only will find expression
the standard deviations is enough. If whether the design assumptions are in the operational stage after the first
all values determined 'a postiori\are satisfactory. Deviations with respects storms has appeared. If unfavourable
equal to or less than the ones ex- to these assumptions can give rise to results are obtalned, the following
pected beforehand, their tolerance measures being taken. These can be measures can be considered. These
boundaries will be exceeded only in divided into measures taken during have reference to the fitting problems
5% of the piers. the implementation and during the of the gates,
operational stage. 1. Enlarging the tolerance field of the
However, there are a few reasons gate guideways width by permit-
why it is desirable to have rejection Measures taken during the implemen- ting the gate bearing gliding over
litnits fixed per action and per partial tation the bolt holes (figure 6). This
process. If the actual distribution of the realiz- means extra maintenance and a
— For given distributions of the par- ed values deviates from the previous- quicker replacing of the bearings.
tial processes the chance of the ly estimated values, the following 2. If disassembly is stiil possible, ad-
gates and the concrete elements measures can be taken: justing the gate to the right length
not fitting is reduced. 1. adjustment of the examined pro- and/or adjusting the bearings to
— |f the realized values satisfy a cess; the slope of the piers.
distribution with a much bigger 2. adjustment of the following pro- 3. If disassembly is not possible (the
standard deviation, this might be cesses; piers incline too much toward
established too late with 3. adaptation of the rejection limits each other) then the gates have to
statistical methods (Bacean). In of the examined process; be burned off, and replaced by
this case fixed rejection limits pre- 4. adaptation of the rejection limits new ones.
vent such deviation from influenc- of the following partial processes;
ing the definite results (the fit) toe 5. acceptance of the loss of quality For the concrete elements con-
strongly. during the implementation stage stituting upper beam and bridge
— Lastly, fixed rejection limits keep and taking measures in the opera- girder the following measures can be
up the discipline. tional stage after delivery. envlsaged:
1. jacking up the beams which
Because every partial process can If adjustment of the partial processes allows the rubber bearings to
not be inspected apart (e.g. measur- is at stake this implles in actual prac- relax;
ing processes) it is necessary to have tice that one has to start from other 2. replacing or exchanging the
art inspection in which a number of working conditions or work pro- elements.

119
R.C.Jellema
Dosbouw, contractor
Surveying
Surveying systerns

Introduction Hence control activities are required position in the channel. Obviously it
The organisation of the surveying for to check measurements independent- was necessary to allocate the right
the construction of the storm surge ly as well as back-up methods to ob- dimensions to the pier, but in addi-
barrier has three outstanding tain measurements by other means. tion information was needed concern-
characteristics: The back-up devices can oiten be us- ing volumes, weight, thickness,
— intensive co-opsration between the ed in control procedures. outline dimensions and rotations.
Government and the contractor; The demands made on organisation To furnish an idea about the re-
— it provides for both sides the same of the survey organisation and the quirements:
control possibilities for every complexity of the tasks have resulted — flatness underside pier has a
survey system; in several projects. The organisation tolerance of approx. 10
— it meets the requirements of ac- o1 the different projects is distributed millimetres,
curacy so that our engineers can over a number of working teams. An — accuracy of the points from which
optimize their work. overall team is responsible for techni- the outlines are determined
que, planning and costs. x = y = z has a tolerance of 4
This intensive co-operation has In the following pages two of our pro- millimetres and 1 millimetre
achieved good problem solving as a jects, 'Ostrea' and 'Underwater In- respectively;
result of research, trial, work ex- spection' aredescribed in detail. — accuracy of the iifting yokes has a
perience and individual specializa- tolerance of between +3 and - 3
tion. The decision not to duplicate all Ostrea surveying system mm.
tasks has the great advantage that The operations commence with a The stringent requirements for all
the costs are kept relatively low, that feasibility study and a functional these measurements during construc-
the available manpower is utilised at specification of the total process tion have been met by special
an optimum and that both parties, from building to placing the piers. theodollte fittings, Electronic
Government and contractor require Previous projects used for com- Distance Measurements (EDM) in-
the same good control system. Ex- parison were those concerning tunnel struments, levels and optical plum-
perimenting with concrete piers aiso elements which had been made and mets. For other purposes such as lif-
requires special attention to the con- placed regularly over the past ten ting, positioning, deformation, beams
trol of measurements. years. and stone dumping for the sill, the
The high accuracy demands which The work was sub-dtvided as follows: coordinates of the outlines of the
are to be ascribed chiefly to the use — building and 'form detection'; piers are placed on magnetic tapes
of prefabrication for so many — lifting and transport; for computer use.
elements are unique in hydraulic — coupltng and cleaning; Lifting and transport of the piers
engineering projects. Whereas people — positioning and deformations; states navigational requirements of
have been used to metres or at most — data registration. the lifting vessel (Ostrea) in the con-
decimeters in horizontal projection The basic considerattons were: struction yard, around a pier, for the
and decimetres in vertlcal projection, — every measurement is checked lifting claws and in the pre-
this particular project calls for cen- with a fault detection device; determined channels.
timetric accuracy. — back-up is always possible,
This accuracy together with the preferable by other devices; For the precision positioning an ac-
speed required have resulted in — 2 computer systems are operating curacy of + or - 5 centimetres in the
special (nstrumentation, a great deal simultaneously; x, y and z altgnments is attained with
of automation also with regard to — registration of all measurements; electronic tachymeters. The in-
pure geodetic aspects, (such as) good — use of instruments is expected to struments pointed at the prismas on
coordinate systems taking in piers, provide up-date speed, movements board give horizontal-, vertical angle
vessels and the channels. Further- and accuracy, and distance in a real time.
more the reduced time scale for the The information is received on board
total operation necessitates back-up The main purpose of building and by teiemetry with the addition of
possibilities which should preferably gyro, and inclination angles of the
'form detection' (pier dimensions)
work according to different prin- snip and outline information of the
was to provide basic information as
ciples. pier, a computer is able to calculate
to tolerances and the theoretical

120
the required coordinates, distances ed whereby no stagnation Is permit-
a.s.o. All this information is then ted. For those purposes the three
presented on graphic screens and Minilir/EDM combinations are pointed
printers. For transport in the predeter- at the top of the pier and a trlm-and
mined channels sounding information list measuring instrument is placed
on tape is used together with a on it. All Instruments are used in
radiographic positioning system call- such a way that all necessary infor-
ed Trident 3'. It passes on 3 or more mation is available from two sources
distances from the transceiver on and offer the possibility of controlling
board to beacons ashore whose coor- the positioning process but also of
dinates are known. Once these determining whether movements are
distances are known, the positron too big for placing. With the trim- and
and the speed of the vessel is list instrument we are able to
calculated and checked. Presentation measure the static angles (rate-gyro
of this information on a screen princip!e) with an accuracy of
together with the channel outünes plus/minus 11 are seconds, and the
supplies the required information. dynamic movements (accelerometer)
with an accuracy of plus/minus 72
Coupling to the mooring pontoon are seconds.
(Macorna) and cleaning of the mat-
tress with this pontoon calls for A dual computer system is used on
simuitaneous positioning. In- board to minimlse the down-time. The
struments speciatly required for posi- systems are also used for all kinds of
tioning the piers, called 'Minilir' are calculations and presentations (f.i. all
also used for coupling. The Miniiir anchor data) needed for controlting
placed ashore is pointed manually at the processes. Automatic theodolite (Minilir)
an infrared light on board.
Thereafter it stays automaticaliy
centered on the light and is able to
do this by movements up to 367sec.
Every tenth of a second it provides an
output of horizontal or vertical angle
with an accuracy of 4.5 are seconds.
An EDM instrument piaced on top of
it indicates the distance to the
prismas above the light. Now the
coupling of the pontoons is achieved
by pointing two Minilir/EDM combina-
tions at the Macoma and at the
Ostrea. All the information is
transmitted to the Ostrea computer
system because it is moving and it is
then possible to observe on the
screens the position and rotation in
relation to each other.

With regard to the cleaning process

with the Macoma we mention only Data registration is obtained from
the existence of sensors behind the almost every sensor and calculation. Schematic opera r/on (Minilir)
suction heads which are able to These registrations are used for
measure the sand thickness on the tolerance calculations, process surge barrier calls for stringent re-
mattress after cleaning. These are analyses and for further operations. quirements as regards positioning;
sensors derived from the medical Wherever possible common data car- moreover the condition of foundation
field operating as echo-sounders. riers and code systems are therefore piers and sill makes an underwater
When too much sand (1 or 2 cen- used so that an on-shore computer inspection system (integrated in the
timetres) is still present on the bot- system can work with these data. The severai cycles) indispensable.
tom mattress and the next mattress requirements are to collect, file and
is placed over it, there is a great qutckly present al! data. A separate To quote an example, the inspections
danger of being rinsed out giving rise task is the combining and making associated with the piacing of a pier
to deformations. availabte of data for subsequent pro- are:
Positioning a pier in the Eastern cesses. One of these processes is — the tile mattress for missing tiles;
Scheldt stipulates measuring re- underwater Inspection. — the gravel bags, prior to lifting, for
quirements not only for the static tears;
translations and rotations but also Underwater inspection — the underside of the pier for con-
for the dynamic movements of the Underwater inspection is totally dif- crete damage;
pier base. Furthermore an update ferent from the Ostrea survey project. — the upper- and tile mattresses for
time of less than 3 seconds is need- Because the design of the storm sand;

121
— the gravel bag connection to the
mattress for gaps.

The stringent requirements for these

inspections have to be seen In the
context of the strict allocation of
time within the cycle, the strong water
current, the restricted space and the
low visibility conditions. We therefore
use special equipment for this pro-
ject. The systems were chosen in the
*(ight of feasibility studies and user
specifications.

As a result of these a Bottom Crawler

(BC) has been developed, built and
put in operation; a support vessel,
and divers for assistance and repair
are also present. The BC is controlled Seabed crawler 'Portunus'
from the support vessei through the
umbilical cable which is used for the bination of BC and vessel can work ing systems have specialiy designed
transmission of power and sensor in- in currents up to 2 m/sec and at equipment, big computers and
formation both up and down. On the water visibility of above 10 cm. No associated control- and back-up
crawfer there are tracks for lateral damage is inflicted on the mattress facilities.
motion up to 2,5 m/sec and wheels and a good control of the BC offers a Our automation projects (8), some of
which can push the tracks from the wide inspection area. them worth up to 3 mlllion dollars
mattress, for turning. Because of the previously mentioned and ranging from 5 to 30 man-years
It also carries Visual and acoustic in- requirements pertaining to the have made us fully aware of the
spection sensors like video- and still measurement of sand thickness know-how and manpower required for
cameras, obstacle avoidance- and another vehicle was developed for their implementation. In those real-
side scan sonar, a sand thickness use on board of the mattress-laying time systems with up to 300 sensors,
sensor together with positioning pontoon. When laying the second fully updated presentations and
equipment for dead reckoning or mattress on top of the first it is registration you need:
position calculation relative to the necessary to measure the sand — a company with experience in
support vessel. Because of the low thickness a few metres above the surveying and automation to
visibüities the black/white video touch-down point of the second mat- assist in impiementing such pro-
cameras are placed in plactic cones tress. This is achieved with an in- jects;
so that with a dispersion lens larger spectionsledge which is lowered from — a good description agreed by ali
areas (80 by 80 cm) can be obaerved the pontoon and is equipped with a parties of the requirements and
from a height of 10 centimetres camera and the special echo- purposes of the system in relation
above the mattress. From the opera- sounders. Information is thus to the work to be done (a so-called
tions room it is possible to presented in real time on board of the functional specification);
manoeuvre the BC either by manual pontoon. — and furthermore a good system
or by semi- or fully-automatic control. The last but also important part of the design, quality plan and preject
In the operations room information is underwater inspection system are the management.
available on position, status and en- divers. They have been on this work Much attention must be given to:
vironmental conditions. The In- for many years and their experience — project management in automa-
strumentation part consists of video- is very valuable. However, because of tion, there are valuable rules;
and sonar displays, of positioning stronger currents the dive-time is — accurate accounts of every
equipment tike Trident, ultra short becomtng shorter. it is possible to meeting and agreement of hard-
baseline acoustics and gyro systems. dive at speeds of up to 25 cm/sec, and software;
Digital computer hardware takes care however, nowadays this gives the — coupling of the sensors to the
of the I/O software, calculations, divers only 30-45 minutes depending computer.
automatic control and presentations. on the tide and the availability of a
compression tank, to go down, in- About positioning we have learned
On the support vessel there are a speel, and come on board again. that with present-day technology it is
hangar, a repair shop, power They do have the up-to-date modern possible to meet almost any require-
generators and evidentiy the wheel- equipment but the diving-bell offers a ment for measurement of translations
house as well as accomodation. The real possibility for long time diving. (x, y and z) in air and rotations in
vessel can rest on its anchors but is This diving-bell is also used for effec- static of dynamic movement.
also capable of sailing along the line ting small repairs. In 50% of the cases problemsolving
or holding position on a given spot by in the matter of positioning is a mat-
means of thrusters and propellers. A Conclusions ter of money, trials and time.
big revolvlng crane takes care of the Because of the prefabricated con- However positioning under water can
launch and recovery procedures. The structions, the short tidal cycie and be greatly improved.
dry weight of the BC is 6.5 T, the jib hence the need for rapid and highly To detect objects in the vicinity re-
length 10.5 metres. The total com- accurate measurements, our survey- quires contact and/or use of energy.

122
Contact is often diflïeult because of quired system fnaintenance dependent on the speed of fault
the swift cuirents and swelt in the themselves. A survey project such as detection.
Easfem Scheldt. As regards the use the Ostrea in cpmbination with the
of energy, light waves have a short Macoma equiprnent has a total of 25 Planning aspects are:
range, etectromagnetic waves a bad men werking til 3 shifts. Personnei on — preparation 1 monih (no triais or
resolution, electronic fiela a short this kind of sufveytng projects should modifications);
range and bad resolution, magnetic present in our ppinion a combination — descripiion 1 month (when work
fields a moderate resolution so that of the foüowing sküls: principies are known};
oniy acoustic waves which have a electrotechnician — for interfacing, —- Intemal agreernents 1 month;
reasonable range, resolution and fix- trouble shooting, repair, and market — company's assessment company
ed travel speed are practicable. knowledge; : fïnding 1-2 months;
automation technician — for systems — ftinctionai speciftcation 2 months;
New devöïopment, as wel) as development, design, and supervi- — system design and developrnent
cnanges to exisïing products cost a sion; ; 6-18 months (also hardware-
disproportionele amount of Urne and surveyors — för contact with users dependent);
money compared to existing pro- and buiiders, formuiae, stattstics, — in-house trials 1 month;
ducts. measurernent and calibrations. — inatallation 1-2 months;
Our personnel is highly trainee! in the Because of the implemented control - fields tests 1-3 months.
above-mentioned techniques and and back-up facillties the rrsk of Thus the planning wil! vary frorn ap-
mus1 be ataie to do most ot the re- down-times is very iow but this is proximateiy 15 to 31 months.

123
 Colophon

The drawings are made by Locks & Weirs Division Rijkswaterstaat, Bridges
Division Rijkswaterstaat and Dosbouw, contractor.

Photographs are published from the imder-mentioned photographers; the

numbers refer to the pages and the number of the illustration.
• Aerocamera • Bart Hofmeester/Rotterdam: 5/5, 21/4a, 4b, 22/6, 24/11, 28/2, 29/5,
40/1 b, 114, 123
• J. Berrevoets/Zierikzee: 75/15
• Jack van Bodegom/Spijkenisse: 21/5b, 22/?, 23/8, 28/1, 30/10, 31/11, 33/16, 69/1,
72/6, 77/20
• Delta-phot/Middelburg: 21/2, 24/12, 29/8, 31/12, 34/17, 35/19
• Dosbouw: 28/4, 29/7, 36/23
• Hoofddirectie Waterstaat, bureau Reprografie: 23/9, 29/6, 72/7, 73/8, 74/11, 12,
75/13
• KLM-Aerocarto/Schiphol: 4/4, 20/1, 21/3b
• Schaart/Rotterdam: 36/22
• Volder en De Mey/Rotterdam: 28/3