REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

INSTRUMENTATION AND
CONTROL SYSTEMS

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 REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES

Vol. 1 Mathematics for Marine Engineers

Vol. 2 Applied Mechanics for Marine Engineers

Vol. 3 Applied Heat for Marine Engineers

Vol. 4 Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers

Vol. 5 Ship Construction for Marine Students

Vol. 6 Basic Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers

Vol. 7 Advanced Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers

Vol. 8 General Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 9 Steam Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 10 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Vol. 11 Engineering Drawings for Marine Engineers

Vol. 12 Motor Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 13 Ship Stability, Resistance and Powering

Vol. 14 Stealth Warship Technology

Vol. 15 Electronics, Navigational Aids and Radio Theory for

Electrotechnical Officers

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 10
REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

INSTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
SYSTEMS

Revised by Gordon Boyd

Leslie Jackson

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 Published by Adlard Coles Nautical
an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
50 Bedford Square, London WC1B 3DP
www.adlardcoles.com

Copyright © Gordon Boyd and Adlard Coles Nautical 1970, 1975, 1979, 1992, 2013

First edition published by Thomas Reed Publications 1970

Second edition 1975
Third edition 1979
Reprinted 1985
Fourth edition 1992
Reprinted 2000, 2001

Reprinted by Adlard Coles Nautical 2003, 2006, 2009, 2010 (twice) and 2011

This fifth edition published by Adlard Coles Nautical in 2013

Print ISBN 978-1-4081-7559-0

ePDF ISBN 978-1-4081-7560-6
ePub ISBN 978-1-4081-7135-6

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or
by any means – graphic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
taping or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior permission
in writing of the publishers.

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is produced using paper that is made from wood grown in managed,
sustainable forests. It is natural, renewable and recyclable. The logging and manufacturing
processes conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Of course
if that’s Brazil, congratulations, you’re holding a souvenir of the rainforest.

Typeset in Myriad Pro 10/14 by Newgen Knowledge Works (P) Ltd., Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY

Note: while all reasonable care has been taken in the publication of this book, the publisher
takes no responsibility for the use of the methods or products described in the book.

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 CONTENTS
PREFACE ix
INTRODUCTION 1
Historical 1
Utilisation 2
Economy 2
Safety 2
Terminology 3
Comparison of Systems 4
Control Loops 5
System 6
Analogue 7
Digital 8
Computers 8
Microprocessors and Microcomputers 8

1 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 9
Mechanical Thermometry 9
Electrical Thermometry 11
Test Examples 18

2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 20
Atmospheric Pressure 20
Mercury Manometer 22
Mercury Barometer 23
Aneroid Barometer 24
Displacement of an Elastic Sensing Element 25
Differential Pressure Cell (D/P Cell) 27
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer 28
Strain Gauge 32
Test Examples 35

3 LEVEL MEASUREMENT 36
Direct Methods 36
Inferential Methods 38
Non-contact Level Measurement 43
Test Examples 45

4 FLOW MEASUREMENT 46
Quantity Meters 46
Rate of Flow Meters 46

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 vi • Contents

Integrators 47
Square Root Extraction 47
Inferential-Rotational 48
Inferential-Differential Pressure 51
Ultrasonic and Nucleonic 57
Test Examples 57

5 OTHER MEASUREMENTS 58
Speed-Tachogenerator 58
Torque-Power 60
Viscometer 61
Photo-Electric Cells 62
Oil in Water Sensor 64
Smoke Density Detector 64
Oil Mist Detector 65
pH Sensor 66
Heat (Fire) Detector 67
Flame Detector 68
Gas Explosion – Detector Meter 68
Gas Analysis 69
Relative Humidity 72
Water Analysis 72
Hall Effect Sensor 74
Other Encoders 74
Mass Air-Flow Measurement 75
Instrument Calibration: Testing and Adjustment 76
Test Examples 77

6 TELEMETERING 78
Pneumatic Transmitters 79
Electrical Transmitters 81
Electronic Force-Balance System 84
Voltage–Current Transducer 85
Receivers 86
Potentiometric Pen Recorder 87
XY Recorder 88
Position Motors (dc) 88
Position Motors (ac) 89
Current Transmission: 4–20 mA 90
Test Examples 90

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 Contents • vii

7 ELECTRONIC DEVICES 92
Semi-Conductors 92
Rectifiers 95
Amplifiers 102
Analysis of Transistor Behaviour 104
Oscillators 113
Other Devices 116
Test Examples 119

8 FINAL CONTROLLING ELEMENTS 120

Correcting Units 120
Servo-Motors 125
Test Examples 130

9 PROCESS CONTROL THEORY 131

Terminology 131
Response of Detection Elements 139
Test Examples 158

10 PNEUMATIC CONTROL PRINCIPLES 160

Pneumatic Two-Step Control Technique 160
The Relay 161
Pneumatic Proportioal Control Technique 162
Stack Type Controller Principle (P Action) 164
Pneumatic Proportional Plus Integral Control Technique 165
Pneumatic Proportional Plus Derivative Control Technique 168
Pneumatic Compound Controller (P + I + D) 170
Air Supplies 171
Test Examples 172

11 ELECTRONIC CONTROL PRINCIPLES 173

Operational Amplifiers 173
Test Examples 192

12 ACTUAL CONTROLLER TYPES 194

Mechanical Controller 194
Mechanical-Hydraulic Controller (Governor) 195
Electro-Pneumatic Controller 196
Electronic Controller (1) 197
Electronic Controller (2) 199
Electronic Controller (3) 200
Pneumatic Controller (1) 202
Pneumatic Controller (2) 204
Pneumatic Controller (3) 206

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 viii • Contents

Pneumatic Controller (4) 207

Pneumatic Controller (5) (Fuel–Air Ratio) 209
Pneumatic Controller (6) (Viscosity) 210
Electrical Positional Control 211
Test Examples 211
13 TYPICAL CONTROL CIRCUITS 213
Steam Plant 213
IC Engine Plant 221
General Plant 231
Test Examples 243
14 KINETIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 245
Kinetic Control System 245
Servo-Mechanism 245
Position Systems 245
Speed Systems 251
Thyristor Speed Control 253
Governor Systems 254
Mathematical Aspects 256
Test Examples 258
15 CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS 260
The Systems Approach 260
System Order 263
Component Adjustment 281
Test Examples 283
16 LOGIC AND COMPUTING 284
Analogue Computers 284
Logic Circuits 289
Digital Computer 300
Data Processing 306
Computer Control 309
Test Examples 310
SPECIMEN EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 312
Class Three (DTp – SCOTVEC) 312
Class Two ( DTp – SCOTVEC) 313
Class One (DTp – SCOTVEC) 317
ONC – OND (BTEC & SCOTVEC) 323
HNC (BTEC & SCOTVEC) 326
HND (BTEC & SCOTVEC) 333

INDEX 341

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 PREFACE
This book aims to bridge the gap between the mathematical treatment often used by the
specialist control engineer and the descriptive literature of a particular manufacturer.

It is written primarily for those with a general engineering background who have had
little experience in instrumentation and control.

The work favours marine engineering but students and engineers in other industries
should find it a useful book as the subject has a common basis. Text and examples
cover the requirements of Department for Transport (Maritime and Coastguard Agency)
for examinations as administered by the Scottish Qualifications Authority – and all
Business and Technician Education Council (BTEC) and SCOTVEC – syllabuses and
examinations for all marine engineer officers and cadets as defined by STCW 95 REG.
III/2 & 3. Requirements for content of B. Eng. in Marine Engineering are also covered.

Some examples are included for purposes of analysis and understanding and it should
be noted that although some represent long-established practices they can still be
found in service.

Full use has been made of simplified diagrams and the work is presented from basic
principles, using analogues where appropriate.

The introduction is followed by Chapters 1–5 on variable measurement in instrumentation.

Chapters 6–8 on telemetering, electronic devices and final controlling elements link
instrumentation to control. Chapters 9–14 cover theory, practice and components
of process and kinetic control systems. Chapters 15 and 16 are intended to develop
a broader knowledge of the subject and, by necessity, have a more analytic and
mathematical approach.

A selection of test examples are included at the end of each chapter and specimen
examination questions are added at the end of the book.

The reader should refer to manufacturers’ instruction manuals to obtain a full and
detailed description of a specific or particular component.

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 INTRODUCTION
Historical

Instrumentation has always been an integral part of technology. Development from

simple level indicators, Bourdon tubes, moving iron and moving coil meters, etc. has
been rapid. Progress in electrics and electronics has led to centralised recording and
display stations with associated data processing, computing and control systems.
Application to control with the requirement of accurate measuring (sensors), variable
converting (transducers) and remote signal transmission (telemetering) has involved
a close relation between measuring, processing and control systems. The advantage
of electrical signal transmission is apparent in the development of instrumentation.
Modular designs and interchangeable plug-in sub-assemblies have improved servicing
of electronic units. Digital operation has replaced analogue operation in many
applications.

The Watt governor (1788) was one of the first practical applications. Instability was
recognised in the nineteenth century in hunting of steam engine speed and ship
steering gears, and much analysis followed. Development in engineering plant and
bridge equipment is likely to remain in a state of continuous improvement.

The third quarter of the twentieth century saw more complex systems which were
mainly pneumatic and hydraulic, being replaced by development in electronics.
Accelerated progress in digital electronics meant that the final quarter of that century
saw the establishment of computer control.

These developments led to much greater unmanned operations of many shipboard

activities to the extent that prolonged operation of sophisticated vessels could not
be achieved with current manning levels without computer-based automation. They
have also enabled more sophisticated operations from entertainment systems, to
process plant control, survey processes, electric propulsion and dynamic positioning.

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 2 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Systems are generally classified by their field of operation. Process control such as
temperature, flow, level and pressure; kinetic control such as displacement, velocity
and acceleration, etc.

Utilisation

The degree of utilisation in marine practice varies a great deal. Individual control
loops, from simple to fairly complex, have been in use for many years. Centralised data
handling has been a relatively recent innovation. Ship’s controls have developed rapidly
with improved reliability. There are many links between localised instrumentation
and control, the centralised data handling system and an integrated central control
system. This requires that computer technology is involved in the interface between
measurement and control. Computer control has developed from small programmed
functions to quite sophisticated, direct, digitally controlled processes. A modern
computer can be programmed not only to control machinery under all conditions but
also to have start up, emergency and shutdown procedures.

Economy

Automation results in more efficient operation and reduced manpower in every case.
There is increased initial cost due to specialised equipment provision which leads
to increased insurance requirements and some increase in certain running costs, for
example, staff training, skilled maintenance, etc. Overall running costs are reduced
because of large cost savings in fuel and general maintenance, due to efficient
operation and close supervision, as well as staff reductions. The annual savings, taking
all factors into account, is well proven for controlled plants and the factor increases
with increasing size of plant and machinery.

Safety

In most cases safety is improved by monitoring and control.

Requirements for unmanned machinery spaces (UMS) are defined by surveying

societies.

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 Introduction • 3

Essential requirements for any UMS ship to sail at sea are enumerated in the SOLAS
1974 Chapter II-1, regulations 46 to regulation 53. The main points discussed in this
chapter are as follows:

1. Bridge control of propulsion machinery

The bridge watchkeeper must be able to take emergency control action. Control
and instrumentation must be as simple as possible.
2. Centralised control and instruments are required in machinery space
Engineers may be called to the machinery space in an emergency and controls
must be easily reached and fully comprehensive.
3. Automatic fire detection system
Arrangement should be provided on an UMS ship to detect and give alarm in case
of fire.
Alarm and detection system must operate very rapidly. Numerous well-sited and
quick-response detectors must be fitted.
4. Fire extinguishing system
In addition to conventional hand extinguishers a control fire station remote from
the machinery space is essential. The station must give control of emergency
pumps, generators, valves, ventilators, extinguishing media, etc.
5. Alarm system
A comprehensive machinery alarm system must be provided for control and
accommodation areas.
6. Automatic bilge high-level fluid alarms and pumping units
Sensing devices in bilges with alarms and hand or automatic pump cut in devices
must be provided.
7. Automatic start emergency generator
Such a generator is best connected to separate emergency bus bars. The primary
function is to give protection from electrical blackout conditions. Local hand
control of essential machinery. Adequate settling tank storage capacity. Regular
testing and maintenance of instrumentation.

Terminology

This topic involves a great deal of specialist technical language and so explanations
of specialised terminology appear in several places in the book. In this section some
general terms relating to control and instrumentation are introduced.

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 4 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The detecting element responds directly to the value of the variable. A measuring element
responds to the signal from the detecting element and gives a signal representing the
variable value. For example pressure (variable), Bourdon tube (detecting element) and
linkage pointer, scale, that is, pressure gauge (measuring element). The measuring unit
comprises detecting element and measuring element. Such a unit is used as a monitoring
element (to convert, when necessary, the actual variable value into a converted variable
value) of a process control system

Sensor is a term used for the detecting element. This is, by its very nature, essentially a
transducer.

Transducer is a device to convert a signal (representing a physical quantity) of one

form into a corresponding signal of another form, retaining the amplitude variations
of energy being converted. For example, a microphone is a sound transducer (acoustic
to electrical) and a loud speaker an electrical transducer (electrical to acoustic). A
transducer may be an integral part of the measuring unit, for example pressure to
displacement in a Bourdon pressure gauge. It may also be a separate unit converter
especially suitable to change the signal to a better form for remote transmissions, for
example, displacement to electrical in a differential transformer.

Telemetering may be defined as signal transmission over a considerable distance. In

measurement this involves information transfer from detecting element to a central
recording-display station. In control this involves control operating devices and related
signal transfers. In telemetering systems the measuring unit is often called the transmitter,
usually incorporating a transducer, and the recording unit some distance away is then
referred to as the receiver which may have an associated transducer if required.

The terminology involved further to the above and especially related to control
systems is now fairly extensive. Such terminology is covered in some detail at the start
of Chapter 9.

In this book, instrumentation is generally confined to dynamic systems related to

recording and control. Obviously the range is much wider if extended to include static-
laboratory type instrument devices.

Comparison of Systems

Systems, telemetering or control, may be either pneumatic, hydraulic, or electronic-

electric, or a combination.

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 Introduction • 5

Hydraulic systems are generally more restricted in application. Basically the technique
is as for pneumatics but fluid cannot be allowed to escape and a recovery-storage
system is required. General use is in the higher pressure range.

A combination of electronic measure-record instrumentation and pneumatic final

power control element is very effective. Controllers may be either pneumatic or
electronic. The former have generally been used because of proven reliability and ease
of application to final power transmission. Electronic controllers are increasingly being
used and electronic-electric systems have many obvious advantages.

The advantages of pneumatic systems are:

1. No heat generation and safe in an explosive atmosphere.

2. Less susceptible to power supply variation, but do have appreciable time lags.
3. Direct application, without transducers, to large final power actuators.
4. Immune to electrical interference.

The advantages of an electronic system are:

1. Small and adaptable with cheap flexible transmission lines.

2. No moving parts; can however generate heat.
3. Stable, generally accurate and very short time lags.
4. Low power consumption, direct application to computers, but often need final
element transducers.
5. Flexible, upgradeable and adaptable to innovation.

In every case equipment must be robust, reliable, interchangeable, simple and resistant
to the environment. Appropriate commissioning time should be applied and regular
skilled maintenance is required. Signal dc transmission is usually preferred although
ac signals are essential for certain variables and easy amplification of ac is an inherent
advantage.

Control Loops

An open loop system has no feedback and controller action is not related to final result.
Consider a domestic central heating system as an example, in which fuel supply is
varied manually or automatically by external ambient temperature. Room temperature

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 6 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

will be maintained at a reasonable value related to outside conditions. However room

temperature does not control fuel supply so that this is open loop.

Now to the open loop shown, add human operator, so closing the loop (dotted lines on
Figure 0.1). This is a manually controlled closed-loop system.

Power Power

Comparator
Regulator Sensor Sensor
System System
+
Input Output Input – Output
Actuating
Monitored
signal
output
Indicator Recorder

Open Closed

▲ Figure 0.1 Control loops

The automatically controlled closed-loop system is actuated by a signal dependent

upon deviation (error) between input (set) and output values. Deviation only exists
when monitored output (negative feedback) differs from input and this signal controls
power supplied to output. For a closed-loop system, as sketched, output power is
only controlled by, and not supplied by, the actuating signal. Closed loops have a self-
regulating property.

System

This may be regarded as an assembly of linked components within a boundary. A

system may have one input and a related output dependent on the effect of that
system (transfer function G).

θ0 θi

The boundary, represented as a ‘black box’, may include a complex system which need
not be analysed if G is provided. More complex systems have interconnecting links to
related systems. A system must have input, process, output and, in most systems, a
source of power and a means of control (Figure 0.2).

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 Introduction • 7

Control (Feedback)

Boundary
G
θ1 Process θ0
Input ‘black box’ Output

Power

▲ Figure 0.2 Systems

Analogue
Many different physical phenomena behave in a similar way, that is, are analogues of
each other. Two examples are air escape from a storage vessel and electrical charge loss
from a capacitor.

Rate of change of pressure α pressure

Rate of change of charge α voltage

That is, rate of change of variable x kkx

dx
= −kx
dt

A solution, where C is the x value when time is zero, is:

C
kt = ln
x

Voltage (or current) can readily be made analogous to physical phenomena.

The term analogue is therefore used to indicate systems where there is continuous
representation of a variable quantity. Most traditional gauges, meters and clocks are
in this category.

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 8 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Digital

A digital device manipulates ‘bits’, that is, discrete items of information – illustrated by
the digital clock representation. States are on/off, equal/unequal, etc. and the binary
digit system is utilised.

Computers

Electronic analogue computers are essentially simulators on which electrical analogues

of various systems can be analysed and illustrated.

The digital computer is a machine for routine, high-speed repetitive arithmetic.

Microprocessors and Microcomputers

First-generation mainframe computers (approx. room size) were often, for the same
capacity, replaced by minicomputers (say desk size) and in turn by microcomputers
(hand size and smaller) following the silicon chip and integrated circuit (IC)
development.

A microprocessor (μP) – component product – may be a single chip unit or a collection

of unassembled processor-related components such as central processor unit (CPU),
timers, memories, interfaces, etc.

A microcomputer (μCP) – board product – assembly of μP components mounted on a

printed circuit board is sufficient to make up a working computer.

Beside the microprocessor other critical functions are input/output buffers, random
access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM).

While the μP, consisting of arithmetic logic units plus sets of registers and control
circuits, cannot be used by itself to create a system it can, with support from a dedicated
controller or μCP. The μP is applied to Instrumentation and Control in the form of the
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) or microcontroller.

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 TEMPERATURE
1
MEASUREMENT
This chapter discusses the practical aspects of temperature measurement (thermometry).
No consideration is applied to absolute standards or to the consideration of special
techniques related to extreme temperatures, etc.

Mechanical Thermometry

Mechanical thermometry is the measurement of temperature using mechanical means.

The techniques are therefore well established.

Liquid in glass thermometers

Mercury can be used from −38°C (its freezing point) to about 600°C. For the higher
temperatures an inert gas at high pressure is introduced as the boiling point of mercury
is about 360°C at atmospheric pressure; special glass is also required.

Alcohol is used in the range −80°C to 70°C (or toluene) and pentane can be used to
−196°C.

Total immersion types are most accurate, especially when the fluid is coloured and
magnification is used. In many cases only the temperature differential is required so
that relatively low accuracy partial immersion types are often satisfactory.

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 10 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Health and safety concerns preclude the application of substances such as mercury
and toluene in most commercial applications.

Filled-system thermometers

These thermometers are filled with liquid, vapour or gas. All utilise a bulb, connecting
capillary and usually a Bourdon tube mechanism, responding to pressure change from
volume variation (liquid), for pointer or pen operation. Some systems incorporate
a compensating capillary and bourdon tube to allow for changes of ambient
temperature. Alternatively a bi-metallic link for compensation can be incorporated into
the mechanism.

A common type of liquid-filled system utilises mercury in steel which can be pressurised
for high temperature duty to 600°C. Such devices are most useful for remote sensing
and telemetering back to a central instrumentation panel. The capillary bore is about
0.02 mm and the scale is generally linear but calibration must allow for heat variation.
Power is sufficient for pointer, pen or transducer operation.

Vapour pressure thermometers commonly use freon, alcohol or ether which partly
fills the system as liquid, and the remainder is vapour filled. Measurement of vapour
pressure gives an indication of liquid surface temperature and is usually used in the
range −50°C to 260°C, with the upper limit fixed by the critical temperature of the liquid
which must have a low boiling point (high vapour pressure). The scale is non-linear;
ambient variations can be neglected but there can be appreciable time lags and the
device is not well suited to remote indication.

Gas-filled thermometers usually employ nitrogen or helium under high pressure;

pressure is proportional to absolute temperature at constant volume. The usual
temperature range is −50°C to 430°C and the scale is linear. Compensation for ambient
temperature variation is difficult. When used as a sensor linked to a pneumatic
transducer it is a very effective device.

Bi-metallic thermometers

The principle of operation of bi-metallic devices is that of differential expansion of two

different materials rigidly joined together, one on the other, as a strip of bi-metallic
material. Figure 1.1 illustrates a typical design usually employed between −40°C and
320°C. Invar (36% Ni, 64% Fe) has a low coefficient of expansion and when welded to

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 Temperature Measurement • 11

Pointer
Stopper Shaft

Bi-metallic
coil Dial

▲ Figure 1.1 Mechanical thermometer (bi-metallic type)

a Ni−Mo alloy gives a good bimetallic strip. The helix coils or uncoils with temperature
variation and as one end is fixed the movement rotates shaft and pointer. The range of
the instrument is fixed by the materials used.

Electrical Thermometry

Resistance thermometer

The electrical resistance of a metal varies with temperature and this relationship is
usually expressed as ρθ = ρ0 (1 + αθ), where ρθ is the specific resistance at temperature
θ°C, ρ0 is the specific resistance at temperature 0°C and α is a constant which depends
upon the metal and is called the temperature coefficient of resistance.

Figure 1.2 shows diagrammatically a resistance type of temperature measuring unit

using the well-known Wheatstone bridge principle. r1 r2 is a variable resistance used for
balance purposes; at balance we have:

R1 r1 R3 + r
=
R2 r2 R4 + r

r is the resistance of each of the wires and since each wire will be subjected to the same
temperature variation along its length their resistances will always be equal.

When the temperature detecting element is subjected to temperature alteration its

resistance alters and the bridge balance is upset. By using the variable resistor r1 r2
balance can be restored (i.e. galvanometer reading returned to zero) and while this

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 12 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

R1 R3

r
r1
r
r2 r R

R2
Detecting
element

Porcelain sheath

Platinum wires wound Low resistance

on ceramic former copper wires

▲ Figure 1.2 Resistance thermometer

is being done another pointer can be moved simultaneously and automatically to

give the temperature – this is known as the null balance method Alternatively, the
galvanometer can give the temperature reading directly, in this case no variable
resistance r1 r2 would be required.

For the measurement of ambient temperature conditions the resistances, apart from
the temperature measuring resistance, would have to be made of a metal whose
resistance does not vary with temperature. A metal which nearly fulfils this requirement
is constantan.

Resistance thermometers can be exceedingly accurate. Platinum is the most suitable

sensing wire element but copper and nickel wire are used in the range −100°C to
200°C and tungsten, molybdenum and tantalum are used to 1200°C, in protective
atmospheres. The platinum element usually has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0°C (hence
the term PT100), in which case resistance of wires is limited to about 3 ohms. Use up to
600°C with twin wires is often acceptable with the three-wire method used for higher
accuracy; measurement is by Wheatstone, Kelvin or Mueller bridges or potentiometric
methods.

Thermistor (Thermally sensitive resistor)

Thermistor or thermally sensitive resistor devices are among a second class of resistance
thermometers utilising elements made of semi-conducting material all of which have

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 Temperature Measurement • 13

a characteristic of a resistance change with temperature change. Included in this

category are carbon resistors and doped germanium units (see Figure 1.3).

Thermistors are made of semi-conducting materials manufactured by sintering (i.e.

heating under pressure) powder mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel,
cobalt, copper, iron or uranium. The size and configuration can be controlled so that
rods, beads, discs and washer shapes can be produced as desired. Figure 1.4 shows an
ellipsoid of thermistor material, with wires about 0.25 mm apart firmly embedded in
the material making good electrical contact. The whole assembly may be coated with
glass to give strength and protection.

Positive
Negative temperature
temperature coefficient
10 5 coefficient
Resistance (ohms) – log scale

104

10 3

10 2

101

50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (°C)

▲ Figure 1.3 Thermistor resistance to temperature characteristics

Sintered
thermistor material
Embedded in
thermistor material

Fine wires
about 0.25 mm apart
Protective
glass coating

▲ Figure 1.4 Thermistor bead

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 14 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Washer-shaped thermistors may be fitted over bolts or studs. Beads or rods of thermistor
material are suitable for use as probes.

The advantages of thermistors are as follows:

1. Relatively small and compact, the bead arrangement shown could have a diameter
up to 2.5 mm with a resistance up to about 100 megaohms.
2. Low specific heat, hence the thermistor does not take away too much heat.
3. Physically strong and rugged.
4. Relatively high temperature coefficient of resistance, it could be as high as ten
times that of some metals.
5. They can be used for extremely low temperature measurement with great
accuracy.

The mathematical relationship for thermistors is given by:

β( θ− θ
ρθ ρ0 eβ )
where ρθ is the specific resistance at temperature θ, ρ0 is the specific resistance at
temperature θ0 and β is a constant which depends upon the material used in the
construction (β ≃ 4000). The characteristic is shown in Figure 1.3.

The large negative temperature coefficient of resistance of NTC thermistors may be

explained by considering the number of electrons available for carrying current.

Few electrons are available at low temperatures, but as the temperature increases the
kinetic energy of the electrons increases and this enables them to move from inner
tightly bound orbitals to the outer conduction bands of the atom. With more free
electrons available to carry current the resistance to current flow reduces.

In metals, where there are many free electrons, increase in temperature leads to ‘traffic
jams’ of electrons and hence the resistance to current flow increases.

Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors have a less linear characteristic and
tend to be less suited to measurement applications. They may be configured to have
a ‘knee’ in their characteristic curve at a particular temperature. In the characteristic
shown in Figure 1.3 resistance increases rapidly at above 90°C so that detection of
temperatures likely to be damaging, to, say, thermoplastic insulators, is highly reliable.

The very high sensitivity, small size, and rapid response makes thermistors very useful
detecting devices particularly for use in computers and scanner installations. The
range is −100°C to 300°C but special compositions can extend this much further, as

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 Temperature Measurement • 15

high as 1600°C. The small thermal mass can lead to self-heating and coupled with high
sensitivity and exponential characteristic means instability must be carefully watched.
The thermistor merely replaces the resistance element on one limb of a bridge circuit
in the measuring unit.

Thermocouple

Whenever a junction formed between two dissimilar homogeneous materials is

exposed to a temperature difference, an emf will be generated which is dependent
on that temperature difference and also on the temperature level and the materials
involved. This thermoelectric emf is called the Seebeck effect (Seebeck discovered it in
1821) and is an algebraic sum of two other effects discovered by Peltier and Thomson.
The two materials, usually metals, form the thermocouple.

Figure 1.5 shows a thermocouple consisting of two wires, one iron and one constantan
(i.e. a copper–nickel alloy), with a millivoltmeter coupled to the iron wire. If the junctions
A and B are maintained at the same temperature no current will flow around the circuit
since the emfs in the circuit will be equal and opposite. If, however, A is heated to a
higher temperature than B then current will flow since the emf at one junction will be
greater than the opposing emf at the other junction.

A third wire can be introduced as shown in Figure 1.5, where AB and AC form the
couple wires. Providing the junctions B and C are maintained at the same temperature,
the introduction of the third wire BC will not affect the emf generated. Hence A will
be the hot junction and B with C will form the cold junction. Couple wires AB and AC
shown as iron and constantan respectively can be made of various metals and alloys,
the choice depending upon temperature of operation; the wire BC would generally
be longer than the couple wires and could be made of copper. Figure 1.5 shows the
device in detail.

In a practical thermocouple system the cold junction B and C may be at a relatively high
temperature due to the environment. This would mean that the temperature difference
between the hot and cold junctions would be small and therefore in millivolts. The
indicator itself could then become the cold junction if the wires from terminals B and
C to the indicators are of the same material, or material with similar characteristics, to
the couple wires. The wires are then called compensating wires and the cold junction
temperature would be reasonably constant if the indicator is within an air-conditioned
control room or immersed in a block of metal of large thermal capacity. Alternatively
cold junction compensation signal by separate means or bi-metallic instrument
components is arranged.

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 16 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

mV

Iron wire

Constantan
wire

A B

wire B
Iron
Copper
A wire
Con mV
stan
tan w
ire
C
Indicator

Ceramic
sheath

B
A Copper
C wires
Couple
wires Locking screw

Securing flange

▲ Figure 1.5 Thermocouple

A copper (+) constantan (−) couple is used up to about 350°C, constantan being a 40%
Ni 60% Cu alloy. Up to 850°C an iron-constantan couple is used with a chromel (90%
Ni 10% Cr) and alumel (94% Ni 2% Al) couple up to 1200°C. Average emf is 0.05 mV/°C,
which compares with about 18 mV/°C for a thermistor. Platinum–platinum plus 10%
rhodium couples have been used to 1400°C.

The emf generated is usually given by an expression of the form:

e A + Bθ Cθ 2 +Dθ 3 . . .

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 Temperature Measurement • 17

–5 V

Cold Y A
Hot mV

+5 V

▲ Figure 1.6 Electronic thermocouple

where θ is the temperature and A, B, C, D, are constants of diminishing order. Figure 1.6
shows an electronic thermocouple with operational amplifier (A) giving 0.1 V/°C. Y is for
calibration at cold junction temperature and X for other temperature calibrations.

Radiation pyrometers

When temperatures are above the practical range of thermocouples, or the ‘target’ is
not accessible, or an average temperature of a large surface is required then radiation
pyrometers are used. It is generally based on black body radiation and the work of
Stefan, Boltzmann and Planck with amended factors of emissivity to allow for variation
from the ideal black body radiator. Types of radiation pyrometers are optical, radiation
and two colour. The former will be considered.

Optical pyrometers

Referring to Figure 1.7, S is the source and rays enter lamp box L after passing through
the lens, aperture and absorption filter. The lamp is electric and current and voltage are
measured at G. Rays leaving L pass through a red filter, lens and aperture to eye E.

L E
S

▲ Figure 1.7 Optical pyrometer

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 18 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The device is often known as a disappearing filament unit. Both source and reference,
the latter being the filament of a small vacuum lamp, are observed through the
microscope. Power to the lamp is adjusted until the reference source disappears into
the main source. Power is calibrated to give a temperature reading directly. Correction
factors apply for the filters used and the device is a selective radiation pyrometer as only
a narrow band of radiation wavelength is utilised. Radiation pyrometry is particularly
useful for evaluation of temperature in furnaces, molten metals, process controls,
etc. Non-contact infrared measurement devices are used extensively for condition
monitoring and for fault finding in bearings, gearboxes and electrical plants.

Photo-electric pyrometers

There are three types of photo-electric cells: photo-emissive, photo-conductive and

photo-voltaic. Photo-voltaic pyrometers are discussed here.

Incident light falls on p-type silicon layered on to n-type silicon backed with a metallic
strip. The emf generated is measured, after calibration, by a galvanometer or self-
balancing potentiometer connected across the p-type and the backing.

Such pyrometers are best suited to measuring small radiation sources and are stable
and accurate with a very quick response time, which makes them suitable for distance
remote control systems.

Note: Many of the measuring devices for temperature considered previously, particularly
electrical types, could also be classified as telemetering or transmitting units as the
signal is readily conveyed over considerable distances to a remote measuring, recording
or display station. This applies in many cases to other such devices in the following
chapters. The detecting element (sensor) is inherently a transducer in operation for
many instrument units.

Test Examples

1. Describe, with the aid of simple sketches, three types of temperature measuring
devices. State how they are graduated and where they are used.
2. Sketch and describe an electrical instrument used for reading temperature at
a remote distance. State the usual temperature range and the materials used in
construction.

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 Temperature Measurement • 19

3. Explain with reasons how Wheatstone bridge networks are employed in circuits of
electrical resistance thermometers, explosive gas sampling devices, or any similar
application. Sketch the circuit for such a device indicating the function of the
Wheatstone bridge.
4. Sketch and describe a temperature measuring system employing a thermocouple.
5. Explain why an NTC thermistor is likely to be more useful as a measuring device
than a PTC thermistor.

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 2
PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
When a fluid is in contact with a boundary it exerts a force at right angles to that
boundary. This force is the pressure exerted by the fluid.

Force
Pressure = N/m2
Area

There are three categories of pressure:

1. Absolute pressure: Measurement of pressure related to a datum of absolute

(complete) vacuum.
2. Gauge pressure: Measurement of pressure related to a datum of local atmospheric
pressure.
3. Differential pressure: Measurement of the difference between two unknown
pressures neither of which is atmospheric nor complete vacuum.

Atmospheric Pressure

A barometer is an instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. It is affected by

seasonal changes of temperature. Barometers are therefore used tor the measurement
of altitude and also as one of the aids in weather forecasting. The value of atmospheric
pressure will thus vary with climatic conditions, although not usually by more than
about 10% of standard atmospheric pressure.

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 Pressure Measurement • 21

Construction and principle of operation

A simple barometer consists of a glass tube, less than 1 m in length, sealed at one end,
filled with mercury and then inverted into a trough containing more mercury. Such a
barometer is shown in Figure 2.1 and it is seen that the level of the mercury column
falls leaving a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure acts on the surface of the mercury in the
trough and this pressure is equal to the pressure at the base of the mercury column in
the inverted tube, that is, the pressure of the atmosphere is supporting the column of
mercury. If the atmospheric pressure falls the barometer height h decreases. Similarly
if the atmospheric pressure rises then h increases. Thus atmospheric pressure can be
measured in terms of the height of the mercury column.

It may be shown that for mercury the height h is 760 mm at standard atmospheric
pressure, that is, a vertical column of mercury 760 mm high exerts pressure equal to the
standard value of atmospheric pressure.

There are thus several ways in which atmospheric pressure can be expressed:

Standard atmospheric pressure = 101 325 Pa or 101.325 kPa

= 101 325 N/m² or 101.325 kN/m²
= 1.01325 bars or 1013.25 mbars
= 760 mm of mercury

Pressure
source

Atmosphere

40

30

20 20 mm C

h1 h2
10
h3
B A
Water

(a) (b) (c) (d)

▲ Figure 2.1 Water manometer (U tube)

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 22 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Pressure measurement methods

Liquid balance

The measured pressure is balanced by the pressure exerted by a column of liquid, for
example, a manometer.

Commonly used fluids are water for low pressure and mercury for higher pressure.

It is limited in use because of size:

1 bar = 750 mm Hg
1 bar 10 m water

It is useful for measuring low differential pressures, for example, the pressure drop
across a main engine air cooler or other fan pressures (see Figure 2.1). Absolute pressure
measurement: h1 mmHg

Gauge pressure measurement: h2 mmHg

Differential pressure measurement: h3 mmHg

Mercury Manometer

A well type mercury manometer is shown in Figure 2.2.

This instrument measures pressure of a higher order than that measured by the water
manometer, such as scavenge or supercharge air pressure for IC engines. The uniform
bore glass tube is small in diameter so that when mercury is displaced from the well
into the tube, the fall in level of mercury in the well is so small it can be neglected.
Hence the pressure reading is indicated directly by the level of mercury in the glass
tube. The relative density of mercury is 13.6 hence 1 mm of mercury is equivalent to
a pressure of 9.81 × 13.6 N/m2, that is, 134 N/m2 or 0.134 kN/m2. A special application
is the vacuum gauge (kenotometer), which is a combined barometer and manometer,
with the scale on the right hand side calibrated in absolute pressure.

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 Pressure Measurement • 23

To atmosphere

Retaining plug

Scale

Glass tube

Mercury

Filling plug

Joint

Drain plug

Pressure source

▲ Figure 2.2 Mercury manometer (well type)

Mercury Barometer
This instrument resembles the mercury manometer in Figure 2.2 but the top of the
glass tube is sealed at a vacuum and the pressure source would be the atmosphere.

If we assume the atmospheric pressure is supporting 760 mm of mercury in the tube, then:

Atmospheric pressure = 760 × 0.134

= 102 kN / m2
= 1.02×105 N / m2
= 1.02
02 bar

For an atmospheric pressure of 760 mm the equivalent water barometer would be

760 × 13.6, that is, 10336 mm or 10.336 m.

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 24 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The value of the atmospheric pressure varies slightly with climatic conditions. Hence to
ascertain true absolute pressures the barometer reading should be taken at the same
time as that of the gauge pressure.

If for example we wish to obtain the absolute pressure in a container and the readings
were:

Condenser gauge reading 742 mm

Barometer gauge reading 762 mm

then, condensed pressure is

=( − )× 0 ⋅134
= 2.68 kN
k / m2

Aneroid Barometer

The aneroid barometer is shown in Figure 2.3. It consists of a corrugated cylinder

(detecting element) made of phosphor bronze or other similar material, a steel spring,
bell crank, pointer, dial and case (measuring element). The corrugated cylinder is
completely evacuated and hence the pressure of the atmosphere tends to collapse
it. The centre of the corrugated cylinder deflects downwards if atmospheric pressure
increases and the spring causes deflection upwards if atmospheric pressure decreases.
Cylinder motion is transmitted to the instrument pointer.

Dial

Drum
Fine chain

Bell Spring
crank Return
spring

Corrugated cylinder
(evacuated)

▲ Figure 2.3 Aneroid barometer

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 Pressure Measurement • 25

Displacement of an Elastic
Sensing Element
Elastic sensing elements are, commonly, one of the following.

Bourdon tube

A pressure relay tube is the principal working component (detecting element). This tube
which is semi-elliptical in cross section is connected to the pressure source. When the tube
is subjected to a pressure increase it tends to unwind or straighten out and the motion
is transmitted to the gauge pointer through the linkage, quadrant and gear (measuring
element). If the tube is subjected to a pressure decrease it winds, or coils, up and the motion
is again transmitted to the pointer. This gauge is therefore suitable for measuring pressures
above or below atmospheric pressure. A diagrammatic sketch is shown in Figure 2.4.

Materials used in the construction of the gauge are solid drawn phosphor bronze
or stainless steel for the pressure relay tube. Bronze or stainless steel is used for the
quadrant, gear and linkage.

The Bourdon movement is frequently used in transducers and controllers to vary output
signals in pneumatic or electrical form.

Section A–A

A
Pressure
relay
Gear
tube
Quadrant

Link
Typical
unit

Pressure
source

▲ Figure 2.4 Pressure (or vacuum) gauge – bourdon

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 26 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Pressure gauge (Schaffer)

This type utilises a strong flexible metal diaphragm (detecting element) which moves
up as pressure increases. The device is shown in Figure 2.5. Again this device can also be
used as a transducer (pneumatic or electric) in telemetering or control with an output
signal proportional to diaphragm movement. Similar remarks apply to most detecting
(sensing) devices (as detailed in Chapter 6).

Diaphragm

Pressure is measured as the amount of deformation of a flexible membrane.

A modified version of this is used when a general-purpose gauge is not suitable due to
the corrosive or viscous nature of the liquid being measured.

This type of gauge should not be used with liquids that solidify under normal conditions,
which would clog the gauge and may make it difficult to remove from the pipeline.

Bellows

Pressure is measured by the amount of elongation of a bellows.

Diaphragm

Pressure
source

▲ Figure 2.5 Pressure (or vacuum) gauge – Schaffer

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